Effects of nicotinamide riboside supplementation during late gestation and lactation on sow performance, milk metabolome, and gut microbiome

Effects of nicotinamide riboside supplementation during late gestation and lactation on sow performance, milk metabolome, and gut microbiome | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Effects of nicotinamide riboside supplementation during late gestation and lactation on sow performance, milk metabolome, and gut microbiome Long Huang, Xiaohan Yang, Chenglin Pan, Wei Zhang, Yingjie Li, and 12 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7485266/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 10 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Nicotinamide riboside (NR) supplementation has been demonstrated efficacy in enhancing female reproductive outcomes, but its regulatory role in sow performance and gut microbiome remains undefined. This study systematically evaluated the impacts of dietary NR supplementation during late gestation and lactation on sow performance and gut microbiome remodeling. A total of 280 sows were randomized assigned to one of four groups: a control group or one of three groups receiving NR-supplemented diets (2, 4, or 8 g/d; n = 70/group). Sow reproductive performance, blood metabolic parameters, milk metabolome, and fecal 16S rRNA sequencing were measured. Results Maternal NR supplementation linearly shortened farrowing duration ( P < 0.01) and tended to decrease the incidence of intrauterine growth restriction and the number of late gestation mummies ( P < 0.1), while concurrently increasing the within-litter uniformity ( P = 0.1). Litter weaning weight and average daily gain increased quadratically with NR dosage ( P < 0.05). NR supplementation orchestrated plasma metabolite regulation (glucose, triglycerides, total cholesterol), enhanced antioxidant biomarkers, and reduced inflammatory cytokines across gestation and lactation. Milk yield, colostrum/milk dry matter, crude protein, and crude fat were increased ( P < 0.05), together with higher levels of NAD metabolites (NAD⁺, NR, nicotinamide) and beneficial bioactive factors (milk polar lipids, 3-aminosalicylic acid, fenugreekine) ( P < 0.05). Gut microbiota analyses revealed NR-enriched beneficial taxa ( Bifidobacterium , Ruminococcus , Lachnospiraceae , Subdoligranulum , Clostridium butyricum , Succiniclasticum ) across sow-offspring dyads, which was associated with the activation of microbial NAD⁺ enzymes ( NadR / NAMPT ) ( P < 0.05) and enhancement of systemic short-chain fatty acid flux, notably an increase in plasma butyrate acid ( P < 0.05). Conclusion Maternal supplementation of NR during late gestation and lactation increases sow performance and promotes gut NAD + metabolic-associated microbiome remodeling. These findings propose maternal NR intervention as a novel strategy to enhance mammary lactogenesis and metabolic efficiency in swine production, with potential applications for therapeutic strategies for lactation insufficiency. NAD+ Nicotinamide riboside Reproductive Milk Microbiota Sow Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction Hyper-prolific sows face multifaceted late-gestation stressors [ 1 ] that compromise pregnancy outcomes and lactation performance [ 2 , 3 ]. Uterine expansion, coupled with accelerated fetal development, heightens metabolic/oxygen demands, which in turn elevates systemic oxidative-inflammatory load [ 4 , 5 ], and promotes placental mitochondrial dysfunction, ultimately impairing birth outcomes [ 6 – 8 ]. Subsequently, such gestational dysregulation also undermines mammary secretory function — a redox-active metabolic hub with high mitochondrial density required for biosynthesis of lactation-associated macromolecules [ 9 , 10 ]. Both our data and previous studies have linked mitochondrial damage to oxidative stress and to reductions in fetal growth and lactational capacity [ 7 , 8 , 11 ]. Consequently, nutritional interventions spanning late gestation through lactation are essential to mitigate metabolic imbalances in both circulation and organ cellular environments. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) is an essential cellular metabolite derived from vitamin B3 forms and functions as a redox cofactor and a central regulator of mitochondrial homeostasis[ 12 ]. NAD⁺-targeted therapies have shown promise against obesity, inflammation and intestinal dysfunction in clinical settings [ 12 – 14 ], but their application in livestock with complex metabolic demands remains underexplored. Conventional vitamin B3 supplements (niacin or nicotinamide) give inconsistent results, likely due to variable efficiency in converting precursors to NAD⁺ [ 15 – 17 ]. By contrast, nicotinamide riboside (NR), an NAD⁺ precursor could utilize the salvage pathway rather than the Preiss-Handler pathway employed by niacin (NA) or nicotinamide (NAM), bypassing rate-limiting enzymatic steps and improving conversion efficiency [ 12 , 18 ]. NR administered both orally and intravenously significantly elevate circulating and tissue NAD⁺ levels, achieving superior systemic bioavailability [ 19 ]. Emerging evidence indicates heightened maternal NAD⁺ demand during gestation and lactation [ 20 , 21 ], suggesting NAD⁺ repletion safeguards reproductive function by preserving NAD⁺ pool equilibrium, mitochondrial homeostasis, and signaling cascades [ 21 – 23 ]. For example, NR reduced ovarian fibrosis and restored ovarian NAD⁺ and mitochondrial function in PCOS models [ 24 ], and oral NR improved fetal/placental growth and placental mitochondrial function while reducing inflammation and oxidative stress during pregnancy [ 25 , 26 ]. These findings are consistent with our prior work showing NR-enhanced mammary development via SIRT1-mediated mitochondrial mechanisms [ 21 ]. Moreover, gut microbiota also critically modulates mammalian reproductive physiology [ 27 ]. An estimated substantial fraction (60%) of gut microbes participate in NAD⁺ metabolism, and studies have demonstrated that germ-free mice fail to elevate systemic NAD⁺ levels upon exogenous NAD precursor supplementation [ 19 , 28 ], while microbial communities mediate host NAD⁺ bioavailability and also orchestrate bidirectional interplay related to microbiota-dependent metabolites (short-chain fatty acids, bile acids) that directly influence host immunity and energy metabolism [ 29 ]. Nevertheless, the nexus between maternal NR intake, reproductive performance, and gut microbiota-host metabolic crosstalk in sows remains elusive. Accordingly, this study evaluated the efficacy of dietary NR supplementation in a large cohort to improve sow reproductive performance, concurrently assessing impacts on maternal metabolic homeostasis, milk metabolome, and gut microbiota-mediated metabolism to bridge nutrient strategies with perinatal optimization. Methods Animal procedures were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University and complied with the current laws relating to animal protection (Ethics Approval Code: NO. YYS20240825). Throughout the study, the sow and piglets were maintained under species-appropriate housing conditions. Strict vaccination regimens were implemented to prevent pathogen infestation. Animal handling was performed by trained personnel to minimize disturbances, with food rewards and gentle handling provided during sampling procedures to reduce stress. Animals and experimental design A total of 280 mixed-parity sows (parity 4.8 ± 1.8; Landrace × Yorkshire crossbreds) were enrolled at gestational day 90 (G90) and randomized, after matching by parity, breed, backfat (P2), body condition score (BCS), and effective nipples, into four treatment groups (n=70/group): control (0 g/d NR), or NR group receiving 2, 4, or 8 g/d NR. The basal diet (mixed-grain) met or exceeded the National Research Council NRC (2012) recommended nutrient requirements of sows (Table 1). NR was administered twice daily (0800 and 1500) from G90 to lactation day 22 (L22). Gestation feed was 2.5–2.8 kg/d to maintain BCS 3.0–3.5; after farrowing lactation feed increased from 2.0 kg/d to ad libitum . Sows were individually housed (2.2m × 0.6m pen) during pregnancy, and then transferred to adjustable farrowing cages (2.4m × 1.5m pen) at G108 with cloprostenol-induced synchronized parturition management. Continuous farrowing supervision included intervention for >45-minute inter-delivery intervals or absent contractions. Litters were standardized within 24 h post-farrowing within treatments. All sows/piglets were given free access to water, and sow milk was the sole nutrient source for piglets. The numbers of piglets born alive, stillborn, and mummified, and their weights at birth, 24 h post-fostering, and lactation day 22 were recorded, as well as daily piglet mortalities. Biospecimens were collected from 15 randomly selected sows per group (representative of cohort means for backfat/BCS). Dystocia cases were therapeutically managed and retained for performance data, but excluded from bio-sampling. Measurements of reproductive performance Sow backfat depth (P2 measurement) was ultrasonically determined at 65 mm left of the dorsal midline (last rib level) using an ultrasonic device (Renco Lean-Meatier; Renco Corporation, Minneapolis, MN, USA). Total pigs born per litter were calculated as the sum of pigs born alive, stillborn, and mummified. IUGR was defined as birth weight <1.5 SD of the litter mean, while LBW (low BW) newborn were defined as weighing less than 1.1kg [30], with additional percentile analysis (10 th percentile) to contextualize weight distribution. Mummification timing was estimated via crown-rump length (CRL) by applying Wang et al.’s regression model (CRL: 21.63 cm at G60 vs. 31.69 cm at G90) [31]. At delivery, farrowing kinetics were analyzed through total parturition duration (first-to-last neonate expulsion) and birth interval (farrowing duration/total born (except mummified)). Moreover, sow rectal temperatures were serially measured at 48 and 72 h post-farrowing. Sow and piglet health score Sow-piglet health assessments (mammary status, piglet skin lesions, diarrhea) were conducted per litter on lactation days 7, 14, and 21. Clinical mammary examination involved udder inspection and palpation to evaluate regression (0 = in lactation; 1 = poorly formed/in regression; 2 = not formed/without milk production) and redness (0 = physiological skin color; 1 = moderate; 2 = intense), with grade 3 manifestations (typical of postpartum dysgalactia syndrome) rarely observed. Skin lesions were assessed using consistent criteria: knee lesions (>0.5 cm diameter at carpal joints) were scored 0 (none), 1 (50%); facial scabbed wounds (>2 cm diameter on forehead-nasal bridge) followed identical scoring; smaller lesions were excluded. Piglet diarrhea was scored as: 0 = solid/well-formed, 1 = soft/formed, 2 = fluid/yellowish, 3 = watery/projectile. Sample collection Sow blood was collected via the ear vein on gestation day 110 (G110) and lactation day 14 (L14), with piglet blood sampled from mean-weight-matched littermates. All blood samples were centrifuged (3500 × g, 15 min, 4°C), with plasma aliquots stored at -20°C for analysis. Fecal samples from sows and piglets were rectally collected on L14. Colostrum was manually collected 2 h after the first piglet’s birth, while milk was obtained on L14 after oxytocin administration. Mammary milk from anterior/middle/posterior glands was pooled. Fecal/milk samples were snap-frozen (−80°C), and milk subsamples were stored at −20°C for nutrient composition analysis. Blood biochemical, antioxidant and cytokine assays Plasma metabolic biomarkers in sows, including glucose (GLU), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), urea, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), were quantified using an automatic biochemical analyzer (Hitachi 7020, Tokyo, Japan). Oxidative stress parameters were systematically assessed by measuring plasma catalase (CAT) activity, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), and the lipid peroxidation marker malondialdehyde (MDA) using standardized assay kits (Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute, China). The concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits from the same manufacturer. Short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) determination Plasma SCFA concentrations were quantified using a Varian CP-3800 gas chromatography system (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, CA, USA) configured with a flame ionization detector (FID) and a capillary column. Serum (400 µL) deproteinized using 50 µL 25% (w/v) metaphosphoric acid plus 4 µL crotonic acid (21 mmol/L internal standard), vortexed, incubated (4°C/30 min), centrifuged (12,000 rpm/10 min). 100 µL of supernatant mixed with 100 µL methanol, centrifuged (20,000 rpm/15 min), filtered (0.22 µm), prior to GC analysis. Milk composition analysis and lipid droplet staining Colostrum and milk composition (dry matter, crude protein, true protein, crude fat, lactose, urea nitrogen) were quantified using a MilkoScan FT2 analyzer (Foss, Hillerød, Denmark) on samples stored at −20°C. Milk lipid droplets (stored at −80°C) were stained with 0.1% BODIPY 493/503 (1:100 vol/vol; Thermo Fisher), incubated for 30 min in the dark (25°C), and imaged via fluorescence microscopy (Olympus DMI400B, Japan). Analyses included mean droplet area and proportion of total lipid droplet area. Piglet daily weight gain (ADG) was estimated from milk composition using Hojgaard et al.’s regression model [32]: piglet weight gain days = −70.2+14.1×milk protein, % + 0.24× milk intake, g/d or 2.60+1.93×milk protein intake, g/d + 2.75× milk lactose intake, g/d. Milk metabolome Milk samples (100 µL) were mixed with methanol containing deuterated internal standards (1:1), vortexed (30 s), sonicated (4°C, 10 min), incubated (-40°C, 1 h), and centrifuged (13,800 g). Supernatants were subjected to LC-MS/MS analysis (Vanquish UHPLC; Thermo) with a Waters BEH Amide column (2.1 × 50 mm, 1.7 μm) coupled to an Orbitrap Exploris 120 mass spectrometer (IDA mode; Xcalibur-controlled). Raw data were converted to mzXML format via ProteoWizard and processed with an XCMS-based R script for peak detection, extraction, alignment, and integration, with metabolite identification against BiotreeDB v3.0. Metabolomic data were log-transformed and standardized to reduce noise and variable heterogeneity. Pathway analysis was performed using KEGG, MetaboAnalyst, and OmicStudio. False discovery rate was controlled using the Benjamini-Hochberg method (FDR < 0.05). PCA was performed using FactoMineR/ggplot2 in OmicStudio. Fecal microbial analyses Genomic DNA from sow/piglet feces was extracted using the E.Z.N.A.® Soil DNA Kit (Omega Bio-tek) and subjected to quality control. The V3-V4 region of bacterial 16S rRNA was amplified (primers 338F/806R; BIO-RAD T100 Thermal Cycler), purified (PCR Clean-Up Kit; YuHua), and quantified (Qubit 4.0). Sequences were quality-filtered with fastp (v0.19.6) and merged with FLASH (v1.2.11), followed by DADA2 denoising in QIIME2 (v2020.2) to generate amplicon sequence variants (ASVs). Taxonomy was assigned using QIIME2’s Naive Bayes classifier with SILVA database (v138). Metagenomic functions were predicted via PICRUSt2 (Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States)[33] based on ASV sequences. Statistical analyses utilized Majorbio Cloud (www.majorbio.com), with LEfSe identifying significantly enriched taxa (LDA > 2, P < 0.05; phylum-species). Statistical analysis Data were analyzed using the MIXED and GLIMMIX procedures in SAS 9.4 (SAS, Cary, North Carolina), with the sow as the experimental unit. Summary statistics were evaluated via PROC UNIVARIATE, defining outliers as observations beyond ±3 SD. The initial model included breed as a random effect and diet, parity, and diet × parity as fixed effects. As the diet × parity interaction was nonsignificant (α = 0.05), reduced model but random effect with parity and breed was used. The model for the analysis was Y ij =μ+F i +e ij , where Y ij is an observation of the dependent variable ij, μ is the population mean for the variable, F i is the effect of NR supplement, as a fixed effect, and e ij is the random error. Degrees of freedom were approximated using the Kenward-Roger method (DDFM=KR). Residual normality and homoscedasticity were verified via PROC UNIVARIATE with NORMAL and PLOT options. Variables violating assumptions (litter size, stillborn rate, pig mortality, health score) or following binomial/Poisson distributions were analyzed using PROC GLIMMIX. Orthogonal contrasts tested linear/quadratic effects of NR supplementation, with coefficients adjusted for unequal treatment spacing. Least square means using the LSMEANS statement were reported for all other variables, and multiple comparisons were made using adjusted Tukey method. Additionally, preplanned contrasts (C vs NR) were used to compare pooled NR supplementation groups (encompassing all dosage gradients) with controls. All results were considered significant at P < 0.05 and considered a tendency at 0.05 < P ≤ 0.10. Sows excluded from analyses due to leg lesions, febrile illness, or abortion were proportionally balanced across groups, and the number of observations per dietary treatment ranged from 65 to 70. Results The cohort characteristics and growth performance of sows. As shown in Table 2, there were no significant differences on backfat depth, but NR supplementation demonstrated dose-dependent effects on backfat depth change between G90 and G110, and sows that received 4 g/d NR exhibited minimized backfat thickness loss (quadratic, P < 0.05). When compared to controls, sows fed NR had higher ADFI at weeks 2-3 and TFI during lactation with 4g/d NR exhibiting the highest food intake (quadratic, P < 0.05), but sows received 8g/d NR had the lowest ADFI at the first week. Maternal NR supplementation improved litter uniformity and reduced the late gestation mummies and farrowing duration. As presented in Table 3, no significant differences were observed in total born, live-born, stillborn rate, or mummified piglets between groups. However, sows fed NR linearly tended to reduce mummification in late gestation ( P = 0.057). Meanwhile, NR administration trended toward reducing the litter CV BW , IUGR, and LBW born(<1.1kg) ( P < 0.1), with LBW born reduced linearly in response to NR dosage ( P = 0.036). Although total litter weight and individual birth weight did not differ across treatments, NR supplementation significantly increased the 10 th percentile birth weight (+8.73% vs . controls; P = 0.046). The cohort demonstrated an average farrowing duration of 185.98 ± 7.35 min, with maternal NR supplementation linearly shortening parturition time ( P = 0.006) and birth interval ( P = 0.056), achieving the shortest farrowing duration at 8 g/d NR. Postpartum assessments indicated no pyrexia (rectal temperature >39.5°C) at 48 or 72 h post-farrowing, and NR treatment exerted a dose-dependent reduction in body temperature at 48 h postpartum ( P = 0.040). Maternal NR supplementation increased the piglets weaning weight and milk production. As shown in Table 4, no significant differences were observed in the sow effective nipple, within-litter size, and weight after 24h cross-fostering among groups. Compared with controls, NR supplementation linearly reduced the pre-weaning mortality ( P = 0.021) and increased the number of weaned piglets ( P = 0.025). Meanwhile, NR significantly increased weaning weight (+273g vs. controls; P = 0.028) with peak response at 4g/d (linear, P = 0.021 and quadratic, P = 0.073). Owing to combined effects on weaned piglet number and weight, NR-supplemented sows exhibited significantly increased litter weight ( P = 0.014), litter ADG ( P = 0.042), and milk production ( P = 0.019) versus controls, where the greatest response was observed at 4g/d (linear and quadratic, P < 0.05). Maternal NR supplementation improved mammary regression and piglet health characteristics. Mammary gland regression in sows was mildest on lactation day 7 (L7) and most severe on lactation day 21 (L21) (Fig. 1A). However, 4 or 8 g/d NR maintained consistently low regression incidence (~10%), with NR groups exhibiting significantly improved regression rates versus controls on L21 ( P = 0.034). Mammary redness showed no significant differences (Fig. 1B). Skin injury in piglets from nursing competition followed similar temporal patterns (mildest at L7, severest at L21) (Figures 1C, D). NR supplementation significantly reduced lesion incidence on lactation day 14 (L14) and L21 with a linearly response to NR ( P < 0.05) (Fig. 1C, D). For diarrhea scores, no intergroup differences occurred at days 7 or 21, but piglets from sows receiving 4 g/d NR had the highest proportion of score 0 (no diarrhea) on L14, and scores 2–3 were most prevalent in 2 and 8 g/d groups. Maternal NR supplementation changed the plasma metabolites on late gestation and lactation. As delineated in Table 5, plasma alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels were significantly reduced in NR-supplemented sows versus controls on G110 ( P = 0.003), while alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity showed a dose-dependent linear decrease ( P = 0.025). No significant differences were observed in aspartate aminotransferase (AST), glucose (GLU), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), or urea levels, though GLU exhibited numerical elevation in the NR group ( P = 0.230). During lactation, NR supplementation again significantly reduced ALP ( P = 0.019) with the minimum observed at 4g/d (quadratic, P < 0.05). ALT, AST, GLU, and NEFA showed no significant difference compared with controls, but GLU displayed a numerical decrease, opposite to a gestational trend. Notably, TG, TC, and urea were significantly decreased in NR-fed sows with the minimum observed at 4g/d. (linear and quadratic, P < 0.05). Maternal NR supplementation enhanced antioxidant capacity and reduced inflammation state of sows at late gestation and lactation. Compared with controls on G110, NR supplementation significantly increased plasma GSH-Px ( P < 0.001) and T-SOD ( P = 0.004), with a tendency toward elevated T-AOC ( P = 0.097). All three antioxidants exhibited quadratic dose responses ( P < 0.05), peaking at 4 g/d (Fig. 2A-D). During lactation (L14), NR supplementation linearly increased plasma T-AOC ( P < 0.001), while GSH-Px, CAT, and T-SOD showed no significant differences compared with controls (Fig. 2A-D). Conversely, plasma MDA was significantly elevated in the NR group (linear and quadratic, P < 0.05), where the highest MDA was observed at 4 g/d (Fig. 2E). For inflammatory cytokines on G110, NR supplementation had a tendency to linearly suppressed TNF-α ( P = 0.051) and IL-6 ( P = 0.075), while IL-10 was quadratically elevated ( P = 0.087). On L14, only IL-10 increased linearly with NR supplementation ( P = 0.032) (Fig. 2F-G). Maternal NR supplementation changed the milk composition and milk lipid distribution. Compared with controls, the dry matter, crude protein, true protein, and urea nitrogen content of colostrum increased linearly in response to NR supplementation, peaking at 8 g/d ( P < 0.05), while crude fat exhibited a quadratic trend ( P = 0.094), peaking at 2 g/d (Fig. 3A-F). In mature milk, NR groups showed elevated dry matter ( P = 0.022), true protein ( P = 0.063), and urea nitrogen ( P = 0.004) versus controls, with dry matter and lactose demonstrating quadratic increases ( P < 0.05) peaking at 2 g/d, while crude protein and urea nitrogen increased linearly ( P < 0.05) maximized at 8 g/d (Fig. 3A-F). PCA analysis revealed significant separation between control and NR-fed sows for colostrum and mature milk composition ( P < 0.05) (Fig. 3G). Radar plots indicated controls clustered centrally (lower levels), the 4 g/d group showed intermediate levels, while colostrum in the 8g/d group and mature milk in the 2g/d group occupied peripheral regions (superior levels) (Fig. 3H). Furthermore, Hojgaard et al.’s model [32] integrating milk crude protein and lactose accurately estimated piglet daily gain in this study (Fig. 3I). Milk Bodipy staining revealed a positive correlation between lipid droplet mean area and milk fat percentage (r 2 =0.333, P = 0.054) (Fig. 3J, K) with NR significantly increasing total lipid droplet area proportion ( P = 0.032) despite unchanged mean area (Fig. 3L, M). Maternal NR supplementation changed milk metabolome with enriching in NAD + metabolism. Non-targeted metabolomics of mature milk from control and NR-fed sows (optimal-dose: 4 g/d) identified 1,939 putatively annotated metabolites, with 181 upregulated and 132 downregulated in the NR group (Fig. 4A). PCA analysis revealed clear intergroup separation ( P < 0.05) (Fig. 4B). In the metabolic enrichment bubble diagram (Fig. 4C), the nicotinamide and nicotinate metabolism pathway was enriched as well as amino acid metabolism, starch/sucrose metabolism, lactose biosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism. As depicted in Figure 3D, heatmap analysis demonstrated elevated levels of NAD + -related metabolites in NR group milk versus controls, including nicotinamide, NAD + , nicotinate, NR, Nicotinamide N-oxide, NR, and NAD + terminal metabolites (1-Methylnicotinamide and N1-Methyl-4-pyridone-3-carboxamide). 4g/d NR supplementation significantly upregulated 3.34 folds NAD + content versus controls ( P < 0.001), with ROC analysis confirming its diagnostic potential (AUC = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.94–1.00) (Fig. 4E). Among the top 20 differentially abundant metabolites (Fig. 4F), increased species included NAD⁺ metabolites (NAD⁺, N1-methyl-4-pyridone-3-carboxamide, N1-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide, nicotinamide, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid), polar lipids (SM, PC), fenugreekine, and 3-aminosalicylic acid, while pomiferin, metaraminol, nodakenin, and asparagine derivatives decreased. Maternal NR supplementation enhanced gut microbiota-derived SCFAs and NAD + metabolism in sows and offspring. To investigate NR’s impact on sow-offspring gut microbiota, fecal samples from control and NR-fed sows (4 g/d optimal dose) and their piglets were analyzed via 16S rRNA sequencing at lactation day 14. NR sows exhibited higher ASV counts (11,726 vs. 9,667) with trends toward increased α-diversity (ACE/Chao/Shannon indices; P < 0.1) (Fig. 5A, B), while their piglets showed elevated ASV counts (3,846 vs. 3,176) but unchanged α-diversity (Fig. 5C, D). Firmicutes , Bacteroidota , Spirochaetota , Proteobacteria , and Synergistota constituted >96% phylum-level abundance in both sow and piglet, though the top 15 genera differed significantly (Fig. 5E, F). Correlation analysis of the top 30 differential microbes revealed strong sow-piglet microbiota associations (Fig. 5G), with sow-derived Lachnospiraceae_NK4B4 , Lachnospira , Ruminobacter , Prevotellaceae_UCG-001 , Clostridia_vadinBB60 , and Bacteroidales_bacterium_H4 identified as core colonizers that shaped piglet microbial community. LEfSe analysis showed controls enriched in Enterorhabdus , Prevotella buccalis , and Helicobacteraceae (sows) and Eubacterium coprostanoligenes (piglets), whereas NR groups were enriched in Ruminococcus , Bacteroidales_bacterium_H4 , Intestinibacter , and Rhodospirillales (sows), along with Bifidobacterium , Subdoligranulum , Rikenellaceae_RC9 , Clostridium butyricum , and Succiniclasticum (piglets) (Fig. 5H, I). Moreover, NR elevated serum SCFAs in sows (acetate/propionate/isobutyrate/butyrate/total SCFAs; P < 0.05) and piglets (propionate/butyrate; P < 0.05) (Fig. 5J, K). Bacterial NAD⁺ synthesis pathways (Fig. 5L) indicated that NR conversion to NAD⁺ depends on ATP supply via 2–3 enzymatic steps ( NadR / NAPMT -dependent) or via nicotinamide (NAM) conversion, which requires multi-step processes (NAM→NaMN→NaAD⁺→NAD⁺). PICRUSt-based metagenomic prediction indicated significantly upregulated NAD synthesis genes ( NadR , NAPMT ) exclusively in NR sow feces (KEGG ko00760), with numerical increases in piglet feces (Fig. 5M), and NadR, NAMPT, SurE, and NadD were dominantly expressed in fecal microbiota genomes of sow and piglet. Discussion The intensified energy demands of fetal growth and mammary lactogenesis in hyper-prolific sows impose substantial metabolic burdens [ 4 , 5 ]. Although previous studies have described mechanisms by which NAD⁺ replenishment mitigates stress-induced reproductive dysfunction [ 21 – 24 ], research addressing its application to enhance sow reproductive outcomes and regulate metabolic homeostasis remains scarce. Here, our findings revealed that maternal NR supplementation improved sow performance by enhancing within-litter uniformity and increasing milk yield. Specifically, NR dynamically reprogrammed maternal metabolism, and milk metabolomics together with gut microbiota profiles converged on an NAD⁺-centred remodeling that optimized mammary lactogenesis and systemic metabolic efficiency. Within modern prolific sows, uterine capacity constraints exacerbate intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and low birth weight (LBW) due to placental oxidative stress and nutrient competition [ 4 , 5 ]. In this study, NR increased the 10th percentile litter weight while reducing LBW incidence and weight variability, concurrently attenuating late-gestation fetal mummification, rescuing fetal survival and uniformity [ 30 ]. Elevated maternal NAD⁺ demand during pregnancy [ 20 , 21 ] and in pathological states such as preeclampsia has been reported [ 25 ], wherein placental NAD⁺ depletion directly escalates IUGR risk[ 34 ]. Previous evidence shows that 200 mg/kg NR restores placental NAD⁺, improves mitochondrial function and reduces inflammation/oxidative stress in rodents [ 26 ]. Mechanistically, NAD + governs placental homeostasis via SIRT1/3-mediated epigenetic regulation of trophoblast function and vascularization [ 35 , 36 ] or enhances maternal resilience against redox-inflammatory pathology [ 13 ]. In keeping with these mechanisms, NR reduced apoptosis and ROS and increased antioxidant enzymes in other models [ 37 ], findings that align with the enhanced gestational antioxidant capacity observed in our sows. Moreover, NR-supplemented sows exhibited heightened late-gestation blood glucose and reduced backfat loss, indicative of altered maternal energy balance that prioritized nutrient partitioning toward fetal/uterine growth, facilitating accelerated fetal mass accretion (35% total gain) in late gestation [ 38 ]. Prior work with other NAD⁺ precursors (e.g. nicotinamide) reported delayed glucose clearance in cattle [ 15 , 16 ], and rodent studies indicate that 500 mg/kg NR rescues fetal-placental growth via enhanced hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycemia [ 25 ]. Such prenatal metabolic adjustments likely contributed to the shorter farrowing duration and reduced birth intervals observed in NR groups, and to lower postpartum body temperatures, cumulatively diminishing oxidative stress and inflammation [ 2 ]. Although links between NAD⁺ and parturition physiology merit further study, interactions among bioactive prostaglandins, oxytocin and NAD⁺ regulators in hypothalamic–pituitary circuits are plausible mediators [ 39 , 40 ]. Thus, the NR dosage here aligns with clinical/FDA guidelines, corresponding to efficacious 200–800 mg/kg BW rodent equivalents, confirming dose-responsive efficacy in embryonic development and parturition. Maternal metabolic status during gestation strongly influences subsequent lactation [ 1 – 3 ], Gestation-to-lactation transitions are associated with increased mammary and systemic NAD⁺ demand [ 21 , 41 , 42 ]. Our prior research showed that oral NR improved mammary NAD⁺ biosynthesis and drove alveolar proliferation and lactogenic capacity [ 21 ]. Similarly, 750 mg/kg NR elevated tissue NAD⁺ and milk yield, with augmented prolactin signaling in rat models [ 43 ]. In line with those findings, we found that NR (optimally 4 g/d NR) significantly improved weaning survival, litter parameters, and milk yield while mitigating mammary involution and piglet competition injuries. NR-fed sows had higher total feed intake but lower lactational plasma glucose, and reduced triglycerides and total cholesterol, suggesting enhanced appetite and more efficient nutrient uptake by the mammary gland [ 3 , 44 ]. The efficiency optimization was superior to mobilizing body reserves compensating for lactation [ 45 ], which reduces excessive body loss that can lead to culling or failure to rebreed. Despite prolong lactation duration and higher milk output can increase oxidative burden [ 46 ], we observed a dose-dependent rise in plasma MDA, a lipid peroxidation biomarker, that peaked at 4 g/d NR accompanied by increased plasma T-AOC, suggesting that NR enhanced antioxidant defenses sufficiently to maintain redox balance during elevated lactational demand. Furthermore, Milk analyses revealed elevated developmentally critical components in colostrum and mature milk from NR-fed sows, with Højgaard’s model [ 32 ] substantiating that NR-enhanced milk quality drives neonatal growth. Milk lipid droplet area/composition peaked at 2 or 8 g/d, explaining L14 diarrhea via nutrient-excess-driven digestive stress [ 47 ]; by contrast, 4 g/d NR appeared to provide the best balance of yield and nutrient quality for optimal lactation. Interestingly, milk metabolomics at this dosage identified NAD⁺-metabolome enrichment with increased NAD⁺ precursors (nicotinamide/ nicotinamide N-oxide/NR) and terminal metabolites (1-methylnicotinamide and N1-Methyl-4-pyridone-3-carboxamide). We also detected higher fenugreekine and altered aspartate levels in milk from NR-treated sows. Fenugreekine supports NAD⁺ synthesis and has antioxidant properties that may ameliorate insufficient lactation [ 48 , 49 ], and prior blood metabolomic studies reported NR-associated increases in fenugreekine [ 50 ]. The reduction in aspartate could reflect its utilization as a substrate for NAD⁺ biosynthesis via L-aspartate oxidase [ 51 ]. Collectively, these changes indicated amplified mammary NAD⁺ flux and increased NAD⁺ content in milk [ 21 , 43 ], which can directly support offspring development [ 43 , 52 ]. Additional milk metabolites (e.g. phosphatidylcholine, 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine, 3-aminosalicylic acid) identified here likely contribute to neonatal intestinal barrier function and to microbial SCFA synthesis, further promoting offspring growth [ 53 , 54 ]. Therefore, NR supplementation optimized milk quality, as well as NAD⁺ metabolites and bioactives, driving offspring growth during lactation. Gut microbiota critically modulates mammalian reproductive physiology [ 27 ], and further maintains host NAD⁺ turnover [ 19 , 28 ]. Maternal NR reshaped sow and piglet microbiota in a manner consistent with enhanced NAD⁺ conversion and metabolic reprogramming. Mirroring murine reports that NR increases α-diversity [ 50 ], we observed elevated maternal microbial diversity and synchronous enrichment of beneficial taxa across sow–offspring pairs, changes that are important for progeny growth and resilience. NR reduced potentially pathogenic genera ( Enterorhabdus , Prevotella buccalis , Helicobacteraceae , Eubacterium coprostanoligenes ), while enriching beneficial taxa ( Ruminococcus , Lachnospiraceae , Bacteroidales H4 , Rhodospirillales , Bifidobacterium , Rikenellaceae_RC9 ) [ 55 , 56 ]. Certain taxa ( Bacteroidales H4 and Bifidobacterium ) appear to thrive in the presence of NAD⁺ precursors [ 57 ], and in vitro studies have shown NR-driven expansion of Ruminococcus and Lachnospiraceae [ 50 ]. The involvement of microbes in NAD⁺ synthesis through enzymatic expression is complex, which is essential for NAD⁺ precursors supplementation to exert therapeutic functions [ 50 ]. Genomic inference further indicated upregulation of microbial NAD⁺ salvage enzymes (NadR/NAMPT) following NR supplementation, supporting efficient gut NR→NAD⁺ conversion and a microbial contribution to host-usable NAD⁺ pools [ 19 , 28 ], supporting milk NAD⁺ enrichment. Concurrent pathogen reduction likely limited gut inflammation-driven NAD⁺ depletion (e.g., via macrophage CD38 activation) [ 58 ], thereby enhancing host NAD⁺ homeostasis. Gut microbiota modulate host NAD⁺ bioavailability and also govern reciprocal host-microbe interactions mediated by bacterial metabolites. NR additionally enriched SCFA-producers ( Lachnospiraceae , Ruminococcus , Intestinibacter , Subdoligranulum , Clostridium butyricum , Succiniclasticum ) in sows and piglets, corroborating reports of NR-upregulated SCFA-producing genera and KEGG orthology genes for butyrate synthesis [ 50 , 59 ]. In this study, NR supplementation elevated SCFAs fermentation into host circulation, employing energy metabolism for milk synthesis [ 60 ] and antioxidative effects [ 61 ], wherein elevated butyrate in piglets may provide antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidative benefits that contribute to improved intestinal growth [ 62 ]. Thus, maternal NR supplementation appears to orchestrate a coordinated microbiota restructuring that both activates microbial NAD⁺ biosynthesis and augments SCFA production, collectively sustaining host NAD⁺ utilization and metabolic adaptation to meet the high energetic demands of reproduction and lactation. Conclusions Hyper-prolific sows encounter significant physiological stressors that compromise pregnancy outcomes and lactation performance. Maternal NR supplementation from late gestation to lactation enhanced sow performance by improving litter weight uniformity and lactation performance, concomitant with optimized metabolic homeostasis. The response was mediated by coordinated milk-gut metabolic remodeling that amplified NAD⁺ biogenesis and SCFA production to sustain host NAD⁺ utilization and metabolic adaptation (Fig. 6) . These findings propose maternal 4g/d NR intervention as a novel strategy to enhance mammary lactogenesis and metabolic efficiency in modern sow production. Abbreviations ADFI, average daily food intake; ADG, average daily weight gain; BCS, body condition score; BF, backfat depth; BW, body weight; CAT, catalase; CRL, crown-rump length; CV BW , coefficient of variation of birth weight; DS, piglet diarrhea score; IUGR, intrauterine growth retardation; LBW, low birth weight; LD, lipid droplets; LDA, linear discriminant analysis; NAD⁺, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NAMPT, nicotinamide phosphoribosyl transferase; NadR, NA/NAM riboside kinase; NA, niacin; NAM, nicotinamide; NR, nicotinamide riboside; RT, rectal temperature; SCFAs, short-chain fatty acids; TFI, total food intake; Declarations Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the laboratory staff for their ongoing assistance and the support from the animal feeding apparatus and room in the Sichuan Agricultural University. Moreover, we extend our heartfelt appreciation to the sows that have been an integral part of our research, contributing significantly to the findings of this experiment. Authors’ Contributions DW, YZ, and LH designed the research. DW, and LH wrote the original draft. LH, YL, WZ, XY, RZ, HL and CP performed experiments and analyzed the data. XJ, YL, SX, ZF, BF and LC contributed to the analysis and manuscript preparation. YZ, LH, XY contributed to constructive discussions. DW and LH had primary responsibility for the final content. Funding This work was jointly supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2023YFD1300804), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32472948), and the earmarked fund for China Agriculture Research System (CARS-35). Data and materials availability All data necessary to support the conclusions of this study is either included in the paper. 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Item Gestation Lactation Ingredients (%) Corn 20.00 47.01 Sorghum 35.03 19.60 Soybean meal - 8.00 Sunflower meal 6.97 5.84 Copra meal 9.00 8.00 Wheat bran 15.70 - DDGS 5.00 - Beet pulp 3.00 - Premix and Others 1 5.30 11.55 Analysis composition 2 DM (%) 86.47 86.94 Crude protein (%) 13.73 17.55 Gross energy (Mcal/kg) 3.73 3.90 Ether extract (%) 3.22 5.52 Crude fiber (%) 5.67 2.85 Neutral detergent fiber (%) 17.55 12.08 Acid detergent fiber (%) 10.30 7.09 Ash (%) 7.24 6.30 1 Premix and others ingredients consisted of dietary crystalline amino acids, minerals and vitamins that meet NR2012 nutritional requirements for sows. The proprietary premix formulations were excluded from compositional disclosure due to intellectual property restrictions. 2 The data in the table derived from triplicate analytical determinations. The chemical composition of experiment diet was analyzed according to lab method [63]. Table 2 The growth performance and cohort characteristics of sows supplemented with nicotinamide riboside. Items NR supplement, g/d SEM P -values 0 2 4 8 Lin Quad C VS NR 1 Start sows, n 70 70 70 70 End sows, n 65 63 67 68 BW at G90 (kg) 2 262.96 265.97 265.71 265.11 7.09 0.715 0.538 0.455 G90 BF, mm 12.98 12.52 13.03 12.90 0.37 0.860 0.805 0.666 G110 BF, mm 12.73 12.56 12.99 12.91 0.29 0.555 0.916 0.831 L21 BF, mm 12.17 12.46 12.64 12.50 0.48 0.510 0.428 0.344 BF change, mm G90-G110 -0.23 a -0.07 ab -0.01 b -0.13 ab 0.09 0.366 0.022 0.032 G110-L21 -0.48 -0.23 -0.38 -0.42 0.22 0.906 0.323 0.349 ADFI 1 week, kg 5.88 b 5.93 b 6.72 a 5.25 c 0.17 0.011 <0.01 0.674 ADFI 2-3 week, kg 8.94 bc 9.46 ab 9.76 a 8.82 c 0.14 0.281 <0.01 0.014 TFI, kg 157.9 c 165.19 b 173.42 a 152.49 c 7.76 0.079 <0.01 0.017 Abbreviations: Lin = linear effects; Quad = quadratic effects; BCS = body condition; BF = backfat depth; BW = body weight; G90 = gestation day 90; G110 = gestation day 110; L21= lactation day 21; ADFI = average daily food intake; TFI = total food intake. 1 C vs NR means that the comparative analysis of pooled NR supplementation groups (encompassing all dosage gradients) compared with controls. 2 The sow BW was predicted using the best fit multiple regression models according to Connell et al., 2007 [64], BW= -133+3.77 parityy+0.32 day+1.72 BF+0.23 heart girth. Heart girth (mm) was defined as the circumference of the sow immediately behind the front legs and in front of the first mammary glands. a,b Means within a row with different superscripts differ using adjusted Tukey method ( P < 0.05). Table 3 The litter performance of sows supplemented with nicotinamide riboside. Items NR supplement, g/d SEM P -values 0 2 4 8 Lin Quad C VS NR Total born, n 16.10 15.98 15.86 15.98 0.40 0.848 0.723 0.743 Born alive, n 14.33 14.31 14.22 13.97 0.35 0.364 0.826 0.642 Stillborn rate, n 1 7.94 8.32 7.91 9.02 1.33 0.533 0.776 0.720 Mummified, n 0.23 0.22 0.23 0.21 0.08 0.913 0.915 0.949 LG mummies, n 2 0.14 a 0.05 ab 0.04 b 0.02 b 0.04 0.057 0.238 0.028 IUGR, n 1.38 1.09 1.28 1.00 0.11 0.105 0.974 0.094 LBW born, n 5.37 b 4.72 a 5.10 a 4.40 a 0.06 0.036 0.909 0.051 Litter CV BW , % 3 24.02 a 22.24 ab 23.13 ab 21.88 b 0.74 0.146 0.740 0.100 Newborn weight, kg Live at birth 1.36 1.40 1.37 1.41 0.03 0.292 0.926 0.258 Litter 10 th percentile 4 0.821 0.901 0.881 0.896 0.03 0.177 0.266 0.046 Litter of born alive 19.37 19.90 19.15 19.55 0.49 0.975 0.932 0.773 Farrow duration, min 210.30 a 179.98 b 180.80 b 172.79 b 8.59 0.006 0.111 0.001 Birth interval, min 13.55 a 11.65 b 11.61 b 11.37 b 0.68 0.056 0.153 0.013 Farrowing RT 48h, ℃ 38.92 a 38.43 b 38.70 ab 38.86 ab 0.10 0.040 0.451 0.168 Farrowing RT 72h, ℃ 38.45 38.47 38.58 38.39 0.06 0.336 0.110 0.159 Abbreviations: IUGR = intrauterine growth restriction; LBW = low body weight; LG = late gestation; CV BW = coefficient of variation of birth weight; RT = rectal temperature. 1 Number of stillborn piglets out of total born (sum of born alive, still born, and mummified). 2 The mummy, measuring surpass 31 cm in head-rump length, is determined to have formed after gestation day 90. 3 Litter CV BW = (σ/μ) × 100. σ is the SD and μ is the average birth weight of litter. 4 10 th percentile body weight per litter. Table 4 The lactation performance of sows supplemented with nicotinamide riboside. Items NR supplement, g/d SEM P -values 0 2 4 8 Lin Quad C VS NR After cross-foster, n 1 12.44 12.46 12.74 12.57 0.20 0.289 0.206 0.262 Effective nipple, n 12.76 12.39 12.81 12.78 0.21 0.420 0.355 0.463 Pigs weaned, n 2 11.33 b 11.32 b 11.90 a 11.70 a 0.27 0.021 0.134 0.063 Pig mortality, % 0.089 0.090 0.061 0.065 0.01 0.025 0.465 0.090 Piglet performance, kg Starting weight 3 1.49 1.52 1.50 1.54 0.03 0.351 0.953 0.417 Weaning weight 6.31 c 6.38 bc 6.76 a 6.61 ab 0.13 0.020 0.073 0.028 Litter performance, kg Litter starting weight 18.87 19.37 19.46 19.71 0.72 0.206 0.654 0.214 Litter weaning weight 72.69 b 72.87 b 81.38 a 78.11 a 2.23 0.004 0.038 0.014 Litter ADG, kg 2.57 b 2.55 b 2.93 a 2.75 a 0.08 0.019 0.041 0.042 Milk production, kg 4 215.64 b 214.01 b 248.22 a 234.81 a 6.13 0.004 0.039 0.019 Abbreviations: ADG = average daily gain. 1 Litter size was standardized to 12-14 through cross-fostering of pigs within treatment within 24 h of parturition, and within-litter have similar weights to ensure that the competition for nipple. 2 on lactation day 22, litter size was counted and weighting. 3 Starting weight = litter weight / piglet number after cross-foster 4 Estimated milk yield was calculated as 4 g milk per 1 g of litter body weight gain. Table 5 Maternal NR supplementation changed the plasma metabolite on late gestation and lactation 1 . Items NR supplement, g/d SEM P -values 0 2 4 8 Lin Quad C VS NR On G110 ALP, mmol/L 72.33 a 45.68 b 46.47 b 53.86 b 6.51 0.151 0.008 0.003 ALT, U/L 43.51 43.61 36.62 35.92 3.10 0.025 0.752 0.157 AST, U/L 32.35 31.30 32.85 30.44 2.75 0.679 0.787 0.799 GLU, mmol/L 4.04 4.33 4.17 4.42 0.18 0.226 0.917 0.230 NEFA, mmol/L 505.62 448.87 494.63 551.29 45.50 0.294 0.334 0.887 TG, mmol/L 0.15 0.19 0.14 0.17 0.02 0.928 0.754 0.631 TC, mmol/L 1.14 1.14 1.06 1.04 0.06 0.146 0.819 0.347 UREA, mmol/L 2.34 2.25 2.27 2.34 0.17 0.898 0.644 0.787 On L14 ALP, mmol/L 82.30 b 62.85 a 55.39 a 61.50 a 8.03 0.112 0.063 0.019 ALT, U/L 47.65 51.04 51.04 49.12 2.79 0.846 0.352 0.387 AST, U/L 27.48 22.62 27.06 25.43 1.91 0.838 0.567 0.234 GLU, mmol/L 5.03 4.77 4.81 4.81 0.18 0.513 0.468 0.121 NEFA, mmol/L 59.81 51.15 67.20 66.57 6.51 0.227 0.909 0.808 TG, mmol/L 0.31 a 0.21 b 0.18 b 0.17 b 0.03 0.03 0.051 <0.01 TC, mmol/L 2.17 a 1.83 b 1.79 b 1.65 b 0.07 <0.01 0.060 <0.01 UREA, mmol/L 4.87 a 3.64 c 3.99 bc 4.44 ab 0.235 0.702 0.010 0.030 Abbreviations: ALP = alkaline phosphatase; ALT = alanine aminotransferase; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; GLU = glucose; NEFA = non-esterified fatty acids; TG = triglycerides; TC = total cholesterol; 1 means for each dependent variable represent 13 to 15 observations per treatment after the removal of outliers. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 10 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revision 03 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Sep, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 01 Sep, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 30 Aug, 2025 First submitted to journal 28 Aug, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7485266","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":508804031,"identity":"4e7422b5-6969-46d2-80b0-bdc4586f8406","order_by":0,"name":"Long Huang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sichuan Agricultural University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Long","middleName":"","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""},{"id":508804032,"identity":"a88d8a2d-8bf3-44be-b955-1ab34981bfb3","order_by":1,"name":"Xiaohan Yang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sichuan Agricultural 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11:55:53","extension":"png","order_by":35,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":137463,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/9a53009440ed81167ac8ca9f.png"},{"id":91856338,"identity":"e117e725-5219-46eb-a22a-e34551739342","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 12:03:45","extension":"xml","order_by":36,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":238610,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"JASBD25013370structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/56214f5e41f1432a8bd3b51c.xml"},{"id":91855863,"identity":"e7a92b78-5595-4aa1-94a0-f89c010d7c04","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 11:55:45","extension":"html","order_by":37,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":252368,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/d95aa57c2835731686151bec.html"},{"id":91855901,"identity":"ad0d49ff-6051-4700-a294-240efca60ec6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 11:55:51","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1986139,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation improved mammary regression and piglet health characteristics at different lactation period. A, Sows mammary formation/regression; B, Sows mammary redness/swell; C, Piglet carpal joints injure; D, piglet face scar and scab; E-G, piglet diarrhea score at L7, L14, and L21. For A-G, n = 65 per group. Data are presented as frequency of diagnosis occurrence (%), C vs NR means that the comparative analysis of pooled NR supplementation groups (encompassing all dosage gradients) compared with controls. DS: diarrhea score; L7: lactation day 7; L14: lactation day 14; L21: lactation day 21.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/2f8254ddb9ec6125e1ab20fe.png"},{"id":91855883,"identity":"cc14ff87-b9f4-400a-99c9-8dbe780bd30b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 11:55:49","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1944422,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation enhanced antioxidant capacity and reduced inflammation state of sows. A, Plasma T-AOC; B, Plasma GSH-Px; C, Plasma CAT; D, Plasma T-SOD; E, Plasma MDA; F, Plasma TNF-α; G, Plasma IL-10; H, Plasma IL-6; For A-H, n = 15 per group. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. Means of gestation or lactation within the same color error bands with different letter differ using adjusted Tukey method (P \u0026lt; 0.05). Abbreviations: T-AOC = Total Antioxidant Capacity; GSH-Px = Glutathione Peroxidase; CAT = Catalase; T-SOD = total superoxide dismutase; MDA = Malondialdehyde; TNF-α = Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; IL-10 = Interleukin-10; IL-6 = Interleukin-6.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/3a851810cfb6c2d481bf99f9.png"},{"id":91855903,"identity":"415a2395-4b48-45b8-b4ad-1ff93852084f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 11:55:52","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4263781,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation changed the milk composition and milk lipid distribution. A-F, Colostrum and milk composition; G, Principal component analysis (PCA) of colostrum and milk compositional parameters based on ANOSIM analysis; H, Radar chart of colostrum and milk compositional parameters (Percentage normalization); I, The piglet weight gain estimation with different models. J, Representative images of milk Lipid droplets (LD) were stained with Bodipy 493/503 (green), Original magnification, 200 ×; K, Correlation between LD integrated fluorescence area and milk fat content, shaded area: 95% CI; L, M, Milk LD average area and total area ratio; For A-M, n = 15 per group. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. Different letters in the mean values indicate significant differences using adjusted Tukey method. Abbreviations: Pro = Crude protein; Lac = Lactose; a.v. = average.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/ca03d90e36e85b6d93d47605.png"},{"id":91855898,"identity":"1ca8dabd-5b46-4e37-8d38-9c0d2517b58f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 11:55:50","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3573216,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation changed milk metabolome with enriching in the nicotinic acid nicotinamide pathway. A, Volcano plot of 1,939 milk metabolites. Red dots: significantly upregulated in NR vs CON (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05, FC \u0026gt; 1). Blue dots: downregulated (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05, FC \u0026lt; 1). Dashed lines: Benjamini-Hochberg FDR \u0026lt; 0.05 thresholds; B, Principal component analysis (PCA) of milk metabolome based on ANOSIM analysis; C, Metabolic pathway bubble map for the milk metabolome of NR vs CON. circle area = pathway impact, color = -log₁₀(P-value); D, Heatmap representation of metabolites in the nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism pathway; E, ROC curve for milk NAD⁺ differential abundance using Student’s t-test; F, The top 20 significantly different metabolites. The substances (Blue dot) within the blue coils represent a decrease (log2(FC)\u0026lt; -1). For A-F, n = 8 per group. The CON group corresponds to 0g/d, while the NR group corresponds to 4g/d. Abbreviations: AUC = Area under curve; AU = arbitrary unit; FC = Fold change.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/d380f4069ad2c1bb499e8728.png"},{"id":91856341,"identity":"bfa23184-546b-4827-b19f-566400a72fb2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 12:03:49","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3439729,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation enhances gut microbiota-derived SCFAs and NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e metabolism in sows and offspring. A, Venn diagrams depicting the number of shared and exclusive ASV in sow microbiota (L14) ; B, Sow α-diversity indices (ACE/Simpson/Chao); C, Venn diagram of piglet ASVs (L14); D, Piglet α-diversity indices (ACE/Simpson/Chao); E, F, Gut microbial community bar plot at the phylum and genus level of sows and piglet; G, Microbial interaction network: top 30 differential microbes of sow and piglet; red/gray lines = positive/negative correlations (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05 and |r| \u0026gt; 0.4), width = correlation strength; node size/color = connectivity; H, I, LEfSe analysis of sows and piglets; J, K, Plasma SCFAs concentration of sows and piglets; L, Schematic representation of reactions involved in the biosynthesis of NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e in bacteria; M, PICRUST2 of gut microbiota enzymes related to NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e metabolism of sows and piglets; For A-F, n = 8 per group. Data are presented as mean ± SEM, *\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05, **\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01, # \u0026lt; 0.1. Abbreviations: M_C = Sows received 0g/d NR; M_NR = Sows received 4g/d NR; Z_C = Piglets from sows received 0g/d NR; Z_NR = Piglets from sows received 4g/d NR; AA = Acetic acid; PA= Propionic acid; IsoBA = Isobutyric acid; BA = Butyric acid; IsoVA = Isovaleric acid; Branch = Branch SCFAs; Total = Total SCFAs\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/1de195b8e5759926e866ba70.png"},{"id":91855885,"identity":"f8b3a172-6ce3-4d69-a212-103ab055223b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-22 11:55:49","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":7700581,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation increases sow performance and promotes gut NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e metabolic and SCFAs production.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study established that maternal nicotinamide riboside (NR) supplementation, as an NAD⁺ precursor, enhances reproductive performance through improved litter birth weight uniformity and lactation outcomes. NR optimized gestational-lactational metabolic homeostasis through regulated blood glucose, lipid profiles, and antioxidant/inflammatory dynamics. Sow-administered NR significantly altered colostrum and milk nutrition composition and enriched NAD⁺ metabolites (NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, NR, nicotinamide) alongside bioactive compounds (polar lipid, fenugreekine). Critically, transgenerational microbiota restructuring elevated NAD\u003csup\u003e+ \u003c/sup\u003ebiosynthesis genera (\u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium\u003c/em\u003e) and SCFAs-producing taxa (\u003cem\u003eClostridium butyricum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSubdoligranulum\u003c/em\u003e) in sow-offspring dyads, supporting host NAD⁺ utilization, synergistically maintained maternal metabolic adaptations and performance enhancement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRed text or borders indicate upregulated substances, genes, or microbes, while green denotes downregulated elements. Created BioRender.com\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/f5d7131e0d6576631d8fe88f.png"},{"id":102785290,"identity":"116b55aa-4aac-4301-9319-b644d9d7fff8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-16 16:04:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":24199578,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7485266/v1/8f4ab81d-b5fa-4f76-a0a6-7628bb1f3ff0.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Effects of nicotinamide riboside supplementation during late gestation and lactation on sow performance, milk metabolome, and gut microbiome","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eHyper-prolific sows face multifaceted late-gestation stressors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e] that compromise pregnancy outcomes and lactation performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Uterine expansion, coupled with accelerated fetal development, heightens metabolic/oxygen demands, which in turn elevates systemic oxidative-inflammatory load [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], and promotes placental mitochondrial dysfunction, ultimately impairing birth outcomes [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Subsequently, such gestational dysregulation also undermines mammary secretory function \u0026mdash; a redox-active metabolic hub with high mitochondrial density required for biosynthesis of lactation-associated macromolecules [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Both our data and previous studies have linked mitochondrial damage to oxidative stress and to reductions in fetal growth and lactational capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Consequently, nutritional interventions spanning late gestation through lactation are essential to mitigate metabolic imbalances in both circulation and organ cellular environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) is an essential cellular metabolite derived from vitamin B3 forms and functions as a redox cofactor and a central regulator of mitochondrial homeostasis[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. NAD⁺-targeted therapies have shown promise against obesity, inflammation and intestinal dysfunction in clinical settings [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], but their application in livestock with complex metabolic demands remains underexplored. Conventional vitamin B3 supplements (niacin or nicotinamide) give inconsistent results, likely due to variable efficiency in converting precursors to NAD⁺ [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. By contrast, nicotinamide riboside (NR), an NAD⁺ precursor could utilize the salvage pathway rather than the Preiss-Handler pathway employed by niacin (NA) or nicotinamide (NAM), bypassing rate-limiting enzymatic steps and improving conversion efficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. NR administered both orally and intravenously significantly elevate circulating and tissue NAD⁺ levels, achieving superior systemic bioavailability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmerging evidence indicates heightened maternal NAD⁺ demand during gestation and lactation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], suggesting NAD⁺ repletion safeguards reproductive function by preserving NAD⁺ pool equilibrium, mitochondrial homeostasis, and signaling cascades [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, NR reduced ovarian fibrosis and restored ovarian NAD⁺ and mitochondrial function in PCOS models [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], and oral NR improved fetal/placental growth and placental mitochondrial function while reducing inflammation and oxidative stress during pregnancy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings are consistent with our prior work showing NR-enhanced mammary development \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e SIRT1-mediated mitochondrial mechanisms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, gut microbiota also critically modulates mammalian reproductive physiology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. An estimated substantial fraction (60%) of gut microbes participate in NAD⁺ metabolism, and studies have demonstrated that germ-free mice fail to elevate systemic NAD⁺ levels upon exogenous NAD precursor supplementation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], while microbial communities mediate host NAD⁺ bioavailability and also orchestrate bidirectional interplay related to microbiota-dependent metabolites (short-chain fatty acids, bile acids) that directly influence host immunity and energy metabolism [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, the nexus between maternal NR intake, reproductive performance, and gut microbiota-host metabolic crosstalk in sows remains elusive. Accordingly, this study evaluated the efficacy of dietary NR supplementation in a large cohort to improve sow reproductive performance, concurrently assessing impacts on maternal metabolic homeostasis, milk metabolome, and gut microbiota-mediated metabolism to bridge nutrient strategies with perinatal optimization.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eAnimal procedures were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University and complied with the current laws relating to animal protection (Ethics Approval Code: NO. YYS20240825). Throughout the study, the sow and piglets were maintained under species-appropriate housing conditions. Strict vaccination regimens were implemented to prevent pathogen infestation. Animal handling was performed by trained personnel to minimize disturbances, with food rewards and gentle handling provided during sampling procedures to reduce stress.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnimals and experimental design\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 280 mixed-parity sows (parity 4.8 ± 1.8; Landrace × Yorkshire crossbreds) were enrolled at gestational day 90 (G90) and randomized, after matching by parity, breed, backfat (P2), body condition score (BCS), and effective nipples, into four treatment groups (n=70/group): control (0 g/d NR), or NR group receiving 2, 4, or 8 g/d NR. The basal diet (mixed-grain) met or exceeded the National Research Council NRC (2012) recommended nutrient requirements of sows (Table 1). NR was administered twice daily (0800 and 1500) from G90 to lactation day 22 (L22). Gestation feed was 2.5–2.8 kg/d to maintain BCS 3.0–3.5; after farrowing lactation feed increased from 2.0 kg/d to \u003cem\u003ead libitum\u003c/em\u003e. Sows were individually housed (2.2m × 0.6m pen) during pregnancy, and then transferred to adjustable farrowing cages (2.4m × 1.5m pen) at G108 with cloprostenol-induced synchronized parturition management. Continuous farrowing supervision included intervention for \u0026gt;45-minute inter-delivery intervals or absent contractions. Litters were standardized within 24 h post-farrowing within treatments. All sows/piglets were given free access to water, and sow milk was the sole nutrient source for piglets. The numbers of piglets born alive, stillborn, and mummified, and their weights at birth, 24 h post-fostering, and lactation day 22 were recorded, as well as daily piglet mortalities. Biospecimens were collected from 15 randomly selected sows per group (representative of cohort means for backfat/BCS). Dystocia cases were therapeutically managed and retained for performance data, but excluded from bio-sampling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasurements of reproductive performance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSow backfat depth (P2 measurement) was ultrasonically determined at 65 mm left of the dorsal midline (last rib level) using an ultrasonic device (Renco Lean-Meatier; Renco Corporation, Minneapolis, MN, USA). Total pigs born per litter were calculated as the sum of pigs born alive, stillborn, and mummified. IUGR was defined as birth weight \u0026lt;1.5 SD of the litter mean, while LBW (low BW) newborn were defined as weighing less than 1.1kg [30], with additional percentile analysis (10\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e percentile) to contextualize weight distribution. Mummification timing was estimated \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e crown-rump length (CRL) by applying Wang et al.’s regression model (CRL: 21.63 cm at G60 vs. 31.69 cm at G90) [31]. At delivery, farrowing kinetics were analyzed through total parturition duration (first-to-last neonate expulsion) and birth interval (farrowing duration/total born (except mummified)). Moreover, sow rectal temperatures were serially measured at 48 and 72 h post-farrowing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSow and piglet health score\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSow-piglet health assessments (mammary status, piglet skin lesions, diarrhea) were conducted per litter on lactation days 7, 14, and 21. Clinical mammary examination involved udder inspection and palpation to evaluate regression (0 = in lactation; 1 = poorly formed/in regression; 2 = not formed/without milk production) and redness (0 = physiological skin color; 1 = moderate; 2 = intense), with grade 3 manifestations (typical of postpartum dysgalactia syndrome) rarely observed. Skin lesions were assessed using consistent criteria: knee lesions (\u0026gt;0.5 cm diameter at carpal joints) were scored 0 (none), 1 (\u0026lt;50% piglets affected), or 2 (\u0026gt;50%); facial scabbed wounds (\u0026gt;2 cm diameter on forehead-nasal bridge) followed identical scoring; smaller lesions were excluded. Piglet diarrhea was scored as: 0 = solid/well-formed, 1 = soft/formed, 2 = fluid/yellowish, 3 = watery/projectile.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample collection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSow blood was collected \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e the ear vein on gestation day 110 (G110) and lactation day 14 (L14), with piglet blood sampled from mean-weight-matched littermates. All blood samples were centrifuged (3500 × g, 15 min, 4°C), with plasma aliquots stored at -20°C for analysis. Fecal samples from sows and piglets were rectally collected on L14. Colostrum was manually collected 2 h after the first piglet’s birth, while milk was obtained on L14 after oxytocin administration. Mammary milk from anterior/middle/posterior glands was pooled. Fecal/milk samples were snap-frozen (−80°C), and milk subsamples were stored at −20°C for nutrient composition analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlood biochemical, antioxidant and cytokine assays\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlasma metabolic biomarkers in sows, including glucose (GLU), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), urea, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), were quantified using an automatic biochemical analyzer (Hitachi 7020, Tokyo, Japan). Oxidative stress parameters were systematically assessed by measuring plasma catalase (CAT) activity, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), and the lipid peroxidation marker malondialdehyde (MDA) using standardized assay kits (Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute, China). The concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-α\u0026nbsp;(TNF-α), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits from the same manufacturer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShort-chain fatty acid (SCFA) determination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlasma SCFA concentrations were quantified using a Varian CP-3800 gas chromatography system (Varian Medical Systems, Palo Alto, CA, USA)\u0026nbsp;configured with a flame ionization detector (FID) and a capillary column. Serum (400 µL) deproteinized using 50 µL 25% (w/v) metaphosphoric acid plus 4 µL crotonic acid (21 mmol/L internal standard), vortexed, incubated (4°C/30 min), centrifuged (12,000 rpm/10 min). 100 µL of supernatant mixed with 100 µL methanol, centrifuged (20,000 rpm/15 min), filtered (0.22 µm), prior to GC analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMilk composition analysis and lipid droplet staining\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eColostrum and milk composition (dry matter, crude protein, true protein, crude fat, lactose, urea nitrogen) were quantified using a MilkoScan FT2 analyzer (Foss, Hillerød, Denmark) on samples stored at −20°C. Milk lipid droplets (stored at −80°C) were stained with 0.1% BODIPY 493/503 (1:100 vol/vol; Thermo Fisher), incubated for 30 min in the dark (25°C), and imaged \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e fluorescence microscopy (Olympus DMI400B, Japan).\u0026nbsp;Analyses included mean droplet area and proportion of total lipid droplet area. Piglet daily weight gain (ADG) was estimated from milk composition using Hojgaard et al.’s regression model [32]: piglet weight gain days = −70.2+14.1×milk protein, % + 0.24× milk intake, g/d or 2.60+1.93×milk protein intake, g/d + 2.75× milk lactose intake, g/d.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMilk metabolome\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMilk samples (100 µL) were mixed with methanol containing deuterated internal standards (1:1), vortexed (30 s), sonicated (4°C, 10 min), incubated (-40°C, 1 h), and centrifuged (13,800 g). Supernatants were subjected to LC-MS/MS analysis (Vanquish UHPLC; Thermo) with a Waters BEH Amide column (2.1\u0026nbsp;×\u0026nbsp;50 mm, 1.7 μm) coupled to an Orbitrap Exploris 120 mass spectrometer (IDA mode; Xcalibur-controlled). Raw data were converted to mzXML format via ProteoWizard and processed with an XCMS-based R script for peak detection, extraction, alignment, and integration, with metabolite identification against BiotreeDB v3.0. Metabolomic data were log-transformed and standardized to reduce noise and variable heterogeneity. Pathway analysis was performed using KEGG, MetaboAnalyst, and OmicStudio. False discovery rate was controlled using the Benjamini-Hochberg method (FDR \u0026lt; 0.05). PCA was performed using FactoMineR/ggplot2 in OmicStudio.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFecal microbial analyses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGenomic DNA from sow/piglet feces was extracted using the E.Z.N.A.® Soil DNA Kit (Omega Bio-tek) and subjected to quality control. The V3-V4 region of bacterial 16S rRNA was amplified (primers 338F/806R; BIO-RAD T100 Thermal Cycler), purified (PCR Clean-Up Kit; YuHua), and quantified (Qubit 4.0). Sequences were quality-filtered with fastp (v0.19.6) and merged with FLASH (v1.2.11), followed by DADA2 denoising in QIIME2 (v2020.2) to generate amplicon sequence variants (ASVs). Taxonomy was assigned using QIIME2’s Naive Bayes classifier with SILVA database (v138). Metagenomic functions were predicted \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e PICRUSt2 (Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States)[33] based on ASV sequences. Statistical analyses utilized Majorbio Cloud (www.majorbio.com), with LEfSe identifying significantly enriched taxa (LDA \u0026gt; 2, P \u0026lt; 0.05; phylum-species).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were analyzed using the MIXED and GLIMMIX procedures in SAS 9.4 (SAS, Cary, North Carolina), with the sow as the experimental unit. Summary statistics were evaluated via PROC UNIVARIATE, defining outliers as observations beyond ±3 SD. The initial model included breed as a random effect and diet, parity, and diet × parity as fixed effects. As the diet × parity interaction was nonsignificant (α = 0.05), reduced model but random effect with parity and breed was used. The model for the analysis was Y\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e=μ+F\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e+e\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e, where Y\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e is an observation of the dependent variable ij, μ is the population mean for the variable, F\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e is the effect of NR supplement, as a fixed effect, and e\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e is the random error. Degrees of freedom were approximated using the Kenward-Roger method (DDFM=KR).\u0026nbsp;Residual normality and homoscedasticity were verified via PROC UNIVARIATE with NORMAL and PLOT options. Variables violating assumptions (litter size, stillborn rate, pig mortality, health score) or following binomial/Poisson distributions were analyzed using PROC GLIMMIX. Orthogonal contrasts tested linear/quadratic effects of NR supplementation, with coefficients adjusted for unequal treatment spacing. Least square means using the LSMEANS statement were reported for all other variables, and multiple comparisons were made using adjusted Tukey method. Additionally, preplanned contrasts (C vs NR) were used to compare pooled NR supplementation groups (encompassing all dosage gradients) with controls. All results were considered significant at \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;0.05 and considered a tendency at 0.05\u0026nbsp;\u0026lt;\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e ≤ 0.10. Sows excluded from analyses due to leg lesions, febrile illness, or abortion were proportionally balanced across groups, and the number of observations per dietary treatment ranged from 65 to 70.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe cohort characteristics and growth performance of sows.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table 2, there were no significant differences on backfat depth, but NR supplementation demonstrated dose-dependent effects on backfat depth change between G90 and G110, and sows that received 4 g/d NR exhibited minimized backfat thickness loss (quadratic, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05). When compared to controls, sows fed NR had higher ADFI at weeks 2-3 and TFI during lactation with 4g/d NR exhibiting the highest food intake (quadratic, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05), but sows received 8g/d NR had the lowest ADFI at the first week.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation improved litter uniformity and reduced the late gestation mummies and farrowing duration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs presented in Table 3, no significant differences were observed in total born, live-born, stillborn rate, or mummified piglets between groups. However, sows fed NR linearly tended to reduce mummification in late gestation (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.057). Meanwhile, NR administration trended toward reducing the litter CV\u003csub\u003eBW\u003c/sub\u003e, IUGR, and LBW born(\u0026lt;1.1kg) (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.1), with LBW born reduced linearly in response to NR dosage (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.036). Although total litter weight and individual birth weight did not differ across treatments, NR supplementation significantly increased the 10\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e percentile birth weight (+8.73% \u003cem\u003evs\u003c/em\u003e. controls; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.046). The cohort demonstrated an average farrowing duration of 185.98 ± 7.35 min, with maternal NR supplementation linearly shortening parturition time (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.006) and birth interval (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.056), achieving the shortest farrowing duration at 8 g/d NR. Postpartum assessments indicated no pyrexia (rectal temperature \u0026gt;39.5°C) at 48 or 72 h post-farrowing, and NR treatment exerted a dose-dependent reduction in body temperature at 48 h postpartum (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.040).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation increased the piglets weaning weight and milk production.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table 4, no significant differences were observed in the sow effective nipple, within-litter size, and weight after 24h cross-fostering among groups. Compared with controls, NR supplementation linearly reduced the pre-weaning mortality (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.021) and increased the number of weaned piglets (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.025). Meanwhile, NR significantly increased weaning weight (+273g vs. controls; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.028) with peak response at 4g/d (linear,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;P \u003c/em\u003e= 0.021 and quadratic,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;P \u003c/em\u003e= 0.073). Owing to combined effects on weaned piglet number and weight, NR-supplemented sows exhibited significantly increased litter weight (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.014), litter ADG (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.042), and milk production (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.019) versus controls,\u0026nbsp;where the greatest response was observed at 4g/d (linear and quadratic,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;P\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation improved mammary regression and piglet health characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMammary gland regression in sows was mildest on lactation day 7 (L7) and most severe on lactation day 21 (L21) (Fig. 1A). However, 4 or 8 g/d NR maintained consistently low regression incidence (~10%), with NR groups exhibiting significantly improved regression rates versus controls on L21 (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.034). Mammary redness showed no significant differences (Fig. 1B). Skin injury in piglets from nursing competition followed similar temporal patterns (mildest at L7, severest at L21) (Figures 1C, D). NR supplementation significantly reduced lesion incidence on lactation day 14 (L14) and L21 with a linearly response to NR (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05) (Fig. 1C, D). For diarrhea scores, no intergroup differences occurred at days 7 or 21, but piglets from sows receiving 4 g/d NR had the highest proportion of score 0 (no diarrhea) on L14, and scores 2–3 were most prevalent in 2 and 8 g/d groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation changed the plasma metabolites on late gestation and lactation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs delineated in Table 5, plasma alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels were significantly reduced in NR-supplemented sows versus controls on G110 (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.003), while alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activity showed a dose-dependent linear decrease (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.025). No significant differences were observed in aspartate aminotransferase (AST), glucose (GLU), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), or urea levels, though GLU exhibited numerical elevation in the NR group (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.230). During lactation, NR supplementation again significantly reduced ALP (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.019) with the minimum observed at 4g/d (quadratic, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05). ALT, AST, GLU, and NEFA showed no significant difference compared with controls, but GLU displayed a numerical decrease, opposite to a gestational trend. Notably, TG, TC, and urea were significantly decreased in NR-fed sows with the minimum observed at 4g/d. (linear and quadratic,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;P\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation enhanced antioxidant capacity and reduced inflammation state of sows at late gestation and lactation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompared with controls on G110, NR supplementation significantly increased plasma GSH-Px (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001) and T-SOD (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.004), with a tendency toward elevated T-AOC (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.097). All three antioxidants exhibited quadratic dose responses (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05), peaking at 4 g/d (Fig. 2A-D). During lactation (L14), NR supplementation linearly increased plasma T-AOC (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001), while GSH-Px, CAT, and T-SOD showed no significant differences compared with controls (Fig. 2A-D). Conversely, plasma MDA was significantly elevated in the NR group (linear and quadratic,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;P\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05), where the highest MDA was observed at 4 g/d (Fig. 2E). For inflammatory cytokines on G110, NR supplementation had a tendency to linearly suppressed TNF-α (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.051) and IL-6 (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.075), while IL-10 was quadratically elevated (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.087). On L14, only IL-10 increased linearly with NR supplementation (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.032) (Fig. 2F-G).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation changed the milk composition and milk lipid distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompared with controls, the dry matter, crude protein, true protein, and urea nitrogen content of colostrum increased linearly in response to NR supplementation, peaking at 8 g/d (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05), while crude fat exhibited a quadratic trend (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.094), peaking at 2 g/d (Fig. 3A-F). In mature milk, NR groups showed elevated dry matter (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.022), true protein (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.063), and urea nitrogen (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.004) versus controls, with dry matter and lactose demonstrating quadratic increases (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05) peaking at 2 g/d, while crude protein and urea nitrogen increased linearly (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05) maximized at 8 g/d (Fig. 3A-F). PCA analysis revealed significant separation between control and NR-fed sows for colostrum and mature milk composition (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05) (Fig. 3G). Radar plots indicated controls clustered centrally (lower levels), the 4 g/d group showed intermediate levels, while colostrum in the 8g/d group and mature milk in the 2g/d group occupied peripheral regions (superior levels) (Fig. 3H). Furthermore, Hojgaard et al.’s model [32] integrating milk crude protein and lactose accurately estimated piglet daily gain in this study (Fig. 3I). Milk Bodipy staining revealed a positive correlation between lipid droplet mean area and milk fat percentage (r\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e=0.333, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.054) (Fig. 3J, K) with NR significantly increasing total lipid droplet area proportion (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.032) despite unchanged mean area (Fig. 3L, M).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation changed milk metabolome with enriching in NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e metabolism.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNon-targeted metabolomics of mature milk from control and NR-fed sows (optimal-dose: 4 g/d) identified 1,939 putatively annotated metabolites, with 181 upregulated and 132 downregulated in the NR group (Fig. 4A). PCA analysis revealed clear intergroup separation (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05) (Fig. 4B). In the metabolic enrichment bubble diagram (Fig. 4C), the nicotinamide and nicotinate metabolism pathway was enriched as well as amino acid metabolism, starch/sucrose metabolism, lactose biosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism. As depicted in Figure 3D, heatmap analysis demonstrated elevated levels of NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e-related metabolites in NR group milk versus controls, including nicotinamide, NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e, nicotinate, NR, Nicotinamide N-oxide, NR, and NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e terminal metabolites (1-Methylnicotinamide and N1-Methyl-4-pyridone-3-carboxamide). 4g/d NR supplementation significantly upregulated 3.34 folds NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e content versus controls (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001), with ROC analysis confirming its diagnostic potential (AUC = 0.98, 95% CI: 0.94–1.00) (Fig. 4E). Among the top 20 differentially abundant metabolites (Fig. 4F), increased species included NAD⁺ metabolites (NAD⁺, N1-methyl-4-pyridone-3-carboxamide, N1-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide, nicotinamide, 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid), polar lipids (SM, PC), fenugreekine, and 3-aminosalicylic acid, while pomiferin, metaraminol, nodakenin, and asparagine derivatives decreased.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation enhanced gut microbiota-derived SCFAs and NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e metabolism in sows and offspring.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo investigate NR’s impact on sow-offspring gut microbiota, fecal samples from control and NR-fed sows (4 g/d optimal dose) and their piglets were analyzed via 16S rRNA sequencing at lactation day 14. NR sows exhibited higher ASV counts (11,726 vs. 9,667) with trends toward increased α-diversity (ACE/Chao/Shannon indices; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.1) (Fig. 5A, B), while their piglets showed elevated ASV counts (3,846 vs. 3,176) but unchanged α-diversity (Fig. 5C, D). \u003cem\u003eFirmicutes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBacteroidota\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSpirochaetota\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eProteobacteria\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSynergistota\u003c/em\u003e constituted \u0026gt;96% phylum-level abundance in both sow and piglet, though the top 15 genera differed significantly (Fig. 5E, F). Correlation analysis of the top 30 differential microbes revealed strong sow-piglet microbiota associations (Fig. 5G), with sow-derived \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae_NK4B4\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eLachnospira\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRuminobacter\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePrevotellaceae_UCG-001\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eClostridia_vadinBB60\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eBacteroidales_bacterium_H4\u003c/em\u003e identified as core colonizers that shaped piglet microbial community. LEfSe analysis showed controls enriched in \u003cem\u003eEnterorhabdus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePrevotella buccalis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eHelicobacteraceae\u003c/em\u003e (sows) and \u003cem\u003eEubacterium coprostanoligenes\u003c/em\u003e (piglets), whereas NR groups were enriched in \u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBacteroidales_bacterium_H4\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eIntestinibacter\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eRhodospirillales\u003c/em\u003e (sows), along with \u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSubdoligranulum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRikenellaceae_RC9\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eClostridium butyricum\u003c/em\u003e, and\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Succiniclasticum\u003c/em\u003e (piglets)\u0026nbsp;(Fig. 5H, I). Moreover, NR elevated serum SCFAs in sows (acetate/propionate/isobutyrate/butyrate/total SCFAs; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05) and piglets (propionate/butyrate; \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05)\u0026nbsp;(Fig. 5J, K). Bacterial NAD⁺ synthesis pathways (Fig. 5L) indicated that NR conversion to NAD⁺ depends on ATP supply \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e 2–3 enzymatic steps (\u003cem\u003eNadR\u003c/em\u003e/\u003cem\u003eNAPMT\u003c/em\u003e-dependent) or \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e nicotinamide (NAM) conversion, which requires multi-step processes (NAM→NaMN→NaAD⁺→NAD⁺). PICRUSt-based metagenomic prediction indicated significantly upregulated NAD synthesis genes (\u003cem\u003eNadR\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNAPMT\u003c/em\u003e) exclusively in NR sow feces (KEGG ko00760), with numerical increases in piglet feces (Fig. 5M), and NadR, NAMPT, SurE, and NadD were dominantly expressed in fecal microbiota genomes of sow and piglet.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe intensified energy demands of fetal growth and mammary lactogenesis in hyper-prolific sows impose substantial metabolic burdens [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Although previous studies have described mechanisms by which NAD⁺ replenishment mitigates stress-induced reproductive dysfunction [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22 CR23\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], research addressing its application to enhance sow reproductive outcomes and regulate metabolic homeostasis remains scarce. Here, our findings revealed that maternal NR supplementation improved sow performance by enhancing within-litter uniformity and increasing milk yield. Specifically, NR dynamically reprogrammed maternal metabolism, and milk metabolomics together with gut microbiota profiles converged on an NAD⁺-centred remodeling that optimized mammary lactogenesis and systemic metabolic efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWithin modern prolific sows, uterine capacity constraints exacerbate intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and low birth weight (LBW) due to placental oxidative stress and nutrient competition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, NR increased the 10th percentile litter weight while reducing LBW incidence and weight variability, concurrently attenuating late-gestation fetal mummification, rescuing fetal survival and uniformity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Elevated maternal NAD⁺ demand during pregnancy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] and in pathological states such as preeclampsia has been reported [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], wherein placental NAD⁺ depletion directly escalates IUGR risk[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Previous evidence shows that 200 mg/kg NR restores placental NAD⁺, improves mitochondrial function and reduces inflammation/oxidative stress in rodents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Mechanistically, NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e governs placental homeostasis via SIRT1/3-mediated epigenetic regulation of trophoblast function and vascularization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] or enhances maternal resilience against redox-inflammatory pathology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. In keeping with these mechanisms, NR reduced apoptosis and ROS and increased antioxidant enzymes in other models [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], findings that align with the enhanced gestational antioxidant capacity observed in our sows. Moreover, NR-supplemented sows exhibited heightened late-gestation blood glucose and reduced backfat loss, indicative of altered maternal energy balance that prioritized nutrient partitioning toward fetal/uterine growth, facilitating accelerated fetal mass accretion (35% total gain) in late gestation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Prior work with other NAD⁺ precursors (e.g. nicotinamide) reported delayed glucose clearance in cattle [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e], and rodent studies indicate that 500 mg/kg NR rescues fetal-placental growth \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e enhanced hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycemia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Such prenatal metabolic adjustments likely contributed to the shorter farrowing duration and reduced birth intervals observed in NR groups, and to lower postpartum body temperatures, cumulatively diminishing oxidative stress and inflammation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Although links between NAD⁺ and parturition physiology merit further study, interactions among bioactive prostaglandins, oxytocin and NAD⁺ regulators in hypothalamic\u0026ndash;pituitary circuits are plausible mediators [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, the NR dosage here aligns with clinical/FDA guidelines, corresponding to efficacious 200\u0026ndash;800 mg/kg BW rodent equivalents, confirming dose-responsive efficacy in embryonic development and parturition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaternal metabolic status during gestation strongly influences subsequent lactation [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], Gestation-to-lactation transitions are associated with increased mammary and systemic NAD⁺ demand [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Our prior research showed that oral NR improved mammary NAD⁺ biosynthesis and drove alveolar proliferation and lactogenic capacity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, 750 mg/kg NR elevated tissue NAD⁺ and milk yield, with augmented prolactin signaling in rat models [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. In line with those findings, we found that NR (optimally 4 g/d NR) significantly improved weaning survival, litter parameters, and milk yield while mitigating mammary involution and piglet competition injuries. NR-fed sows had higher total feed intake but lower lactational plasma glucose, and reduced triglycerides and total cholesterol, suggesting enhanced appetite and more efficient nutrient uptake by the mammary gland [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. The efficiency optimization was superior to mobilizing body reserves compensating for lactation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], which reduces excessive body loss that can lead to culling or failure to rebreed. Despite prolong lactation duration and higher milk output can increase oxidative burden [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], we observed a dose-dependent rise in plasma MDA, a lipid peroxidation biomarker, that peaked at 4 g/d NR accompanied by increased plasma T-AOC, suggesting that NR enhanced antioxidant defenses sufficiently to maintain redox balance during elevated lactational demand. Furthermore, Milk analyses revealed elevated developmentally critical components in colostrum and mature milk from NR-fed sows, with H\u0026oslash;jgaard\u0026rsquo;s model [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] substantiating that NR-enhanced milk quality drives neonatal growth. Milk lipid droplet area/composition peaked at 2 or 8 g/d, explaining L14 diarrhea via nutrient-excess-driven digestive stress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]; by contrast, 4 g/d NR appeared to provide the best balance of yield and nutrient quality for optimal lactation. Interestingly, milk metabolomics at this dosage identified NAD⁺-metabolome enrichment with increased NAD⁺ precursors (nicotinamide/ nicotinamide N-oxide/NR) and terminal metabolites (1-methylnicotinamide and N1-Methyl-4-pyridone-3-carboxamide). We also detected higher fenugreekine and altered aspartate levels in milk from NR-treated sows. Fenugreekine supports NAD⁺ synthesis and has antioxidant properties that may ameliorate insufficient lactation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e], and prior blood metabolomic studies reported NR-associated increases in fenugreekine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. The reduction in aspartate could reflect its utilization as a substrate for NAD⁺ biosynthesis via L-aspartate oxidase [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. Collectively, these changes indicated amplified mammary NAD⁺ flux and increased NAD⁺ content in milk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], which can directly support offspring development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Additional milk metabolites (e.g. phosphatidylcholine, 3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine, 3-aminosalicylic acid) identified here likely contribute to neonatal intestinal barrier function and to microbial SCFA synthesis, further promoting offspring growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, NR supplementation optimized milk quality, as well as NAD⁺ metabolites and bioactives, driving offspring growth during lactation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGut microbiota critically modulates mammalian reproductive physiology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], and further maintains host NAD⁺ turnover [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Maternal NR reshaped sow and piglet microbiota in a manner consistent with enhanced NAD⁺ conversion and metabolic reprogramming. Mirroring murine reports that NR increases α-diversity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e], we observed elevated maternal microbial diversity and synchronous enrichment of beneficial taxa across sow\u0026ndash;offspring pairs, changes that are important for progeny growth and resilience. NR reduced potentially pathogenic genera (\u003cem\u003eEnterorhabdus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePrevotella buccalis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHelicobacteraceae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEubacterium coprostanoligenes\u003c/em\u003e), while enriching beneficial taxa (\u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBacteroidales H4\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRhodospirillales\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRikenellaceae_RC9\u003c/em\u003e) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. Certain taxa (\u003cem\u003eBacteroidales H4\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium\u003c/em\u003e) appear to thrive in the presence of NAD⁺ precursors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e], and \u003cem\u003ein vitro\u003c/em\u003e studies have shown NR-driven expansion of \u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. The involvement of microbes in NAD⁺ synthesis through enzymatic expression is complex, which is essential for NAD⁺ precursors supplementation to exert therapeutic functions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Genomic inference further indicated upregulation of microbial NAD⁺ salvage enzymes (NadR/NAMPT) following NR supplementation, supporting efficient gut NR\u0026rarr;NAD⁺ conversion and a microbial contribution to host-usable NAD⁺ pools [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e], supporting milk NAD⁺ enrichment. Concurrent pathogen reduction likely limited gut inflammation-driven NAD⁺ depletion (e.g., \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e macrophage CD38 activation) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e], thereby enhancing host NAD⁺ homeostasis. Gut microbiota modulate host NAD⁺ bioavailability and also govern reciprocal host-microbe interactions mediated by bacterial metabolites. NR additionally enriched SCFA-producers (\u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eIntestinibacter\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSubdoligranulum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eClostridium butyricum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSucciniclasticum\u003c/em\u003e) in sows and piglets, corroborating reports of NR-upregulated SCFA-producing genera and KEGG orthology genes for butyrate synthesis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, NR supplementation elevated SCFAs fermentation into host circulation, employing energy metabolism for milk synthesis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e] and antioxidative effects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e], wherein elevated butyrate in piglets may provide antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidative benefits that contribute to improved intestinal growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, maternal NR supplementation appears to orchestrate a coordinated microbiota restructuring that both activates microbial NAD⁺ biosynthesis and augments SCFA production, collectively sustaining host NAD⁺ utilization and metabolic adaptation to meet the high energetic demands of reproduction and lactation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eHyper-prolific sows encounter significant physiological stressors that compromise pregnancy outcomes and lactation performance. Maternal NR supplementation from late gestation to lactation enhanced sow performance by improving litter weight uniformity and lactation performance, concomitant with optimized metabolic homeostasis. The response was mediated by coordinated milk-gut metabolic remodeling that amplified NAD⁺ biogenesis and SCFA production to sustain host NAD⁺ utilization and metabolic adaptation \u003cb\u003e(Fig.\u0026nbsp;6)\u003c/b\u003e. These findings propose maternal 4g/d NR intervention as a novel strategy to enhance mammary lactogenesis and metabolic efficiency in modern sow production.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eADFI, average daily food intake;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eADG, average daily weight gain;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBCS, body condition score;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBF, backfat depth;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBW, body weight; CAT, catalase;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCRL, crown-rump length;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCV\u003csub\u003eBW\u003c/sub\u003e, coefficient of variation of birth weight;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDS, piglet diarrhea score;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIUGR, intrauterine growth retardation;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLBW, low birth weight;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLD, lipid droplets;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLDA, linear discriminant analysis;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNAD⁺, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNAMPT, nicotinamide phosphoribosyl transferase;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNadR, NA/NAM riboside kinase;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA, niacin;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNAM, nicotinamide;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNR, nicotinamide riboside;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRT, rectal temperature;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSCFAs, short-chain fatty acids;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTFI, total food intake;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors wish to thank the laboratory staff for their ongoing assistance and the support from the animal feeding apparatus and room in the Sichuan Agricultural University. Moreover, we extend our heartfelt appreciation to the sows that have been an integral part of our research, contributing significantly to the findings of this experiment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDW, YZ, and LH designed the research. DW, and LH wrote the original draft. LH, YL, WZ, XY, RZ, HL and CP performed experiments and analyzed the data. XJ, YL, SX, ZF, BF and LC contributed to the analysis and manuscript preparation. YZ, LH, XY contributed to constructive discussions. DW and LH had primary responsibility for the final content.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was jointly supported by the National Key R\u0026amp;D Program of China (2023YFD1300804), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32472948), and the earmarked fund for China Agriculture Research System (CARS-35).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData and materials availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data necessary to support the conclusions of this study is either included in the paper. The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe animals used for this research were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of the Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agriculture University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing financial interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMuro BB, Carnevale RF, Leal DF, Almond GW, Monteiro MS, Poor AP, et al. 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Animal. 2007;1(9):1335\u0026ndash;43. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731107000559\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S1751731107000559\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e Ingredients and nutrient composition of the basal diets for sows.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"608\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGestation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLactation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIngredients (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSorghum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSoybean meal\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSunflower meal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCopra meal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWheat bran\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDDGS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeet pulp\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePremix and Others\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnalysis composition\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDM (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCrude protein (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGross energy (Mcal/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEther extract (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCrude fiber (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNeutral detergent fiber (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcid detergent fiber (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 52.1382%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsh (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26.1513%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21.7105%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003ePremix and others ingredients consisted of dietary crystalline amino acids, minerals and vitamins that meet NR2012 nutritional requirements for sows. The proprietary premix formulations were excluded from compositional disclosure due to intellectual property restrictions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003eThe data in the table derived from triplicate analytical determinations. The chemical composition of experiment diet was analyzed according to lab method [63].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e The growth performance and cohort characteristics of sows supplemented with nicotinamide riboside.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"624\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 274px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNR supplement, g/d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuad\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC VS NR\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStart sows, n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnd sows, n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBW at G90 (kg)\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e262.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e265.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e265.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e265.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.715\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.538\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.455\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG90 BF, mm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.860\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.805\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.666\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG110 BF, mm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.555\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.916\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.831\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL21 BF, mm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.510\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.428\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.344\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBF change, mm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG90-G110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.13\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.366\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG110-L21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.906\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.323\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.349\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eADFI 1 week, kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.88\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.93\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.72\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.25\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.674\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eADFI 2-3 week, kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.94\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.46\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.76\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.82\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.281\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTFI, kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e157.9\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e165.19\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e173.42\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e152.49\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.079\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbbreviations: Lin = linear effects; Quad = quadratic effects; BCS = body condition; BF = backfat depth; BW = body weight; G90 = gestation day 90; G110 = gestation day 110; L21= lactation day 21; ADFI = average daily food intake; TFI = total food intake.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eC vs NR means that the comparative analysis of pooled NR supplementation groups (encompassing all dosage gradients) compared with controls.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003eThe sow BW was predicted using the best fit multiple regression models according to Connell et al., 2007 [64], BW= -133+3.77 parityy+0.32 day+1.72 BF+0.23 heart girth. Heart girth (mm) was defined as the circumference of the sow immediately behind the front legs and in front of the first mammary glands.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e Means within a row with different superscripts differ using adjusted Tukey method (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e The litter performance of sows supplemented with nicotinamide riboside.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"614\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 239px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNR supplement, g/d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 179px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuad\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC VS NR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal born, n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.848\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.723\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.743\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBorn alive, n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.364\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.826\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.642\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStillborn rate, n\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.533\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.776\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.720\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMummified, n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.913\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.915\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.949\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLG mummies, n\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.238\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIUGR, n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.105\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.974\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.094\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLBW born, n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.37\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.72\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.10\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.909\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLitter CV\u003csub\u003eBW\u003c/sub\u003e, %\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.24\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.13\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.88\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.740\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNewborn weight, kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLive at birth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.292\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.926\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.258\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLitter 10\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e percentile\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.821\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.901\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.881\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.896\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.177\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.266\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLitter of born alive\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.975\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.932\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.773\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarrow duration, min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210.30\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e179.98\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e180.80\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e172.79\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBirth interval, min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.55\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.65\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.61\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.37\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.153\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarrowing RT 48h, ℃\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.92\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.43\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.70\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.86\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.451\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.168\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 150px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarrowing RT 72h, ℃\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.336\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 46px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbbreviations: IUGR = intrauterine growth restriction; LBW = low body weight; LG = late gestation; CV\u003csub\u003eBW\u003c/sub\u003e = coefficient of variation of birth weight; RT = rectal temperature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eNumber of stillborn piglets out of total born (sum of born alive, still born, and mummified).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003eThe mummy, measuring surpass 31 cm in head-rump length, is determined to have formed after gestation day 90.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eLitter CV\u003csub\u003eBW\u003c/sub\u003e = (\u0026sigma;/\u0026mu;) \u0026times; 100. \u0026sigma; is the SD and \u0026mu; is the average birth weight of litter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e10\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e percentile body weight per litter.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe lactation performance of sows supplemented with nicotinamide riboside.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"639\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 258px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNR supplement, g/d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 194px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuad\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC VS NR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAfter cross-foster, n\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.289\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.206\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.262\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffective nipple, n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.420\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.355\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.463\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePigs weaned, n\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.33\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.32\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.90\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.70\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.134\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePig mortality, %\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.061\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.465\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.090\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePiglet performance, kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStarting weight\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.351\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.953\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.417\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeaning weight\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.31\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.38\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.76\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.61\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.073\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLitter performance, kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLitter starting weight\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.206\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.654\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.214\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLitter weaning weight\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.69\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.87\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.38\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.11\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.038\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLitter ADG, kg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.55\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.93\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.75\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 144px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMilk production, kg\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e215.64\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e214.01\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e248.22\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e234.81\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 43px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbbreviations: ADG = average daily gain.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e Litter size was standardized to 12-14 through cross-fostering of pigs within treatment within 24 h of parturition, and within-litter have similar weights to ensure that the competition for nipple.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e on lactation day 22, litter size was counted and weighting.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e Starting weight = litter weight / piglet number after cross-foster\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e Estimated milk yield was calculated as 4 g milk per 1 g of litter body weight gain.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eMaternal NR supplementation changed the plasma metabolite on late gestation and lactation\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"617\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 310px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNR supplement, g/d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuad\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC VS NR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn G110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eALP, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.33\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.68\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.47\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.86\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.151\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eALT, U/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.752\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.157\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAST, U/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.679\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.787\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.799\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGLU, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.226\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.917\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.230\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNEFA, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e505.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e448.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e494.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e551.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.294\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.334\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.887\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTG, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.928\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.754\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.631\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTC, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.819\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.347\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUREA, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.898\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.644\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.787\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn L14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eALP, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.30\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.85\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.39\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.50\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eALT, U/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.846\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.352\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.387\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAST, U/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.838\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.567\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.234\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGLU, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.513\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.468\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.121\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNEFA, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.227\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.909\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.808\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTG, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTC, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.17\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.79\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.65\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 110px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUREA, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.87\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.64\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.99\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.44\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.235\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.702\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 2px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAbbreviations: ALP = alkaline phosphatase; ALT = alanine aminotransferase; AST = aspartate aminotransferase; GLU = glucose; NEFA = non-esterified fatty acids; TG = triglycerides; TC = total cholesterol;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003emeans for each dependent variable represent 13 to 15 observations per treatment after the removal of outliers.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-animal-science-and-biotechnology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jasb","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology](http://jasbsci.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jasb/default.aspx","title":"Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology","twitterHandle":"@animalplantsci","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"NAD+, Nicotinamide riboside, Reproductive, Milk, Microbiota, Sow","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7485266/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7485266/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNicotinamide riboside (NR) supplementation has been demonstrated efficacy in enhancing female reproductive outcomes, but its regulatory role in sow performance and gut microbiome remains undefined. This study systematically evaluated the impacts of dietary NR supplementation during late gestation and lactation on sow performance and gut microbiome remodeling. A total of 280 sows were randomized assigned to one of four groups: a control group or one of three groups receiving NR-supplemented diets (2, 4, or 8 g/d; n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70/group). Sow reproductive performance, blood metabolic parameters, milk metabolome, and fecal 16S rRNA sequencing were measured.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaternal NR supplementation linearly shortened farrowing duration (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and tended to decrease the incidence of intrauterine growth restriction and the number of late gestation mummies (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1), while concurrently increasing the within-litter uniformity (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.1). Litter weaning weight and average daily gain increased quadratically with NR dosage (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). NR supplementation orchestrated plasma metabolite regulation (glucose, triglycerides, total cholesterol), enhanced antioxidant biomarkers, and reduced inflammatory cytokines across gestation and lactation. Milk yield, colostrum/milk dry matter, crude protein, and crude fat were increased (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), together with higher levels of NAD metabolites (NAD⁺, NR, nicotinamide) and beneficial bioactive factors (milk polar lipids, 3-aminosalicylic acid, fenugreekine) (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Gut microbiota analyses revealed NR-enriched beneficial taxa (\u003cem\u003eBifidobacterium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRuminococcus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eLachnospiraceae\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSubdoligranulum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eClostridium butyricum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSucciniclasticum\u003c/em\u003e) across sow-offspring dyads, which was associated with the activation of microbial NAD⁺ enzymes (\u003cem\u003eNadR\u003c/em\u003e/\u003cem\u003eNAMPT\u003c/em\u003e) (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and enhancement of systemic short-chain fatty acid flux, notably an increase in plasma butyrate acid (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaternal supplementation of NR during late gestation and lactation increases sow performance and promotes gut NAD\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e metabolic-associated microbiome remodeling. These findings propose maternal NR intervention as a novel strategy to enhance mammary lactogenesis and metabolic efficiency in swine production, with potential applications for therapeutic strategies for lactation insufficiency.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effects of nicotinamide riboside supplementation during late gestation and lactation on sow performance, milk metabolome, and gut microbiome","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-22 11:55:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7485266/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revision","date":"2025-11-03T21:29:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-09-04T13:02:43+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-02T03:03:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-30T11:15:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology","date":"2025-08-29T01:58:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-animal-science-and-biotechnology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jasb","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology](http://jasbsci.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jasb/default.aspx","title":"Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology","twitterHandle":"@animalplantsci","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6bae26f8-dd93-41ac-b066-4ab5f71a8b18","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-16T16:01:47+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7485266","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-025-01339-x","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-animal-science-and-biotechnology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-10 15:58:48","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 10th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-22 11:55:12","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40104-025-01339-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-025-01339-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7485266","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7485266","identity":"rs-7485266","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}