Health risk assessment for potentially toxic elements accumulation in Amaranthaceae family cultivars and their correlation with antioxidants and antinutrients

Health risk assessment for potentially toxic elements accumulation in Amaranthaceae family cultivars and their correlation with antioxidants and antinutrients | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Health risk assessment for potentially toxic elements accumulation in Amaranthaceae family cultivars and their correlation with antioxidants and antinutrients Pooja Sharma, Sophayo Mahongnao, Asmita Gupta, Sarita Nanda This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3957735/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 09 Aug, 2024 Read the published version in Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology → Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Delhi's agricultural hub, nestled along the Yamuna floodplains, faces soil and water contamination issues. Utilizing organic waste composts is gaining traction to improve soil quality, but uncertainties remain about their efficacy in reducing harmful elements. The study examined three Amaranthaceae cultivars, comparing organic waste composts with chemical fertilizer. It calculated correlations between heavy metals, antioxidants, and antinutrients to assess their bioremediation potential. PTE levels in soil and leaves were measured by ICP-MS, while antioxidants and antinutrients were analyzed with UV-VIS spectroscopy. The study revealed higher PTE levels in floodplain soil, with Cr, Ni, and Cd exceeding safe limits in all soil cultivars. Compost amendments reduced these pollutants by 28% compared to chemical fertilizers, decreasing bioaccumulation by 20%. Health risk assessments showed lower risks in compost-amended cultivars. Additionally, compost-amendment displayed a stronger correlation between PTE and antioxidants, suggesting effective bioremediation. Overall, compost amendments offer promise for mitigating PTE in metropolitan floodplains. Yamuna floodplain Amaranthaceae cultivars potentially toxic elements antioxidants health risk assessment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction The Yamuna River, India's fifth-longest and largest right bank tributary of the Ganga, spans 1376 km across seven states and union territories. Originating from the Yamunotri glacier in the lower Himalayas' Mussoorie range, its Delhi segment covers approximately 22 km from the Wazirabad barrage to the Okhla barrage. This stretch of the river has become severely polluted, earning the classification of being among India's most polluted rivers. The pollution has been attributed primarily to over seventeen drains channelling domestic and industrial waste into the river between the Tajewala barrage and the Delhi segment. With its substantial population, Delhi contributes 3296 million litres per day of sewage, while unauthorized settlements along the riverbanks add to domestic waste (Singh et al. 2020 ; Parween et al. 2021 ). The untreated or partially treated sewage waste, industrial effluents, and agricultural runoff introduce Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) into the Yamuna, posing a threat to soil, water, and all associated life forms (Ahamad et al. 2019 ). These elements have low chemical and biological degradation rates, raising concerns about bioaccumulation through the food chain. PTE can disrupt photosynthetic pigments in plants, impede growth, and induce oxidative stress. Plants produce crucial secondary metabolites, including phenolics, which increase synthesis under oxidative stress. Studies demonstrate heightened phenolic accumulation and increased antioxidant activity in plants like Alpinia zerumbet with copper sulfate application (Elzaawely et al., 2007 ), Phaseolus vulgaris exposed to cadmium (Winkel-Shirley, 2002 ). Similarly, the flavonoid accumulation was observed in Medicago sativa in response to the increased concentration of Mn, Cu and Zn in the growth media (Diáz et al., 2001). Phenolics act as antioxidants, chelate metals, and scavenge free radicals like hydrogen peroxide and superoxide ions. In animals, including humans, they hinder essential nutrient absorption, leading to growth retardation and multiple organ damage (Sekhar et al. 2005 , Ruchuwararak et al. 2019 ). Certain elements, such as Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), and Lead (Pb),Mercury (Hg), are identified as potent carcinogens by authoritative bodies (Tchounwou et al. 2012 ). The floodplains of the Yamuna, densely populated and housing industrial setups and agricultural activities, serve as a significant sink for PTE through sedimentation. Studies have reported elevated concentrations of heavy metals along the Yamuna's stretch, with recent research highlighting the accumulation of PTE in vegetables grown in PTE-loaded soils (Kaushik et al. 2009 ). Organic amendments, such as composts derived from various sources like manure, poultry, and municipal solid waste, emerge as potentially cost-effective strategies to mitigate PTE. Organic matter has shown the ability to decrease metal availability in soil through complexation, precipitation, and oxidation states, thereby limiting their mobility (Welikala et al. 2018 ). However, the reports regarding the efficacy of compost amendments in reducing PTE in cultivars grown in contaminated areas are conflicting. Some studies demonstrate lower PTE in organically grown cultivars than conventional ones, while others report the opposite trend (Rossi et al. 2008 , L. Malmauret, D. Parent-Massin 2010 , Barański et al. 2014 ). This lack of consensus complicates the understanding of PTE contamination in cultivars grown using organic amendments, especially concerning soil health and produce quality. Additionally, data on the impact of consuming cultivars grown with compost amendments on associated health risks are scarce. Addressing these gaps is crucial, especially considering the increasing urban waste and the need to sensitize the population about utilizing available urban resources. To address these gaps in the knowledge, we hypothesized that " compost amendments could diminish PTE content in floodplain-grown cultivars, thereby reducing associated health risks ." This study addressed concerns surrounding Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) found in vegetables grown on floodplains near metropolitan areas, which is critical for sustaining large populations. The investigation specifically analyzed PTE concentrations—Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Cadmium (Cd), Arsenic (As), Mercury (Hg), and Lead (Pb)—in Spinacia and Amaranthus spp cultivars, aiming to assess potential of various organic waste compost amendments in remediating heavy metals by modulating secondary metabolites such as antioxidants and antinutrients and prospective health risks associated with their consumption. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Sample collection and cultivar plantation Soil samples were collected from two distinct locations: the floodplains of the Yamuna River near the Signature Bridge in the National Capital Territory of Delhi and the institutional garden area of Daulat Ram College for Women, University of Delhi. The geographic coordinates for the sampling site on river floodplain soil were recorded as [28.87643, 77.204783]. For the garden soil, [28.704753, 77.2330234] ( Fig. 1 ). The organic compost originated locally from the Delhi-Nation Capital Region. Leaf waste compost was obtained from the Recycle Unit at the Daulat Ram College campus, where the campus's leaf waste underwent composting (Mahongnao et al., 2023). Kitchen waste compost, sourced from the resident welfare association, was produced by composting kitchen waste. Cow dung manure and vermicompost were procured from local farmers, while municipal waste compost was acquired from the Municipal Corporation of Delhi near the Okhla landfill site. DAP fertilizer was purchased from a general store. Seeds for Spinacia oleracea (SP), green amaranth ( Amaranthus viridis , GA), and red amaranth ( Amaranthus cruentus , RA) were obtained from Krishi Vigyan Kendra, National Horticulture Research and Development Foundation, Ujwa, New Delhi. Soil collected from both sampling sites underwent drying, sieving, and mixing with specific amendments to create distinct soil mixes: leaf waste compost soil mix (LWCS), municipal waste compost soil mix (MWCS), cow dung manure soil mix (CDMS), kitchen waste compost soil mix (KWCS), vermicompost soil mix (VCS), and chemical fertilizer soil mix (FS). The soil-to-amendment ratio was 1:0.25, while the chemical fertilizer soil mix (DAP) contained DAP, calcium, and phosphate in a 4:1:1 ratio (in grams per kilogram of soil) for a 10 kg soil mix. The cultivation of three green leafy vegetable cultivars from the Amaranthaceae family occurred in the first week of April amid temperatures ranging from 29 to 40 degrees Celsius and average humidity levels of 34 to 44 per cent. The experiment utilized a potting setup with six pots for each amendment type in both soils, maintaining consistent environmental conditions. Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) fertilizer amendment cultivars were the control, with harvesting in late June. Post-harvest, vegetable leaves were collected, washed, air-dried, ground into a fine powder, and stored for subsequent analysis at four degrees Celsius in dark glass bottles (Achikanu et al. 2013 ). All studies were conducted in triplicates for each cultivar sample of specific amendments from both soils, and results were reported to represent the mean values. 2.2. Soil pH and EC Analysis For soil pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) analysis, 10 grams of soil sample was dissolved in 20 ml of distilled water, and pH and EC were determined using a pH and EC meter, respectively. 2.3. PTE Analysis 2.3.1. Sample Preparation To explore the available elements, the soil and soil mix samples were digested with HCl acid and HNO 3 acid in a 3:1 ratio (Aqua Regia). To prepare cultivar leaf samples , the finely grounded leaf powder was digested according to the method described by Ali and Al-Qahtani, 2012 . One gram of the sample was digested overnight following triacid digestion with 10 ml of H 2 SO 4 , HNO 3 and HClO 4 in a ratio of 1:5:1 in a volumetric flask to release the analytes from the complex organic matric such as plants. The following day, the sample was heated on a hot plate till the colour of the solution changed. The concentrate was made up to 100ml using MilliQ water (Ali and Al-Qahtani 2012 ). All these solutions were filtered using Whatman filter paper no.2. The plant samples were further filtered with 0.45-micron filter paper under vacuum pressure. These samples were stored at 4 degrees until Ion-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis. To prepare the water sample , 1 ml of HNO 3 was added to the 100 ml of groundwater used for irrigating the cultivars. 2.3.2. Quality assurance and machine calibration The certified reference material (CRM) for soil samples, SQC001 and standard reference material (SRM: ERM-CD281 RYE GRASS) for cultivar leaf samples, obtained from Sigma Aldrich, were prepared in a similar way as the soil and leaf samples, respectively. The serial dilution of the CRM and SRM at different concentrations was prepared to obtain the calibration curve. The standard reference material's element analysis was a sample quality check. Six PTE (Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Pb, Hg) in both soils, their soil mix and cultivars were analyzed using iCAP-Q ICP-MS with the analytical software, namely the QTEGRA ISDS using the Kinetic Energy Discrimination (KED) interface. The 129 Xe present in the argon gas was measured as an internal standard, and the recovery rate for 129 Xe was between 80 to 120 per cent. Both the CRM and SRM were measured as an unknown sample after every ten samples to validate the data, and the average offset for this was less than 10% for all the elements analyzed. All elements' correlation coefficient (R2) was > 99.0%. The soil and soil mix samples, including the CRM, were diluted to 20x for mineral and PTE analysis. All leaf samples, including SRM, were diluted to 100x with 1%HNO 3 for macro-minerals analysis. At the same time, for the micro-minerals and trace elements, the prepared solution was read as such without any dilution. 1% HNO 3 was used as the wash matrix. For improved statistical analysis, three replicates were carried out for each sample. 2.4. Data analysis The bio-concentration factor and health risk assessment were carried out considering the mean of all three replicates of each cultivar. 2.4.1. Pollution load index (PLI) The PLI measures the concentration factor of the concerned heavy metal in the soil. The equation used to calculate PLI is given as, PLI = C c /C r (1) Where C c = PTE content in the contaminated soil and C r = PTE content in the reference soil. The concerned soil is categorized at different levels of contamination, from no contamination, moderate contamination, and contamination to very heavy contamination on the basis of PLI values ranging from o-1, 1–3, 3–5, > 5, respectively (Ahmed et al. 2022 ). 2.4.2. Bio-concentration Factor (BCF) The BCF is the ratio of the concentration of the concerned heavy metal in the edible part of the plant to the concentration in the soil. It measures heavy metal accumulation in the edible part of a plant from the soil. The equation is given as, BCF = C m /C s (2) Where C m is the potentially toxic elements content in the cultivar and C s is the potentially toxic elements content in soil. A BCF value greater than one indicates that the particular plant is an accumulator for the concerned PTE (Baker and Brooks 1989; Sakshi et al. 2018). 2.4.3. Metal Pollution Load (MPL) The Metal Pollution Load (MPL) gauges the cumulative load of heavy metals in the edible parts of vegetables. It is computed using the formula: MPL= (C m1 ​×C m2 ​×…×C mn ​) 1/n​ (3) Here, C m ​ signifies the concentration of heavy metal in the plant, and n denotes the number of concerned heavy metals, which is 6 in the current study. 2.5. Health Risk Assessment 2.5.1. Daily Intake of Metals (DIM) The Daily Intake of Metals (DIM) characterizes the concentration of heavy metals accessible through vegetable consumption. The equation is given as: DIM= ​(C metal ​×C factor ​×C intake​) /BW (4) C metal ​ is the concentration of heavy metal in the vegetable, C factor ​ is the conversion factor from the fresh weight of the vegetable to dry weight, and C intake ​ is the ingestion rate. In this study, C factor ​ is taken as 0.085 for leafy vegetable samples, and C intake ​ is considered 0.0385 kg/person/day for an adult with an average body weight ( B W​) of 70 kg. 2.5.2. Health Risk Index (HRI) The Health Risk Index (HRI) signifies the health risk of continuous exposure to heavy metals leading to chronic hazards. The formula is expressed as: HRI = DIM​ /R f D (5) R f D values for studied PTE (Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Hg, and Pb) are 1.5, 0.02, 0.001, 0.0003, 0.0001, and 0.04 mg/kg/day, respectively. An HRI value below one indicates safety, while a value between one and five signifies a concern. The HRI also translates into either a carcinogenic or non-carcinogenic risk. The non-carcinogenic risk is portrayed as the Hazard Quotient (HQ), calculated by the formula: HQ = EDI​ /R f D (6) Where EDI is the estimated daily intake, further calculated as: EDI = C m ×IR×EF×ED/ BW×AT ​ (7) Here, C m is the concentration of potentially toxic elements in the cultivar, IR is the ingestion rate (0.0385 kg/person/day), EF is exposure frequency (365 days/year), ED is exposure duration (72 years for adults), BW is average body weight (70 kg), and AT is average exposure time for non-carcinogenic effects (26280 days). The Hazard Index (HI), calculated as the summation of HQ for each heavy metal given as, HI= ∑ HQ (8) signifies health hazard levels as less hazardous, concerning, and chronic at HI values of 10, respectively (Harmanescu et al. 2011 ; Sakshi et al. 2018). 2.5.3. Carcinogenic risk assessment The carcinogenic risk refers to the potential of the concerned PTE to cause cancer. The Cancer risk (CR) is given by the product of estimated daily intake (EDI) and slope factor (SF), CR = EDI× SF (9) Slope factors for Cr, Cd, As, and Pb are 0.5, 0.38, 1.5, and 0.0085 mg/kg/day, respectively. The SF of Ni and Hg have not been determined; therefore, cancer risk for these two PTE could not be assessed (Osae et al., 2023 ; Pavlíková et al., 2023 ). The summation of cancer risk calculated for each element gives the total cancer risk (TCR), TCR= ∑ CR (10) 2.6. Antioxidants analysis 2.6.1. Vitamin c Dried samples (0.5-5g) dissolved in 4% oxalic acid were filtered, and an aliquot was mixed with bromine water. Ascorbic acid standards (10–100µg) were similarly prepared. To both, 2,4 DNPH and Thiourea solutions were added. After 3 hours at 37°C, 80% H 2 SO 4 (7ml) was added, and the colored solutions were measured at 540nm (Anal Parimal Desai and Shuchi Desai 2019 ). 2.6.2. Flavonoid For extract preparation, 0.4g of the dried sample was extracted in 12 ml of methanolic water (50:50, pH2) for 3 hours. After centrifugation, the supernatant was mixed with 12 of acetonic water (70:30). The leaf extract and quercetin standard solutions (1mg/ml) were combined with 1.25 ml of distilled water, followed by adding 75 ul of 5% NaNO 2 solution. After 6 minutes, 150ul of 10% AlCl 3 .6H 2 O solution was added, left for 5 minutes before adding 0.5ml of 1M NaOH. The reaction mixture was brought to 2.5ml with water, and the flavonoid-aluminum chloride complex formed was measured at 510nm (Reda and Atsbha 2019). 2.6.3. Phenol One gram of dried sample was extracted in 10 ml of 80% ethanol, centrifuged, and the soup was re-extracted. After evaporation and dissolution in 5ml of water, different gallic acid concentrations (0.2-1mg/ml) were prepared. The reaction mixture (3ml) with Folin’s Ciocalteau reagent and 20% sodium carbonate was measured at 650nm, determining phenol concentration as gallic acid equivalents per 100mg of the sample (Katoch 2011 ). 2.6.4. Tannin 0.5g dried leaf in 75ml water, heated for 30min, centrifuged. Collected soup adjusted to volume. Tannic acid concentrations (1mg/ml) prepared. To 1ml sample extract, added 75ml water, 5ml Folin-Denis reagent, and 10ml sodium carbonate. After diluting it to 100 ml, read at 700nm after 30min. Tannin concentration was determined using a tannic acid standard graph, expressed as tannic acid equivalents per 100mg of the sample (Sathishkumar and Baskar 2014 ). 2.7. Antinutrients analysis 2.7.1. Nitrate One gram of dried sample was dissolved in 10 ml water. Different concentrations of sodium nitrite (1mg/ml) were prepared. 0.05% p-nitroaniline and 2.5M HCl were added, followed by 2 ml of 0.03% 1-naphthol and 2M KOH. After five minutes, the violet colour formed was read at 570nm (Ajebe and Bahiru 2018 ). 2.7.2. Nitrite One gram of dried sample was dissolved in 10 ml water. Different concentrations of potassium nitrate (1mg/ml) were prepared. Added 1ml 5% Ag 2 SO 4 , followed by 7ml 98% H 2 SO 4 and 0.1ml 8% phenol. After 5 minutes, 10ml 2M NaOH was added, and absorbance was measured at 400nm (Ajebe and Bahiru 2018 ). 2.7.3. Oxalate For leaf extract, 0.5g sample was dissolved in 30 ml 2.5N HCL, boiled for 15 min, cooled, and volume adjusted with 2.5N HCL. Different oxalic acid concentrations (1mg/ml) were prepared (0.2-1.0 mg/ml). 5ml 2N H 2 SO 4 was added to standard and sample solutions, followed by 2ml KMnO 4 . It was incubated for 10 min at room temperature before absorbance was measured at 528nm (Mishra et al. 2017 ). 2.7.4. Saponin One gram of the sample was dissolved in 30ml ethanol, and a 25ul aliquot was taken. Five concentrations of saponin pure (15mg/ml) were prepared. To the assay reactions (25ul aliquot), 0.5ml vanillin added, followed by 2.5ml H 2 SO 4 in an ice water bath. After 5 minutes of incubation in lukewarm water, absorbance read at 570nm (Vigar et al. 2019 ). 2.8. Statistical Analysis Statistical significance was assessed using Graph Pad Prism 9.5.1 software. A T-test was performed to check the statistical variation between floodplain soil and its amendments and that of garden soil and its respective amendments. A two-way ANOVA with two factors, namely vegetable type and compost type, was employed to analyze variation with respect to each PTE. Multiple Comparisons using Dunnett's test compared the parameters across all compost-amended leafy vegetable cultivars. 3. Results 3.1. Physio-chemical analysis of soils and water Both the soils were alkaline (floodplain soil pH: 8.2 and garden soil pH: 8.6). The floodplain soil had higher (0.90 mScm -1 ) electrical conductivity than the garden soil (0.73 mScm -1 ). The chemical composition of soil collected from the Yamuna River floodplain differed significantly from that of institutional garden soil, which was collected from the college campus as observed from the t-test values, especially with respect to the Cr, Ni and Pb. River floodplain soil exhibited elevated levels of all the PTE when compared to garden soil: chromium (Cr) by 42%, nickel (Ni) by 28%, cadmium (Cd) by 33%, arsenic (As) by 32%, mercury (Hg) by 40%, and lead (Pb) by 26%. Also, the levels of PTE assessed were higher in soil mix prepared using river floodplain soil like Cr (121.8%), Ni (30%), Cd (133.4%), Hg (1009.8%) and Pb (61.3%) than in the garden soil mixes except for As level, which was 13% lower in river floodplain soil mix (Table S1) . All these PTE levels were below the permissible limits in the groundwater used for irrigation. The level of Hg in the groundwater could not be assessed because of non-availability of the reference value. The descending order of PTE in both soils was Cr > Pb > As > Ni > Cd > Hg. All the studied PTE except for the Nickel were above the permissible limits in both soils, but their levels were only slightly higher in the garden soil. The PLI showed that the PTE varied significantly (Cr, Ni and Pb) concerning their accumulation in the river floodplain soil amendments compared to the garden soil amendments. The PLI amongst the PTE in the floodplain soil amendments followed the order Cr > Hg > Cd > As > Ni > Pb ( Table 1 ). Table 1 Pollution load index values (PLI) of soils and soil mix samples PLI Permissible limits (mg/kg) t- test soil FS LWCS MWCS CDMS KWCS VCS Cr 1.74 2.08 2.22 2.31 2.32 2.76 1.55 100 6.941 **** Ni 1.39 1.12 1.13 1.54 1.15 1.42 1.28 40 4.719 *** Cd 1.49 2.98 2.16 2.10 2.64 3.09 2.58 0.06 1.749 As 1.47 0.67 0.62 1.01 0.69 0.73 1.28 10 0.1167 Hg 1.68 3.78 0.57 4.87 0.63 2.48 4.36 0.03 1.233 Pb 1.35 1.47 1.46 1.50 1.40 2.02 1.77 10 2.957 * FS, fertilizer soil mix; LWCS, leaf waste compost soil mix; MWCS, municipal waste compost soil mix; CDMS, cow dung manure soil mix; KWCS, kitchen waste compost soil mix; VCS, vermicompost soil mix * (p < 0.05), **(p < 0.01), ***(p < 0.001), and **** (p < 0.0001) 3.2. Quantity of produce The overall yield was 14.5% lower in river floodplain and 15% higher in garden soil cultivars compared to chemical fertilizer cultivars. The yield in leaf waste amendment of floodplain cultivar was lower, about 10.9% (431.4g), than the chemical fertilizer amendment (483.9g). Similarly, the yield was lower with cow dung manure amendment by 9.5%, kitchen waste compost amendment by 9%, municipal organic waste amendment by 17% and vermicompost amendment by 25.8%. In the case of the garden soil cultivar, the leaf waste amendment also had a lower yield, about 18.9% (153.2g), compared to the yield of the chemical fertilizer amendment (188.9g). Similarly, the yield of the municipal organic waste compost amendment cultivar was lower by 12.3% than that of the chemical fertilizer amendment. However, most other soil amendments resulted in higher yields from cow dung manure, kitchen waste and vermicompost amendment by 36.2%, 65.7%, and 4.5%, respectively. 3.3. Potentially Toxic Element (PTE) content in cultivars Analysis of potentially toxic elements (PTE) in Spinacia oleracea and Amaranthus spp. Cultivars revealed twofold higher metal accumulation in river floodplain soil cultivars than in garden soil cultivars. Post hoc analysis using Dunnett's test indicated that PTE levels in river floodplain cultivars were approximately 28% lower than in chemical fertilizer cultivars. Compost-amended garden soil cultivars showed no significant variation compared to chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. The overall effect showed that bio-compost amendment cultivars from both soils had approximately 12% lower PTE levels than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. Two-way ANOVA showed significant variation in PTE levels in river floodplain cultivars, with compost-amended cultivars having 40% lower Ni levels than chemical fertilizer cultivars. In the garden soil, compost-amended cultivars had 16% higher Ni levels than chemical fertilizer cultivars. Cadmium levels were higher in compost-amended produce from both soils, with a value of 8.5% in the river floodplain soil cultivar and 13.5% in the garden soil cultivar. Overall, organic cultivars had about 12% lower PTE levels than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars in both soil types. Leaf waste compost amendment cultivars exhibited 11.3% lower PTE levels than chemical fertilizer amendment cultivars, similar to other bio-compost amendments (municipal organic waste compost, cow dung manure, kitchen waste compost, and vermicompost amendments), which showed lower PTE levels at 20.8%, 50.3%, 33.2%, and 25.5%, respectively. PTE load in river floodplain soil Amaranthaceae family cultivars followed the order: FP > CDMP > KWCP > VCP > MWCP > LWCP. LWCP. On the other hand, the garden soil compost amended cultivars showed little improvement compared to chemical fertilizer (Fig. S1). 3.4. Bio-concentration Factor (BCF) Upon detailed examination, the Bio-concentration Factor (BCF) exhibited higher values in the river floodplain soil than in the garden soil cultivars. However, the BCF values were generally below 1 for most Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE), indicating that their accumulation remained below toxic thresholds. However, cadmium's BCF value exceeded 1 in cultivars from both soils, with higher levels in the garden soil. Notably, certain soil amendments like Municipal Organic Waste Compost, Kitchen Waste Compost, and Leaf Waste Compost contributed to reducing cadmium accumulation in all three cultivars. The studied Spinacia and Amaranthus cruentus cultivars showed a higher potential for PTE accumulation, following the order Ni > Cd > Hg > Cr > As > Pb. The mean BCF of leaf waste compost-amended cultivars was lower, approximately 8.9%, compared to chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. Similarly, Municipal Organic Waste Compost (MWCP), Kitchen Waste Compost (KWCP), and Vermicompost (VCP) amended cultivars exhibited lower BCF values, 46.8%, 11.5%, and 6.2%, respectively, than chemical fertilizer amendment cultivars, thus making an average lowering of 20% ( Table 2 ) . Table 2 Mean Bio-concentration Factor (BCF) of studied PTE (Mean ± Standard deviation ) in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments (n = 9) Floodplain soil cultivars Cr Ni Cd As Hg Pb FP 0.178 ± 0.1 3.21 ± 2.7 1.973 ± 0.7 0.051 ± 0 0.177 ± 0 0.018 ± 0 LWCP 0.166 ± 0 2.695 ± 3.1 1.745 ± 0.4 0.039 ± 0 1.219 ± 0.6 0.025 ± 0 MWCP 0.121 ± 0 2.259 ± 2.5 0.687 ± 0.4 0.035 ± 0 0.086 ± 0 0.014 ± 0 CDMP 0.141 ± 0 1.065 ± 0.5 3.538 ± 2.6 0.068 ± 0 1.295 ± 0 0.034 ± 0 KWCP 0.194 ± 0.1 0.967 ± 0.3 1.512 ± 0.2 0.082 ± 0 0.395 ± 0 0.036 ± 0 VCP 0.356 ± 0.2 0.888 ± 0.2 2.599 ± 0.5 0.032 ± 0 0.012 ± 0 0.012 ± 0 Garden soil cultivars FP 0.178 ± 0 0.506 ± 0.1 4.644 ± 0 0.049 ± 0 0.49 ± 0.3 0.007 ± 0 LWCP 0.185 ± 0 0.542 ± 0 3.386 ± 1.1 0.036 ± 0 0.404 ± 0.5 0.005 ± 0 MWCP 0.174 ± 0 0.524 ± 0 1.865 ± 0.9 0.047 ± 0 0.291 ± 0.3 0.004 ± 0 CDMP 0.222 ± 0.1 0.894 ± 0.6 3.693 ± 0.4 0.046 ± 0 0.551 ± 0.3 0.008 ± 0 KWCP 0.228 ± 0 0.844 ± 0.2 4.224 ± 1.5 0.042 ± 0 1.622 ± 1.6 0.009 ± 0 VCP 0.184 ± 0 0.535 ± 0 5.55 ± 1.3 0.048 ± 0 0.541 ± 0.3 0.012 ± 0 FP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars 3.5. Metal Pollution Load (MPL) Metal Pollution Load (MPL), evaluating the concentration of all heavy metals in crops grown in specific soils, was twice as high in river floodplain cultivars compared to garden soil cultivars (Priyanka et al. 2020 ). Among cultivars, MPL followed the order Amaranthus cruentus > Spinacia > Amaranthus viridis , indicating higher metal accumulation in red amaranth cultivars than others. However, amaranth cultivars grown on compost amendment exhibited lower levels than their chemical fertilizer counterparts ( Fig. 2 ). 3.6. Health Risk Assessment 3.6.1. Daily Intake of Metal (DIM) Their concentration in soil influences the accumulation of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) in cultivars in the respective soil. The Daily Intake of Metal (DIM) assesses the health risks of daily consumption of these contaminated cultivars. DIM values were higher in river floodplain cultivars (0.00028–0.00056) than in garden soil (0.00014–0.00017). Red amaranth had the highest DIM values, with the order for PTE being: Cr > Ni > Cd > Pb > As > Hg. In garden soil, all cultivars exhibited a consistent demand for PTE: Cr > Ni > Cd > As > Pb > Hg. Overall, compost-amended cultivars had lower DIM values than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars in river floodplains, in the order FWCP > LWCP > MWCP > KWCP > VCP > CDMP. Among cultivars, the lowest intake was observed in amaranthus cultivars grown on compost-amended soils ( Table 3 ). Table 3 Mean Daily intake of metals (DIM) of studied PTE (Mean ± Standard deviation) in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments (n = 9) Floodplain soil cultivars Cr Ni Cd As Hg Pb FP 1.30E-03 ± 0 1.77E-03 ± 0 2.22E-05 ± 0 5.84E-06 ± 0 2.07E-06 ± 0 1.95E-05 ± 0 LWCP 1.27E-03 ± 0 1.44E-03 ± 0 1.94E-05 ± 0 4.10E-06 ± 0 2.11E-06 ± 0 2.72E-05 ± 0 MWCP 9.89E-04 ± 0 1.43E-03 ± 0 2.70E-05 ± 0 4.67E-06 ± 0 1.53E-06 ± 0 2.15E-05 ± 0 CDMP 9.58E-04 ± 0 5.17E-04 ± 0 3.49E-05 ± 0 7.17E-06 ± 0 2.38E-06 ± 0 3.04E-05 ± 0 KWCP 1.47E-03 ± 0 5.41E-04 ± 0 1.99E-05 ± 0 8.88E-06 ± 0 2.05E-06 ± 0 4.32E-05 ± 0 VCP 1.82E-03 ± 0 4.63E-04 ± 0 1.98E-05 ± 0 6.69E-06 ± 0 1.71E-06 ± 0 1.41E-05 ± 0 Garden soil cultivars FP 6.27E-04 ± 0 2.48E-04 ± 0 1.75E-05 ± 0 8.28E-06 ± 0 1.51E-06 ± 0 5.25E-06 ± 0 LWCP 6.35E-04 ± 0 2.56E-04 ± 0 1.75E-05 ± 0 6.08E-06 ± 0 1.22E-06 ± 0 4.31E-06 ± 0 MWCP 6.15E-04 ± 0 2.15E-04 ± 0 3.48E-05 ± 0 6.09E-06 ± 0 1.06E-06 ± 0 4.75E-06 ± 0 CDMP 6.49E-04 ± 0 3.75E-04 ± 0 1.38E-05 ± 0 7.04E-06 ± 0 1.59E-06 ± 0 5.10E-06 ± 0 KWCP 6.23E-04 ± 0 3.31E-04 ± 0 1.80E-05 ± 0 6.30E-06 ± 0 3.39E-06 ± 0 5.77E-06 ± 0 VCP 6.06E-04 ± 0 2.18E-04 ± 0 1.63E-05 ± 0 7.61E-06 ± 0 1.70E-06 ± 0 7.57E-06 ± 0 FP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars 3.6.2. Health Risk Index (HRI) Health Risk Index (HRI) evaluates potential health hazards associated with consuming contaminated food. Nickel had the highest HRI values in all river floodplain cultivars: red amaranth (0.55), spinach (0.53), and green amaranth (0.44). Compost-amended cultivars exhibited relatively lower HRI values than chemical fertilizer cultivars. The total HRI values for all PTE in cultivars grown with a particular amendment followed the order: FP (0.025) > MWCP (0.0217) > LWCP (0.0213) > CDMP (0.0183) > KWCP (0.0165) > VCP (0.0139). HRI values for all cultivars did not exceed 1, irrespective of the amendment ( Table 4 ). Table 4 Mean Health risk index (HRI) of studied PTE (Mean ± Standard deviation) in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments (n = 9) Floodplain soil cultivars Cr Ni Cd As Hg Pb FP 8.69E-04 ± 0 8.83E-02 ± 0 2.22E-02 ± 0 1.95E-02 ± 0 2.07E-02 ± 0 4.88E-04 ± 0 LWCP 8.48E-04 ± 0 7.21E-02 ± 0 1.94E-02 ± 0 1.37E-02 ± 0 2.11E-02 ± 0 6.80E-04 ± 0 MWCP 6.59E-04 ± 0 7.13E-02 ± 0 2.70E-02 ± 0 1.56E-02 ± 0 1.53E-02 ± 0 5.36E-04 ± 0 CDMP 6.39E-04 ± 0 2.58E-02 ± 0 3.49E-02 ± 0 2.39E-02 ± 0 2.38E-02 ± 0 7.61E-04 ± 0 KWCP 9.78E-04 ± 0 2.71E-02 ± 0 1.99E-02 ± 0 2.96E-02 ± 0 2.05E-02 ± 0 1.08E-03 ± 0 VCP 1.21E-03 ± 0 2.31E-02 ± 0 1.98E-02 ± 0 2.23E-02 ± 0 1.71E-02 ± 0 3.53E-04 ± 0 Garden soil cultivars FP 4.18E-04 ± 0 1.24E-02 ± 0 1.75E-02 ± 0 2.76E-02 ± 0 1.51E-02 ± 0 1.31E-04 ± 0 LWCP 4.23E-04 ± 0 1.28E-02 ± 0 1.75E-02 ± 0 2.03E-02 ± 0 1.22E-02 ± 0 1.08E-04 ± 0 MWCP 4.10E-04 ± 0 1.07E-02 ± 0 3.48E-02 ± 0 2.03E-02 ± 0 1.06E-02 ± 0 1.19E-04 ± 0 CDMP 4.32E-04 ± 0 1.87E-02 ± 0 1.38E-02 ± 0 2.35E-02 ± 0 1.59E-02 ± 0 1.27E-04 ± 0 KWCP 4.15E-04 ± 0 1.66E-02 ± 0 1.80E-02 ± 0 2.10E-02 ± 0 3.39E-02 ± 0 1.44E-04 ± 0 VCP 4.04E-04 ± 0 1.09E-02 ± 0 1.63E-02 ± 0 2.54E-02 ± 0 1.70E-02 ± 0 1.89E-04 ± 0 FP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars In garden soil cultivars, HRI values indicated specific PTE as the highest risk contributors, viz. mercury for spinach (0.031), cadmium for green amaranth (0.017), and arsenic for red amaranth (0.31). Compost-amended cultivars showed minimal bioremediation when compared to chemical fertilizer cultivars. 3.6.3. Non-carcinogenic effects The non-carcinogenic effects of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) on the regional population consuming these cultivars were assessed through Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Health Index (HI). HQ values remained below 1 for all PTE. Still, the HI value, representing the sum of HQ for each PTE, exceeded 1 for all studied PTE in Amaranthaceae family cultivars from floodplain soil. However, only a few PTE of Spinacia and A. cruentus cultivars exceeded the HI value of 1 in garden soil cultivars. Nevertheless, compost-amended floodplain cultivars exhibited lower HI values than their chemical fertilizer counterparts ( Table 5 ). Table 5 Hazard index (HI) of studied PTE in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments Floodplain soil cultivars Spinacia oleracea Amaranthus viridis Amaranthus cruentus Mean FP 1.03 3.01 1.33 1.79 ± 1.1 LWCP 2.47 0.83 1.21 1.50 ± 0.9 MWCP 1.01 0.78 2.82 1.53 ± 1.1 CDMP 1.44 1.51 0.93 1.29 ± 0.3 KWCP 1.56 0.81 1.13 1.17 ± 0.4 VCP 1.10 0.86 1.00 0.99 ± 0.1 Garden soil cultivars FP 0.81 0.66 1.12 0.86 ± 0.2 LWCP 1.11 0.51 0.61 0.75 ± 0.3 MWCP 1.29 0.69 0.74 0.91 ± 0.3 CDMP 0.82 0.77 0.97 0.85 ± 0.1 KWCP 1.68 0.59 0.91 1.06 ± 0.6 VCP 0.91 0.49 1.08 0.83 ± 0.3 FP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars 3.6.4. Carcinogenic effects The carcinogenic effect of consuming the cultivars grown on floodplain soil was determined through cancer risk (CR) and total cancer risk (TCR) indices. The CR index values were above the threshold of 10 − 4 for Cr, As, and Cd for most of the floodplain and garden soil cultivars. The total cancer risk index values were above the threshold limit in both the cultivars and surpassing in the floodplain cultivars than those of the garden soil cultivars, irrespective of amendments. However, there was a comparative lowering of the TCR in most of the compost-amended floodplain cultivars than the chemical fertilizer amendment cultivars ( Table 6 ). Table 6 Total cancer risk (TCR) values of studied PTE in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments Floodplain soil cultivars Spinacia Amaranthus viridis Amaranthus cruentus Mean FP 5.41E-03 4.83E-03 1.34E-02 7.88E-03 ± 0 LWCP 8.03E-03 6.21E-03 8.69E-03 7.64E-03 ± 0 MWCP 5.76E-03 6.13E-03 6.18E-03 6.02E-03 ± 0 CDMP 6.89E-03 5.18E-03 5.69E-03 5.92E-03 ± 0 KWCP 6.35E-03 5.14E-03 1.52E-02 8.88E-03 ± 0 VCP 7.04E-03 4.74E-03 2.10E-02 1.09E-02 ± 0 Garden soil cultivars FP 3.43E-03 3.21E-03 5.09E-03 3.91E-03 ± 0 LWCP 4.61E-03 3.00E-03 4.16E-03 3.92E-03 ± 0 MWCP 3.76E-03 3.39E-03 4.50E-03 3.88E-03 ± 0 CDMP 3.52E-03 2.20E-03 6.28E-03 4.00E-03 ± 0 KWCP 4.45E-03 2.10E-03 5.03E-03 3.86E-03 ± 0 VCP 4.38E-03 1.90E-03 5.04E-03 3.77E-03 ± 0 FP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars 3.7. Antioxidants The vitamin c levels in the cultivars of compost amendments were lower than those in the chemical fertilizer amendment in both soils. In Yamuna floodplain and garden soil, the organic waste compost amended cultivars exhibited 23.6% and 9.2% lower levels of vitamin c, respectively, compared to chemical fertilizer cultivars. However, the variation in vitamin c was not statistically significant among all the samples. Flavonoid contents were lower (22.5%) in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil but higher (40.6%) in all the organic waste compost amended cultivars of garden soil compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars. The variation in Flavonoids was significant across the samples in both soil types. Phenol levels were lower (3.7%) in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil but higher (14.7%) in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of garden soil compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Similarly, the phenol variation among the garden soil cultivars was statistically significant (p < 0.05). Tannin levels were higher (2.3%) in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil but lower (1.3%) in the case of garden soil compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars. The Dunnett's test conducted in the post hoc analysis revealed that the flavonoid level was significantly (p < 0.05) lower in the cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil amended with leaf waste compost (LWCP), cow dung manure (CDMP), and kitchen waste compost (KWCP) compared to the cultivars of the chemical fertilizer amendment (FP). Conversely, the flavonoids in the cultivar of the leaf waste compost amendment (LWCP) of garden soil and phenol levels in the cultivars of municipal organic waste compost (MWCP) and cow dung manure amendments (CDMP) were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than in the cultivars of the chemical fertilizer amendment. The Dunnett test also indicated that the overall levels of the analyzed antioxidants in Yamuna floodplain soil’s organic cultivars were lower than in the FP. In garden soil, most organic waste compost amended cultivars exhibited higher levels of analyzed antioxidants than the chemical fertilizer cultivars ( Fig. S2 ). The antioxidant level in the leaf waste compost amended (LWCP) cultivar in Yamuna floodplain soil was 22.2% lower than in the chemical fertilizer amended cultivar. This pattern extended to other cultivars in Yamuna floodplain soil, where the municipal organic waste compost amendment (MWCP), cow dung manure amendment (CDMP), kitchen waste compost amendment (KWCP), and vermicompost amendment (VCP) all displayed lower levels of antioxidants by 21.8%, 34.7%, 21%, and 9%, respectively. Conversely, in garden soil, the leaf waste compost amendment cultivar exhibited a comparatively higher antioxidant level at 44% than the cultivar of the chemical fertilizer amendment. Similarly, elevated levels were observed in MWCP (53.3%), CDMP (26.6%), and KWCP (13%) as well. 3.8. Antinutrients The organic waste compost amended cultivars from Yamuna floodplain soil demonstrated lower nitrate levels (7.3%) than the chemical fertilizer cultivars. In contrast, organic waste compost amended cultivars from garden soil exhibited higher nitrate levels (2.6%) than the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Conversely, nitrite levels were higher in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil (29%) but lower in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of garden soil (2.7%) than the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Oxalate levels were lower in organic waste compost amended cultivars, approximately 3% in the organic cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil and 0.8% in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of garden soil, compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Similarly, saponin levels were lower in organic waste compost amended cultivars from both soils (4.7% in Yamuna floodplain soil and 7% in garden soil) than the chemical fertilizer cultivars. The two-way ANOVA and Dunnett's test revealed that the variation in antinutrient levels among all the cultivars in both soil types was not statistically significant. However, the overall effect indicated an approximately 2% lower level of antinutrients in the organic cultivars of both soil types ( Fig. S3 ). Cultivars of the leaf waste compost amendment in Yamuna floodplain soil exhibited a lower level of antinutrients, approximately 10.6% lower than the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Similarly, the vermicompost amendment (VCP) cultivars displayed about a 10% reduction in antinutrient levels compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars. In garden soil, the leaf waste compost amendment cultivars showed approximately 2.9% lower antinutrient levels than those in the cultivars of the chemical fertilizer amendment. A comparable outcome was observed in the cow dung manure (CDMP) cultivars and vermicompost (VCP) amendments, which displayed lower antinutrient levels at 0.4% and 4.5%, respectively. 3.9. Correlation of PTE with antioxidants and antinutrients In fertilizer-amended cultivars, the PTE, Cr, Ni, Cd, Hg and Pb showed a high positive correlation (0.2–0.8) with vitamin c and tannins (Fig. 3 ). Such a correlation was not seen with arsenic. Whereas, in compost-amended cultivars, only cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) showed a positive correlation with vitamin c and tannins, but the values were much lower (0.1–0.2) (Fig. 4 ). Similarly, Cr and As showed positive correlations with flavonoids (0.15) and phenols (0.66) respectively, regardless of the different compost amendments. Observing the relationship with the antinutrients in the fertilizer-amended cultivars, it was seen that the PTE like Cr (0.2–0.6), Ni (0.5–0.8), Cd (0.3–0.6) and Pb (0.5–0.8) were highly positively correlated to nitrate, nitrite oxalate and PTE, As (0.5) and Hg (0.2) were positively correlated to saponin. Whereas, in the compost amended cultivars, these PTE, Cr (0.05), Ni (0.5), Cd (0.08) and Pb (0.09) were positively correlated only to saponin and negatively correlated to other antinutrients (nitrate, nitrite and oxalate). Furthermore, in compost amended cultivars arsenic (As) and mercury (Hg) did not show any positive correlation with any of the antinutrients but showed negative correlation with saponin. This correlation was precisely opposite to what was observed in the fertilizer-amended cultivars. Moreover, the relationship of Ni to antioxidants and antinutrients in the fertilizer-amended cultivars and compost-amended cultivars was utterly reversed. Ni was positively correlated to vitamin c and tannin in the fertiliser-amended cultivars and negatively correlated to flavonoid and phenol. In the compost-amended cultivars, the Ni was positively correlated to flavonoid and phenol and negatively correlated to vitamin c and tannin. In compost-amended cultivars, antioxidants showed a greater positive correlation than antinutrients. 4. Discussion 4.1. The concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTE) in soil and cultivars This investigation represents a pioneering effort to assess the health risks associated with consuming crops cultivated on the floodplain of a densely populated metropolitan area undergoing rapid industrialization. This region, grappling with a crisis in healthy food production, serves as the focal point of our study. We aimed to assess the efficacy of various compost amendments, including traditional rural cow dung manure and diverse urban waste composts (leaf waste compost, kitchen waste compost, municipal waste compost, and vermicompost), in mitigating PTE in crops when compared to conventional chemical fertilizer methods. Our study revealed variations in crop quality based on soil types and the amendments used during cultivation. Notably, the floodplain soil and its corresponding soil mix exhibited significantly elevated levels of PTE compared to the garden soil and its mix, surpassing permissible limits for each element (Masoud et al. 2004 ). This observation is substantiated by the Pollution Load Index, highlighting PTE contamination in the floodplain soil, likely exacerbated by water influx from drains carrying untreated domestic, industrial, and agricultural waste into the Yamuna River near the National Capital Region of Delhi (Kaushik et al. 2009 ; Chaudhary et al. 2016 ). The level of the PTE in the ground water used for irrigation were below the permissible limits according to the EU norms (Sharma et al. 2018; Aggarwal 2009). A comparative analysis demonstrated higher concentrations of PTE in floodplain cultivars than their counterparts in garden soil, as evidenced by the Metal Pollution Index. This inequality can be attributed to the higher PTE content in floodplain soil, as observed in our analysis. However, depending on the compost type used, variations in PTE levels were observed in compost-amended floodplain cultivars. PTE levels in all cultivars were within recommended limits, except for Cr, Ni, and Cd, which were higher in all cultivars, regardless of vegetable, compost, or soil type. The permissible limits for Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Hg, and Pb, as specified by the Regulation 2011 of Food Safety and Standards (Contaminants, Toxins, and Residue) Government of India, are 1, 1, 0.2, 1.1, 1, and 2.5mg/kg, respectively (FSSAI 2022 ). Among the compost amendments for floodplain soil, cow dung manure-amended cultivars exhibited the lowest PTE content, 50% lower than chemical fertilizer cultivars. Vermicompost and kitchen waste compost-amended cultivars followed, with 33% and 25% reductions, respectively. Municipal and leaf waste compost-amended cultivars showed 20% and 11% reductions, respectively. Vermicompost-amended cultivars demonstrated the most effective remediation for several PTE. This study aligns with findings from a study in Tunisia, indicating lower levels of toxic metal content in organic waste compost amended cultivars compared to conventional crops (Sabrine et al. 2018 ). The BCF, indicating heavy metal accumulation in food chains, was higher in floodplain soil cultivars than in garden soil cultivars. However, compost-amended cultivars showed comparatively lower mean accumulation levels than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. The mean concentrations of PTE and Bioaccumulation Factor (BCF) were 28% and 20% lower in floodplain compost-amended cultivars compared to chemical fertilizer cultivars. The diversity in BCF among compost-amended cultivars may be attributed to differences in compost maturity, with mature composts having higher humic to fulvic acid ratios, especially higher humic acid content, exhibiting a greater affinity for metals (Murray et al. 2011 ; Singh and Kalamdhad 2012 ;Taiwo et al. 2016 ; Ruchuwararak et al. 2019 ). These findings paralleled the studies which demonstrated the potential of compost to absorb heavy metals (Ruchuwararak et al. 2019 ; Mudhoo et al. 2020 ). The overall conclusion is that vermicomposting, facilitating organo-complex formation, reduces the bio-concentration of PTE, supporting a sustainable approach to agriculture (Murray et al. 2011 ; Singh and Kalamdhad 2012 ; Taiwo et al. 2016 ; Ruchuwararak et al. 2019 ). Cultivars enriched with compost exhibited metal levels similar to those enriched with chemical fertilizers in garden soil. This observation suggests that the cultivars grown with compost did not significantly reduce metal content, indicating limited bioremediation. This effect could be due to prior compost treatments of the soil, diminishing the effectiveness of current amendments in reducing the toxicity of potentially toxic elements (PTE). 4.2. Health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements (PTE) in cultivated crops Potentially harmful elements pose significant threats to the environment and living organisms, having entered ecosystems through natural and anthropogenic means, affecting soil, air, and water. Plants grown in contaminated soil have the capacity to accumulate these elements, such as roots and leaves, which, when consumed, may accumulate within the human body. Daily exposure to PTE primarily occurs through food and water consumption (Harmanescu et al. 2011 ; Manzoor et al. 2018 ; Priyanka et al. 2020 ; Singh et al. 2020 ; Kumar et al. 2021 ). Upon entering the human body, PTE migrate to various cells and organs, binding to nucleic acids and proteins, leading to structural damage and interference with normal cellular activities. These elements can result in adverse health outcomes, negatively impacting the central nervous system, blood composition, and vital organs like the lungs, liver, and kidneys, contributing to various diseases (Alam et al. 2003 ; Ahmed et al. 2021 ). PTE also have the potential to induce mutations, mimic hormones, disrupt the endocrine system, affect reproductive functions, and increase the risk of cancer. For instance, arsenic induces reactive oxygen species (ROS), potentially causing spleen and kidney cancer, while cadmium may lead to bone mineralization issues, contributing to diseases like osteoporosis (Jan et al. 2010 ; Ruchuwararak et al. 2019 ). In this study, the oral reference dosage (R f D) considered for several PTE for an adult human as 1.5, 0.02, 0.001, 0.0003, 0.0001, and 0.04 mg/kg/day for Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Hg, and Pb, respectively as per USEPA (Osae et al. 2023 ). These values represent the estimated daily exposure without causing any lifelong toxic effects. Among the six PTE studied, only Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), and Cadmium (Cd) consistently exceeded tolerable limits across all cultivars, irrespective of soil and amendment type. However, levels were notably lower in cultivars amended with compost, particularly those amended with cow dung manure, vermicompost, and kitchen waste compost. This observation suggests that contamination levels may be influenced by atmospheric depositions, soil quality, or water contamination, aligning with findings from previous studies (Pandey and Pandey 2009 ; Su et al. 2014 ;Hussain et al. 2019 ). The concentration of Cr, Ni, and Cd was elevated in the sediment of the Yamuna stretch in Delhi, primarily attributed to industrial activities in the region. The observed enrichment factor for Ni, indicative of human-induced influx, aligns with the study's findings (Parween et al. 2021 ). Ni accumulation was notably higher in floodplain cultivars, particularly in red amaranth and spinach. To assess health risks associated with consuming these cultivars, daily availability and exposure, along with the Daily Intake of Metal (DIM) and Health Risk Index (HRI), were calculated for each PTE. While Ni exhibited comparatively higher values, they remained below alarming levels. However, non-carcinogenic effects, evaluated through the Hazard Index (HI), raised concerns for floodplain cultivars. Nevertheless, cultivars grown with chemical fertilizers demonstrated heightened health risks over prolonged consumption compared to those with compost amendments, suggesting potential long-term health implications which is shown to be mitigated by compost amendments. On average, health risk assessment indices, including daily metal intake, health risk index, hazard quotient, hazard index, and cancer risk index, were lower in compost-amended cultivars than in chemical fertilizer-amended floodplain cultivars. Vermicompost-amended floodplain cultivars exhibited the least values for all these indices and its hazard index was below 1 in both soil cultivars—floodplain cultivars (0.98) and garden cultivars (0.82). The leaf waste compost-amended garden cultivars had the lowest Hazard Index (0.74). The Hazard Quotient for Cd was lower in amaranthus species, especially Amaranthus viridis , in all compost amendments of floodplain soil. Similar observations were made with Amaranthus caudatus grown with compost amendment (Singh and Mohan 2014). 4.3. Antioxidants and antinutrients in cultivated crops In Yamuna floodplain soil, all the soil produce amended with bio-compost displayed no enhancement in antioxidant levels compared to the produce from chemical fertilizer amendment, potentially influenced by soil-specific factors. In garden soil, the produce from leaf waste amendment exhibited relatively higher antioxidant levels than the produce from chemical fertilizer amendment, akin to the produce from municipal, cow dung manure, and kitchen waste compost amendments. However, the overall mean levels of antioxidants in the bio-compost amendment cultivars surpassed those in the chemical fertilizer amendment cultivars. This observation aligns with a study indicating that organically grown pears possessed higher levels of antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid and phenol, than chemical fertilizer-grown ones (Carbonaro et al., 2002 ). Similar findings were reported for spinach and juice from organically grown tomatoes, which contained more carotenoids and flavonoids (Koh et al., 2012 ; Hallmann et al., 2013 ). The overall level of antinutrients was lower in cultivars grown with organic waste compost amendments, approximately 2%, compared to cultivars amended with chemical fertilizer. Furthermore, cultivars from leaf waste and vermicompost amendments exhibited consistently lower levels of antinutrients, regardless of soil type. This aligns with studies reporting that organically grown leafy vegetables tend to have reduced levels of antinutrients, such as nitrate, compared to their chemical fertilizer-grown counterparts (Worthington, 2001 ; Herencia et al., 2011 ; Roumeliotis and Siomos, 2021 ). While the nitrate level in kitchen waste amendment cultivars of garden soil was higher than in the chemical fertilizer cultivars, the difference was not statistically significant. This discrepancy could be attributed to the elevated nitrogen levels present in the kitchen waste bio-compost (Mahongnao et al., 2023). An imbalance in nitrogen uptake could also contribute to elevated nitrate levels in the cultivars. The plant's physiology may also play a role in influencing nitrate assimilation into organic compounds, leading to higher levels. As shown in this study, the observation of comparatively higher nitrate levels in organic spinach resonates with findings reporting elevated nitrate levels in organically grown spinach (Malmauret et al., 2010). These outcomes suggest variations in the accumulation of specific antinutrients depending on cultivar types and the bio-composts used as soil amendments (Liu et al., 2008 ). Lower levels of antinutrients and antioxidants in bio-compost-amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil align with the higher abundance of plant-beneficial microbes (Sharma et al., 2023). These microbes contribute to plant growth and help mitigate the formation of secondary metabolites such as the antioxidants and antinutrients that are produced in response to various stress factors like climate, heavy metals and pathogens (Koza et al. 2022 ). Furthermore, the Yamuna floodplain soil exhibited lower concentrations of potentially toxic elements, creating less stressful conditions and resulting in a subsequent decrease in the levels of these compounds. 4.4. PTE correlation with antioxidants and antinutrients Heavy metals have been observed to elevate H 2 O 2 levels, a primary contributor to oxidative stress. To counteract this stress, plants employ specialized mechanisms for metal detoxification, incorporating processes such as chelation, transportation, sequestration, and overall detoxification (Carocci et al., 2015 ). These mechanisms effectively prevent the absorption of metals by plant tissues. The activation of stress-related proteins, hormones, antioxidants, and signalling molecules, including heat-shock proteins, occurs when the plant needs to engage these systems. Under the influence of heavy metal stress, plants produce vital secondary metabolites, particularly phenolics, whose synthesis increases (Frizova et al., 2018). Studies have shown a heightened accumulation of phenolics in various plants, such as Phyllantus tenellus when exposed to copper sulfate (Elzaawely et al., 2007 ), Phaseolus vulgaris under cadmium exposure (Winkel-Shirley, 2002 ), and wheat facing nickel stress (Diáz et al., 2001). Furthermore, seedlings of Phaseolus vulgaris treated with different concentrations of Pb, Cu, and Cd exhibited an increase in non-enzymatic antioxidants such as retinol and ascorbic acid (Zengin and Munzuroglu, 2005 ). Phenolics, functioning as antioxidants, play a crucial role in chelating metals and scavenging free radicals like hydrogen peroxide and superoxide ions—also, the total polyphenols correlated with the Cd and Pb in the cultivars of strawberries ((Trebichalskỳ et al. 2015 ). The effect of different heavy metal (Ni, Cu, and Zn) concentrations on Thymus vulgaris was demonstrated by Kulbat and Leszczynska, 2016. Elevated concentrations of heavy metals were found to inhibit plant growth and development, triggering oxidative stress at the cellular level. It was reported that the lowest concentration of heavy metal content resulted in increased antioxidant, phenolic, and flavonoid content, which decreased with higher concentrations of heavy metals (Kulbat and Leszczynska, 2016). That indicates an initially positive correlation between the two that later changes to a negative correlation. The correlation analysis helped us to observe the relationship between various elements, such as PTE, antinutrients, and antioxidants. The observed values ranged from positive to negative, with those nearing 1.0 indicating a strong correlation. Notably, the correlation patterns of PTE with antioxidants and antinutrients differed between chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars and compost-amended cultivars. The current investigation also highlighted the association between antioxidants and antinutrients. Vitamin c, flavonoids, tannins, nitrates, nitrites, and oxalates exhibited a positive correlation regardless of the amendments, but their correlation was notably stronger in the fertilizer-amended cultivars. A more pronounced positive correlation was observed between antioxidants and Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) such as Cd Ni and Pb in compost-amended cultivars. In contrast, a stronger positive correlation was found between antinutrients and PTE like Cr Ni, Cd, Hg and Pb in fertilizer-amended cultivars. Among the Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), arsenic (As), and mercury (Hg) displayed a consistent positive correlation in four compost-amended cultivars—leaf waste compost, cow dung, kitchen waste compost, and vermicompost—indicating a common source. Similarly, another set of PTE, including chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb), showed a positive correlation in cultivars amended with municipal waste compost. Comparing the two cultivation methods in Yamuna floodplain soil, compost-amended cultivars showed lower average levels of PTE than their chemical fertilizer-amended counterparts. Additionally, the mean antioxidant levels (vitamin c, flavonoid, phenol, and tannin) were lower in compost-amended cultivars, while the antinutrient nitrite was higher than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. This observation suggests a potential bioremediation effect of antioxidants and antinutrients on PTE in Yamuna soil compost-amended cultivars. However, the specific response of antioxidants and antinutrients varied based on the plant species and the type of heavy metal involved (Gratao et al., 2005). The mean levels of PTE were marginally higher in compost-amended garden soil cultivars than those in chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. In these cultivars, the antioxidants vitamin c and tannin were lower. At the same time, the antinutrient nitrate levels were higher but not so high that they could create health concerns in animals and humans. The current study uncovers the potential of antioxidants and antinutrients in bioremediation, effectively reducing the levels of potentially toxic elements (PTE). This aligns with previous research efforts in the same vein. For instance, elevated levels of polyphenols and ascorbic acid in Shorea robusta were found to correlate with the absorption and retention of of heavy metals such as Cd, As, and Pb (Pant and Tripathi, 2014 ). Similarly, in buckwheat ( Fagopyrum esculentum ) exposed to Ni-contaminated aerosols, the total phenolic content increased with time and was dose-dependent (Sytar et al. 2013 )). Additionally, Erica andevalensis exhibited increased flavonoid, phenol, and total antioxidant activity when grown in post-mining soil contaminated with cadmium (Márquez-García et al. 2012). Another study highlighted a direct relationship between heavy metals and flavonoid content in Tatary buckwheat tea (Li et al. 2020 ). The study affirms the hypothesis that " compost amendments can reduce PTE content in floodplain-grown cultivars, thereby mitigating associated health risks ." Also, the level of PTE positively correlated with the antioxidants and antinutrients. It underscores the potential of using compost additives to diminish the accumulation of PTE in crops cultivated on river floodplains, thus mitigating health risks. Plant species, physiology, soil composition, and environmental factors are pivotal in determining how these elements accumulate in plants and subsequently affect human health. Therefore, replicating this study in various field settings is crucial for a more comprehensive understanding. 5. Conclusion The evaluation of potentially toxic elements (PTE) toxicity across various cultivars has unveiled heightened concentrations of Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), and Cadmium (Cd) in River floodplain cultivars when compared to their counterparts in garden soil. Notably, red amaranth emerged as the cultivar with the highest levels of bioaccumulation. Organic compost amendments demonstrated noteworthy effectiveness in diminishing PTE concentrations, surpassing the efficacy of chemical fertilizers in River floodplain cultivars. Correlation analyses reveal patterns influenced by various soil amendments, emphasizing the potential bioremediation effects of antioxidants and antinutrients. Remarkably, cultivars amended with vermicompost and cow dung manure exhibited superior remediation of PTE. The inclusion of urban waste composts—Kitchen Waste Compost (KWCP), Leaf Waste Compost (LWCP), and Municipal Waste Compost (MWCP)—also contributed to PTE reduction when compared to cultivars treated with chemical fertilizers. Furthermore, these compost amendments significantly improved River floodplain cultivars' risk and health hazard quotients. This observation emphasizes the effectiveness of compost amendments alongside groundwater irrigation to enhance the quality of vegetables cultivated in River floodplain soil. The findings underscore the potential of sustainable agricultural practices, specifically compost amendments, in mitigating PTE-related risks and improving the overall safety of crops grown in environmentally sensitive regions. Declarations Author contributions Conceptualization PS and SN; Methodology PS and SM; Formal analysis, Investigation and Writing - original draft preparation PS; Writing - review and editing AG and SN Funding Source The authors received no project funds from any organization for the submitted work. Conflict of Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Availability of data and material Provided in the manuscript, and supplementary files can be provided on request. Availability of data and material Provided in the manuscript, and supplementary files can be provided on request. References Achikanu, C.E., Ude, C.M., and Ugwuokolie, O.C., 2013. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3957735","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":272960574,"identity":"ea26ea7a-6ab5-4869-bab6-fabcaea7ba29","order_by":0,"name":"Pooja Sharma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Daulat Ram College for Women","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pooja","middleName":"","lastName":"Sharma","suffix":""},{"id":272960575,"identity":"ce4a565b-1c38-4418-a797-64ad7d093322","order_by":1,"name":"Sophayo Mahongnao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Daulat Ram College for Women","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sophayo","middleName":"","lastName":"Mahongnao","suffix":""},{"id":272960576,"identity":"767ee45f-668b-4ece-a0d3-900c85689fc0","order_by":2,"name":"Asmita Gupta","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Daulat Ram College for Women","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Asmita","middleName":"","lastName":"Gupta","suffix":""},{"id":272960577,"identity":"4c6486ca-b268-447b-95a1-fbec74da8b1d","order_by":3,"name":"Sarita Nanda","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABC0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCAxAqgeHAhx82QAZj4wGCWiAqEhgPzuxJA2lpIKgFak0C82EetsPI9mIH8u1nHx7+UHNH3pw9+cEBHp7zdmvbDwNtqbGJxqXF4Ey6wYEDx54Z7ux5ZnBAwuJ28rYziUAtx9JyG3BpYUgD+oXtMOOGGwkGBwx4biebHQBqYWw4jFOLfP8zoJZ/h+033Ej/cCCB7Vyy2fmH+LUw3ADacrDtcOKGGzlAF7IdsDO7QcAWgxtAW872HU7ecOZNwcHGnuQEsxtAWxLw+EW+P435Q8W3w7Ybjqdv/vznh5292fn0hw8+1Njgdhg6SASrTCBWOQjYk6J4FIyCUTAKRgYAAEDedauSOG6GAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Daulat Ram College for Women","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sarita","middleName":"","lastName":"Nanda","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-02-15 05:59:34","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3957735/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3957735/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-024-01084-8","type":"published","date":"2024-08-09T15:58:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":51245107,"identity":"b0a29f94-66af-4ed1-aabf-17a799829a74","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-16 19:19:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":82347,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of India showing soil sampling sites along the Yamuna river in Delhi region\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3957735/v1/e64fea8214340f3d429a089d.jpg"},{"id":51245104,"identity":"b3d6ca2d-1244-49cf-a532-b8e9736241af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-16 19:19:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":64290,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe figure shows the metal pollution index (MPL) values of Yamuna floodplain and garden soil cultivars (n=3) from various amendmnets\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSP, \u003cem\u003eSpinacia oleracea \u003c/em\u003e(spinach); GA, \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus viridis\u003c/em\u003e (green amaranth) and RA, \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e (red amaranth); FP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3957735/v1/5e9261ea30519ea7af38d5d3.jpg"},{"id":51245108,"identity":"6980dae2-750c-4cc7-a7b2-6928fe86ccf4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-16 19:19:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":190279,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThis figure shows the correlation among studied potentially toxic elements, antioxidants and antinutrients content in \u003cem\u003eAmaranthaceae\u003c/em\u003efamily cultivars grown with chemical fertilizer amendment of both the Yamuna floodplain and graden soil\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*=p\u0026lt;0.05, **=p\u0026lt;0.01, ***=p\u0026lt;0.001and ****=p\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3957735/v1/59742b570ce669b9ae010890.jpg"},{"id":51245439,"identity":"bf225f6e-c052-411b-8c29-f1478a1df372","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-16 19:27:00","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":167943,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThis figure shows the correlation among mean studied potentially toxic elements, antioxidants and antinutrients content in \u003cem\u003eAmaranthaceae\u003c/em\u003efamily cultivars grown in various compost amendments of both the Yamuna floodplain and graden soil\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*=p\u0026lt;0.05, **=p\u0026lt;0.01, ***=p\u0026lt;0.001and ****=p\u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3957735/v1/c6fe1e61e8eb06a0477131bc.jpg"},{"id":62298524,"identity":"166b5d54-358d-44d0-b8f7-0b05109f62a2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-12 16:14:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1927087,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3957735/v1/ff045531-fb76-406d-a6d5-6953ab974574.pdf"},{"id":51245106,"identity":"f8194890-7ab1-4430-989a-fbcb0d327ed6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-16 19:19:00","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":309337,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplfigure.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3957735/v1/07b6b1d972e7321058dd905b.docx"},{"id":51245438,"identity":"6d6d7720-9194-499f-b5cb-b355c56fad63","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-16 19:27:00","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":18129,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryTables.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3957735/v1/1e4de4722f40878a9d3f378f.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Health risk assessment for potentially toxic elements accumulation in Amaranthaceae family cultivars and their correlation with antioxidants and antinutrients","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Yamuna River, India's fifth-longest and largest right bank tributary of the Ganga, spans 1376 km across seven states and union territories. Originating from the Yamunotri glacier in the lower Himalayas' Mussoorie range, its Delhi segment covers approximately 22 km from the Wazirabad barrage to the Okhla barrage. This stretch of the river has become severely polluted, earning the classification of being among India's most polluted rivers. The pollution has been attributed primarily to over seventeen drains channelling domestic and industrial waste into the river between the Tajewala barrage and the Delhi segment. With its substantial population, Delhi contributes 3296\u0026nbsp;million litres per day of sewage, while unauthorized settlements along the riverbanks add to domestic waste (Singh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Parween et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe untreated or partially treated sewage waste, industrial effluents, and agricultural runoff introduce Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) into the Yamuna, posing a threat to soil, water, and all associated life forms (Ahamad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These elements have low chemical and biological degradation rates, raising concerns about bioaccumulation through the food chain. PTE can disrupt photosynthetic pigments in plants, impede growth, and induce oxidative stress. Plants produce crucial secondary metabolites, including phenolics, which increase synthesis under oxidative stress. Studies demonstrate heightened phenolic accumulation and increased antioxidant activity in plants like \u003cem\u003eAlpinia zerumbet\u003c/em\u003e with copper sulfate application (Elzaawely et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003ePhaseolus vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e exposed to cadmium (Winkel-Shirley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the flavonoid accumulation was observed in \u003cem\u003eMedicago sativa\u003c/em\u003e in response to the increased concentration of Mn, Cu and Zn in the growth media (Di\u0026aacute;z et al., 2001). Phenolics act as antioxidants, chelate metals, and scavenge free radicals like hydrogen peroxide and superoxide ions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn animals, including humans, they hinder essential nutrient absorption, leading to growth retardation and multiple organ damage (Sekhar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e, Ruchuwararak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Certain elements, such as Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), and Lead (Pb),Mercury (Hg), are identified as potent carcinogens by authoritative bodies (Tchounwou et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe floodplains of the Yamuna, densely populated and housing industrial setups and agricultural activities, serve as a significant sink for PTE through sedimentation. Studies have reported elevated concentrations of heavy metals along the Yamuna's stretch, with recent research highlighting the accumulation of PTE in vegetables grown in PTE-loaded soils (Kaushik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Organic amendments, such as composts derived from various sources like manure, poultry, and municipal solid waste, emerge as potentially cost-effective strategies to mitigate PTE. Organic matter has shown the ability to decrease metal availability in soil through complexation, precipitation, and oxidation states, thereby limiting their mobility (Welikala et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, the reports regarding the efficacy of compost amendments in reducing PTE in cultivars grown in contaminated areas are conflicting. Some studies demonstrate lower PTE in organically grown cultivars than conventional ones, while others report the opposite trend (Rossi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e, L. Malmauret, D. Parent-Massin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, Barański et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This lack of consensus complicates the understanding of PTE contamination in cultivars grown using organic amendments, especially concerning soil health and produce quality. Additionally, data on the impact of consuming cultivars grown with compost amendments on associated health risks are scarce. Addressing these gaps is crucial, especially considering the increasing urban waste and the need to sensitize the population about utilizing available urban resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these gaps in the knowledge, we hypothesized that \"\u003cb\u003ecompost amendments could diminish PTE content in floodplain-grown cultivars, thereby reducing associated health risks\u003c/b\u003e.\" This study addressed concerns surrounding Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) found in vegetables grown on floodplains near metropolitan areas, which is critical for sustaining large populations. The investigation specifically analyzed PTE concentrations\u0026mdash;Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Cadmium (Cd), Arsenic (As), Mercury (Hg), and Lead (Pb)\u0026mdash;in \u003cem\u003eSpinacia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus spp\u003c/em\u003e cultivars, aiming to assess potential of various organic waste compost amendments in remediating heavy metals by modulating secondary metabolites such as antioxidants and antinutrients and prospective health risks associated with their consumption.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Sample collection and cultivar plantation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil samples were collected from two distinct locations: the floodplains of the Yamuna River near the Signature Bridge in the National Capital Territory of Delhi and the institutional garden area of Daulat Ram College for Women, University of Delhi. The geographic coordinates for the sampling site on river floodplain soil were recorded as [28.87643, 77.204783]. For the garden soil, [28.704753, 77.2330234] \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e The organic compost originated locally from the Delhi-Nation Capital Region. Leaf waste compost was obtained from the Recycle Unit at the Daulat Ram College campus, where the campus's leaf waste underwent composting (Mahongnao et al., 2023). Kitchen waste compost, sourced from the resident welfare association, was produced by composting kitchen waste. Cow dung manure and vermicompost were procured from local farmers, while municipal waste compost was acquired from the Municipal Corporation of Delhi near the Okhla landfill site. DAP fertilizer was purchased from a general store. Seeds for \u003cem\u003eSpinacia oleracea\u003c/em\u003e (SP), green amaranth (\u003cem\u003eAmaranthus viridis\u003c/em\u003e, GA), and red amaranth (\u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e, RA) were obtained from Krishi Vigyan Kendra, National Horticulture Research and Development Foundation, Ujwa, New Delhi.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil collected from both sampling sites underwent drying, sieving, and mixing with specific amendments to create distinct soil mixes: leaf waste compost soil mix (LWCS), municipal waste compost soil mix (MWCS), cow dung manure soil mix (CDMS), kitchen waste compost soil mix (KWCS), vermicompost soil mix (VCS), and chemical fertilizer soil mix (FS). The soil-to-amendment ratio was 1:0.25, while the chemical fertilizer soil mix (DAP) contained DAP, calcium, and phosphate in a 4:1:1 ratio (in grams per kilogram of soil) for a 10 kg soil mix.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cultivation of three green leafy vegetable cultivars from the \u003cem\u003eAmaranthaceae\u003c/em\u003e family occurred in the first week of April amid temperatures ranging from 29 to 40 degrees Celsius and average humidity levels of 34 to 44 per cent. The experiment utilized a potting setup with six pots for each amendment type in both soils, maintaining consistent environmental conditions. Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) fertilizer amendment cultivars were the control, with harvesting in late June.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-harvest, vegetable leaves were collected, washed, air-dried, ground into a fine powder, and stored for subsequent analysis at four degrees Celsius in dark glass bottles (Achikanu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). All studies were conducted in triplicates for each cultivar sample of specific amendments from both soils, and results were reported to represent the mean values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Soil pH and EC Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor soil pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) analysis, 10 grams of soil sample was dissolved in 20 ml of distilled water, and pH and EC were determined using a pH and EC meter, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. PTE Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Sample Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore the available elements, the \u003cb\u003esoil and soil mix samples\u003c/b\u003e were digested with HCl acid and HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e acid in a 3:1 ratio (Aqua Regia). To prepare \u003cb\u003ecultivar leaf samples\u003c/b\u003e, the finely grounded leaf powder was digested according to the method described by Ali and Al-Qahtani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e. One gram of the sample was digested overnight following triacid digestion with 10 ml of H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and HClO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e in a ratio of 1:5:1 in a volumetric flask to release the analytes from the complex organic matric such as plants. The following day, the sample was heated on a hot plate till the colour of the solution changed. The concentrate was made up to 100ml using MilliQ water (Ali and Al-Qahtani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). All these solutions were filtered using Whatman filter paper no.2. The plant samples were further filtered with 0.45-micron filter paper under vacuum pressure. These samples were stored at 4 degrees until Ion-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis. To prepare the \u003cb\u003ewater sample\u003c/b\u003e, 1 ml of HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e was added to the 100 ml of groundwater used for irrigating the cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Quality assurance and machine calibration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe certified reference material (CRM) for soil samples, SQC001 and standard reference material (SRM: ERM-CD281 RYE GRASS) for cultivar leaf samples, obtained from Sigma Aldrich, were prepared in a similar way as the soil and leaf samples, respectively. The serial dilution of the CRM and SRM at different concentrations was prepared to obtain the calibration curve. The standard reference material's element analysis was a sample quality check. Six PTE (Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Pb, Hg) in both soils, their soil mix and cultivars were analyzed using iCAP-Q ICP-MS with the analytical software, namely the QTEGRA ISDS using the Kinetic Energy Discrimination (KED) interface. The \u003csup\u003e129\u003c/sup\u003eXe present in the argon gas was measured as an internal standard, and the recovery rate for \u003csup\u003e129\u003c/sup\u003eXe was between 80 to 120 per cent. Both the CRM and SRM were measured as an unknown sample after every ten samples to validate the data, and the average offset for this was less than 10% for all the elements analyzed. All elements' correlation coefficient (R2) was \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;99.0%. The soil and soil mix samples, including the CRM, were diluted to 20x for mineral and PTE analysis. All leaf samples, including SRM, were diluted to 100x with 1%HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e for macro-minerals analysis. At the same time, for the micro-minerals and trace elements, the prepared solution was read as such without any dilution. 1% HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e was used as the wash matrix. For improved statistical analysis, three replicates were carried out for each sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bio-concentration factor and health risk assessment were carried out considering the mean of all three replicates of each cultivar.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.1. Pollution load index (PLI)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PLI measures the concentration factor of the concerned heavy metal in the soil. The equation used to calculate PLI is given as,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e/C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e (1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere C\u003csub\u003ec\u003c/sub\u003e= PTE content in the contaminated soil and C\u003csub\u003er\u003c/sub\u003e= PTE content in the reference soil. The concerned soil is categorized at different levels of contamination, from no contamination, moderate contamination, and contamination to very heavy contamination on the basis of PLI values ranging from o-1, 1\u0026ndash;3, 3\u0026ndash;5, \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5, respectively (Ahmed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.2. Bio-concentration Factor (BCF)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe BCF is the ratio of the concentration of the concerned heavy metal in the edible part of the plant to the concentration in the soil. It measures heavy metal accumulation in the edible part of a plant from the soil. The equation is given as,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eBCF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e/C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003es\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e (2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere C\u003csub\u003em\u003c/sub\u003e is the potentially toxic elements content in the cultivar and C\u003csub\u003es\u003c/sub\u003e is the potentially toxic elements content in soil. A BCF value greater than one indicates that the particular plant is an accumulator for the concerned PTE (Baker and Brooks 1989; Sakshi et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.3. Metal Pollution Load (MPL)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Metal Pollution Load (MPL) gauges the cumulative load of heavy metals in the edible parts of vegetables. It is computed using the formula:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eMPL= (C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003em1\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e​\u0026times;C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003em2\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e​\u0026times;\u0026hellip;\u0026times;C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003emn\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e​)\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e \u003cem\u003e1/n​\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e (3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHere, \u003cem\u003eC\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e​\u003c/sub\u003e signifies the concentration of heavy metal in the plant, and \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e denotes the number of concerned heavy metals, which is 6 in the current study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Health Risk Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.1. Daily Intake of Metals (DIM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Daily Intake of Metals (DIM) characterizes the concentration of heavy metals accessible through vegetable consumption. The equation is given as:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eDIM= ​(C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003emetal\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e​\u0026times;C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003efactor\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e​\u0026times;C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003eintake​)\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e/BW\u003c/em\u003e (4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eC\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003emetal\u003c/sub\u003e​ is the concentration of heavy metal in the vegetable, \u003cem\u003eC\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003efactor\u003c/sub\u003e​ is the conversion factor from the fresh weight of the vegetable to dry weight, and \u003cem\u003eC\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eintake\u003c/em\u003e​\u003c/sub\u003e is the ingestion rate. In this study, \u003cem\u003eC\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003efactor\u003c/sub\u003e​ is taken as 0.085 for leafy vegetable samples, and \u003cem\u003eC\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eintake\u003c/sub\u003e​ is considered 0.0385 kg/person/day for an adult with an average body weight (\u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003eW​) of 70 kg.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.2. Health Risk Index (HRI)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Health Risk Index (HRI) signifies the health risk of continuous exposure to heavy metals leading to chronic hazards. The formula is expressed as:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eHRI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;DIM​ /R\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003eD\u003c/em\u003e (5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csub\u003ef\u003c/sub\u003eD values for studied PTE (Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Hg, and Pb) are 1.5, 0.02, 0.001, 0.0003, 0.0001, and 0.04 mg/kg/day, respectively. An HRI value below one indicates safety, while a value between one and five signifies a concern. The HRI also translates into either a carcinogenic or non-carcinogenic risk.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe non-carcinogenic risk is portrayed as the Hazard Quotient (HQ), calculated by the formula:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eHQ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;EDI​ /R\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003eD\u003c/em\u003e (6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere EDI is the estimated daily intake, further calculated as:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eEDI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C\u003c/em\u003e \u003csub\u003e \u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/sub\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026times;IR\u0026times;EF\u0026times;ED/ BW\u0026times;AT ​\u003c/em\u003e (7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHere, \u003cem\u003eC\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e is the concentration of potentially toxic elements in the cultivar, \u003cem\u003eIR\u003c/em\u003e is the ingestion rate (0.0385 kg/person/day), \u003cem\u003eEF\u003c/em\u003e is exposure frequency (365 days/year), \u003cem\u003eED\u003c/em\u003e is exposure duration (72 years for adults), \u003cem\u003eBW\u003c/em\u003e is average body weight (70 kg), and \u003cem\u003eAT\u003c/em\u003e is average exposure time for non-carcinogenic effects (26280 days). The Hazard Index (HI), calculated as the summation of \u003cem\u003eHQ\u003c/em\u003e for each heavy metal given as,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eHI= \u0026sum; HQ\u003c/em\u003e (8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003esignifies health hazard levels as less hazardous, concerning, and chronic at HI values of \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1, 1\u0026ndash;5, and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10, respectively (Harmanescu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Sakshi \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.3. Carcinogenic risk assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe carcinogenic risk refers to the potential of the concerned PTE to cause cancer. The Cancer risk (CR) is given by the product of estimated daily intake (EDI) and slope factor (SF),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;EDI\u0026times; SF\u003c/em\u003e (9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlope factors for Cr, Cd, As, and Pb are 0.5, 0.38, 1.5, and 0.0085 mg/kg/day, respectively. The SF of Ni and Hg have not been determined; therefore, cancer risk for these two PTE could not be assessed (Osae et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Pavl\u0026iacute;kov\u0026aacute; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The summation of cancer risk calculated for each element gives the total cancer risk (TCR),\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eTCR= \u0026sum; CR\u003c/em\u003e (10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6. Antioxidants analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6.1. Vitamin c\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDried samples (0.5-5g) dissolved in 4% oxalic acid were filtered, and an aliquot was mixed with bromine water. Ascorbic acid standards (10\u0026ndash;100\u0026micro;g) were similarly prepared. To both, 2,4 DNPH and Thiourea solutions were added. After 3 hours at 37\u0026deg;C, 80% H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e (7ml) was added, and the colored solutions were measured at 540nm (Anal Parimal Desai and Shuchi Desai \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6.2. Flavonoid\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor extract preparation, 0.4g of the dried sample was extracted in 12 ml of methanolic water (50:50, pH2) for 3 hours. After centrifugation, the supernatant was mixed with 12 of acetonic water (70:30). The leaf extract and quercetin standard solutions (1mg/ml) were combined with 1.25 ml of distilled water, followed by adding 75 ul of 5% NaNO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e solution. After 6 minutes, 150ul of 10% AlCl\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e.6H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO solution was added, left for 5 minutes before adding 0.5ml of 1M NaOH. The reaction mixture was brought to 2.5ml with water, and the flavonoid-aluminum chloride complex formed was measured at 510nm (Reda and Atsbha 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6.3. Phenol\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne gram of dried sample was extracted in 10 ml of 80% ethanol, centrifuged, and the soup was re-extracted. After evaporation and dissolution in 5ml of water, different gallic acid concentrations (0.2-1mg/ml) were prepared. The reaction mixture (3ml) with Folin\u0026rsquo;s Ciocalteau reagent and 20% sodium carbonate was measured at 650nm, determining phenol concentration as gallic acid equivalents per 100mg of the sample (Katoch \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6.4. Tannin\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5g dried leaf in 75ml water, heated for 30min, centrifuged. Collected soup adjusted to volume. Tannic acid concentrations (1mg/ml) prepared. To 1ml sample extract, added 75ml water, 5ml Folin-Denis reagent, and 10ml sodium carbonate. After diluting it to 100 ml, read at 700nm after 30min. Tannin concentration was determined using a tannic acid standard graph, expressed as tannic acid equivalents per 100mg of the sample (Sathishkumar and Baskar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7. Antinutrients analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7.1. Nitrate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne gram of dried sample was dissolved in 10 ml water. Different concentrations of sodium nitrite (1mg/ml) were prepared. 0.05% p-nitroaniline and 2.5M HCl were added, followed by 2 ml of 0.03% 1-naphthol and 2M KOH. After five minutes, the violet colour formed was read at 570nm (Ajebe and Bahiru \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7.2. Nitrite\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne gram of dried sample was dissolved in 10 ml water. Different concentrations of potassium nitrate (1mg/ml) were prepared. Added 1ml 5% Ag\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, followed by 7ml 98% H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e and 0.1ml 8% phenol. After 5 minutes, 10ml 2M NaOH was added, and absorbance was measured at 400nm (Ajebe and Bahiru \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7.3. Oxalate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor leaf extract, 0.5g sample was dissolved in 30 ml 2.5N HCL, boiled for 15 min, cooled, and volume adjusted with 2.5N HCL. Different oxalic acid concentrations (1mg/ml) were prepared (0.2-1.0 mg/ml). 5ml 2N H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e was added to standard and sample solutions, followed by 2ml KMnO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e. It was incubated for 10 min at room temperature before absorbance was measured at 528nm (Mishra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7.4. Saponin\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne gram of the sample was dissolved in 30ml ethanol, and a 25ul aliquot was taken. Five concentrations of saponin pure (15mg/ml) were prepared. To the assay reactions (25ul aliquot), 0.5ml vanillin added, followed by 2.5ml H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e in an ice water bath. After 5 minutes of incubation in lukewarm water, absorbance read at 570nm (Vigar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.8. Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical significance was assessed using Graph Pad Prism 9.5.1 software. A T-test was performed to check the statistical variation between floodplain soil and its amendments and that of garden soil and its respective amendments. A two-way ANOVA with two factors, namely vegetable type and compost type, was employed to analyze variation with respect to each PTE. Multiple Comparisons using Dunnett's test compared the parameters across all compost-amended leafy vegetable cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Physio-chemical analysis of soils and water\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth the soils were alkaline (floodplain soil pH: 8.2 and garden soil pH: 8.6). The floodplain soil had higher (0.90 mScm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) electrical conductivity than the garden soil (0.73 mScm\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e). The chemical composition of soil collected from the Yamuna River floodplain differed significantly from that of institutional garden soil, which was collected from the college campus as observed from the t-test values, especially with respect to the Cr, Ni and Pb. River floodplain soil exhibited elevated levels of all the PTE when compared to garden soil: chromium (Cr) by 42%, nickel (Ni) by 28%, cadmium (Cd) by 33%, arsenic (As) by 32%, mercury (Hg) by 40%, and lead (Pb) by 26%. Also, the levels of PTE assessed were higher in soil mix prepared using river floodplain soil like Cr (121.8%), Ni (30%), Cd (133.4%), Hg (1009.8%) and Pb (61.3%) than in the garden soil mixes except for As level, which was 13% lower in river floodplain soil mix \u003cb\u003e(Table S1)\u003c/b\u003e. All these PTE levels were below the permissible limits in the groundwater used for irrigation. The level of Hg in the groundwater could not be assessed because of non-availability of the reference value. The descending order of PTE in both soils was Cr\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Pb\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;As \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Ni\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cd\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Hg. All the studied PTE except for the Nickel were above the permissible limits in both soils, but their levels were only slightly higher in the garden soil. The PLI showed that the PTE varied significantly (Cr, Ni and Pb) concerning their accumulation in the river floodplain soil amendments compared to the garden soil amendments. The PLI amongst the PTE in the floodplain soil amendments followed the order Cr\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Hg\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cd\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;As \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Ni\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Pb \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePollution load index values (PLI) of soils and soil mix samples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePLI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePermissible limits (mg/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et- test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003esoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLWCS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMWCS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCDMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKWCS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVCS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCr\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.941\u003csup\u003e****\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNi\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.719\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCd\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.749\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAs\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHg\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.233\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.957\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003eFS, fertilizer soil mix; LWCS, leaf waste compost soil mix; MWCS, municipal waste compost soil mix; CDMS, cow dung manure soil mix; KWCS, kitchen waste compost soil mix; VCS, vermicompost soil mix\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e* (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), **(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), ***(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and **** (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Quantity of produce\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall yield was 14.5% lower in river floodplain and 15% higher in garden soil cultivars compared to chemical fertilizer cultivars. The yield in leaf waste amendment of floodplain cultivar was lower, about 10.9% (431.4g), than the chemical fertilizer amendment (483.9g). Similarly, the yield was lower with cow dung manure amendment by 9.5%, kitchen waste compost amendment by 9%, municipal organic waste amendment by 17% and vermicompost amendment by 25.8%. In the case of the garden soil cultivar, the leaf waste amendment also had a lower yield, about 18.9% (153.2g), compared to the yield of the chemical fertilizer amendment (188.9g). Similarly, the yield of the municipal organic waste compost amendment cultivar was lower by 12.3% than that of the chemical fertilizer amendment. However, most other soil amendments resulted in higher yields from cow dung manure, kitchen waste and vermicompost amendment by 36.2%, 65.7%, and 4.5%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec30\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Potentially Toxic Element (PTE) content in cultivars\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalysis of potentially toxic elements (PTE) in \u003cem\u003eSpinacia oleracea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus spp.\u003c/em\u003e Cultivars revealed twofold higher metal accumulation in river floodplain soil cultivars than in garden soil cultivars. Post hoc analysis using Dunnett's test indicated that PTE levels in river floodplain cultivars were approximately 28% lower than in chemical fertilizer cultivars. Compost-amended garden soil cultivars showed no significant variation compared to chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. The overall effect showed that bio-compost amendment cultivars from both soils had approximately 12% lower PTE levels than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. Two-way ANOVA showed significant variation in PTE levels in river floodplain cultivars, with compost-amended cultivars having 40% lower Ni levels than chemical fertilizer cultivars. In the garden soil, compost-amended cultivars had 16% higher Ni levels than chemical fertilizer cultivars. Cadmium levels were higher in compost-amended produce from both soils, with a value of 8.5% in the river floodplain soil cultivar and 13.5% in the garden soil cultivar. Overall, organic cultivars had about 12% lower PTE levels than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars in both soil types. Leaf waste compost amendment cultivars exhibited 11.3% lower PTE levels than chemical fertilizer amendment cultivars, similar to other bio-compost amendments (municipal organic waste compost, cow dung manure, kitchen waste compost, and vermicompost amendments), which showed lower PTE levels at 20.8%, 50.3%, 33.2%, and 25.5%, respectively. PTE load in river floodplain soil \u003cem\u003eAmaranthaceae\u003c/em\u003e family cultivars followed the order: FP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CDMP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;VCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;MWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;LWCP. LWCP. On the other hand, the garden soil compost amended cultivars showed little improvement compared to chemical fertilizer \u003cb\u003e(Fig. S1).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Bio-concentration Factor (BCF)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpon detailed examination, the Bio-concentration Factor (BCF) exhibited higher values in the river floodplain soil than in the garden soil cultivars. However, the BCF values were generally below 1 for most Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE), indicating that their accumulation remained below toxic thresholds. However, cadmium's BCF value exceeded 1 in cultivars from both soils, with higher levels in the garden soil. Notably, certain soil amendments like Municipal Organic Waste Compost, Kitchen Waste Compost, and Leaf Waste Compost contributed to reducing cadmium accumulation in all three cultivars. The studied \u003cem\u003eSpinacia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e cultivars showed a higher potential for PTE accumulation, following the order Ni\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cd\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Hg\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cr\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;As \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Pb. The mean BCF of leaf waste compost-amended cultivars was lower, approximately 8.9%, compared to chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. Similarly, Municipal Organic Waste Compost (MWCP), Kitchen Waste Compost (KWCP), and Vermicompost (VCP) amended cultivars exhibited lower BCF values, 46.8%, 11.5%, and 6.2%, respectively, than chemical fertilizer amendment cultivars, thus making an average lowering of 20% \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Bio-concentration Factor (BCF) of studied PTE (Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Standard deviation ) in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFloodplain soil cultivars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.178\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.973\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.051\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.177\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.018\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.166\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.695\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.745\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.039\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.219\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.025\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.121\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.259\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.687\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.035\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.086\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.141\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.065\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.538\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.068\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.295\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.194\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.967\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.512\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.082\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.395\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.036\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.356\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.888\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.599\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGarden soil cultivars\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.178\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.506\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.644\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.049\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.185\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.542\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.386\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.036\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.404\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.174\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.524\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.865\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.047\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.291\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.222\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.894\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.693\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.046\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.551\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.228\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.844\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.224\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.622\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.009\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.184\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.535\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.048\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.541\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eFP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Metal Pollution Load (MPL)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetal Pollution Load (MPL), evaluating the concentration of all heavy metals in crops grown in specific soils, was twice as high in river floodplain cultivars compared to garden soil cultivars (Priyanka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Among cultivars, MPL followed the order \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSpinacia\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eAmaranthus viridis\u003c/em\u003e, indicating higher metal accumulation in red amaranth cultivars than others. However, amaranth cultivars grown on compost amendment exhibited lower levels than their chemical fertilizer counterparts \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec33\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6. Health Risk Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec34\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6.1. Daily Intake of Metal (DIM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheir concentration in soil influences the accumulation of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) in cultivars in the respective soil. The Daily Intake of Metal (DIM) assesses the health risks of daily consumption of these contaminated cultivars. DIM values were higher in river floodplain cultivars (0.00028\u0026ndash;0.00056) than in garden soil (0.00014\u0026ndash;0.00017). Red amaranth had the highest DIM values, with the order for PTE being: Cr\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Ni\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cd\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Pb\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;As \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Hg. In garden soil, all cultivars exhibited a consistent demand for PTE: Cr\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Ni\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cd\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;As \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Pb\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Hg. Overall, compost-amended cultivars had lower DIM values than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars in river floodplains, in the order FWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;LWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;MWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;VCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CDMP. Among cultivars, the lowest intake was observed in amaranthus cultivars grown on compost-amended soils \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Daily intake of metals (DIM) of studied PTE (Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Standard deviation) in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFloodplain soil cultivars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.30E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.22E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.84E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.07E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.27E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.11E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.72E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.89E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.43E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.70E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.67E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.15E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.58E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.17E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.49E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.17E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.38E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.04E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.47E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.41E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.99E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.88E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.05E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.32E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.82E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.63E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.98E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.69E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.71E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.41E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGarden soil cultivars\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.27E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.48E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.28E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.25E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.35E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.56E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.08E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.31E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.15E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.15E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.48E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.09E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.75E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.49E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.75E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.04E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.23E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.31E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.30E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.39E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.77E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.06E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.18E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63E-05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.61E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.70E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.57E-06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eFP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec35\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6.2. Health Risk Index (HRI)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth Risk Index (HRI) evaluates potential health hazards associated with consuming contaminated food. Nickel had the highest HRI values in all river floodplain cultivars: red amaranth (0.55), spinach (0.53), and green amaranth (0.44). Compost-amended cultivars exhibited relatively lower HRI values than chemical fertilizer cultivars. The total HRI values for all PTE in cultivars grown with a particular amendment followed the order: FP (0.025)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;MWCP (0.0217)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;LWCP (0.0213)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CDMP (0.0183)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP (0.0165)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;VCP (0.0139). HRI values for all cultivars did not exceed 1, irrespective of the amendment \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Health risk index (HRI) of studied PTE (Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;Standard deviation) in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFloodplain soil cultivars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.69E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.83E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.22E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.07E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.88E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.48E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.21E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.37E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.11E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.80E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.59E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.13E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.70E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.56E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.36E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.39E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.58E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.49E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.39E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.38E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.61E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.78E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.71E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.99E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.96E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.05E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.21E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.31E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.98E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.23E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.71E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.53E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGarden soil cultivars\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.18E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.76E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.23E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.03E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.48E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.03E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.19E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.32E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.35E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.27E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.15E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.80E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.39E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.04E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.63E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.54E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.70E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.89E-04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eFP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn garden soil cultivars, HRI values indicated specific PTE as the highest risk contributors, viz. mercury for spinach (0.031), cadmium for green amaranth (0.017), and arsenic for red amaranth (0.31). Compost-amended cultivars showed minimal bioremediation when compared to chemical fertilizer cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec36\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6.3. Non-carcinogenic effects\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe non-carcinogenic effects of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) on the regional population consuming these cultivars were assessed through Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Health Index (HI). HQ values remained below 1 for all PTE. Still, the HI value, representing the sum of HQ for each PTE, exceeded 1 for all studied PTE in \u003cem\u003eAmaranthaceae\u003c/em\u003e family cultivars from floodplain soil. However, only a few PTE of \u003cem\u003eSpinacia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA. cruentus\u003c/em\u003e cultivars exceeded the HI value of 1 in garden soil cultivars. Nevertheless, compost-amended floodplain cultivars exhibited lower HI values than their chemical fertilizer counterparts \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHazard index (HI) of studied PTE in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFloodplain soil cultivars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpinacia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eoleracea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmaranthus viridis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGarden soil cultivars\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eFP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec37\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6.4. Carcinogenic effects\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe carcinogenic effect of consuming the cultivars grown on floodplain soil was determined through cancer risk (CR) and total cancer risk (TCR) indices. The CR index values were above the threshold of 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e for Cr, As, and Cd for most of the floodplain and garden soil cultivars. The total cancer risk index values were above the threshold limit in both the cultivars and surpassing in the floodplain cultivars than those of the garden soil cultivars, irrespective of amendments. However, there was a comparative lowering of the TCR in most of the compost-amended floodplain cultivars than the chemical fertilizer amendment cultivars \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \n\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal cancer risk (TCR) values of studied PTE in river flood plain and garden soil cultivars grown with various compost amendments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFloodplain soil cultivars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpinacia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmaranthus viridis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.41E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.83E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.34E-02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.88E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.03E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.21E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.69E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.64E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.76E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.13E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.18E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.02E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.89E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.18E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.69E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.92E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.35E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.14E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.52E-02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.88E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.04E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.74E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10E-02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09E-02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGarden soil cultivars\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.43E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.21E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.09E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.91E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.61E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.16E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.92E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.76E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.39E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.50E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.88E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.52E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.20E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.28E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.45E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.03E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.86E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCP\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.38E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.90E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.04E-03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.77E-03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eFP, fertilizer amended cultivars; LWCP, leaf waste compost amended cultivars; MWCP, municipal waste compost amended cultivars; CDMP, cow dung manure amended cultivars; KWCP, kitchen waste compost amended cultivars; VCP, vermicompost amended cultivars\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec38\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.7. Antioxidants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe vitamin c levels in the cultivars of compost amendments were lower than those in the chemical fertilizer amendment in both soils. In Yamuna floodplain and garden soil, the organic waste compost amended cultivars exhibited 23.6% and 9.2% lower levels of vitamin c, respectively, compared to chemical fertilizer cultivars. However, the variation in vitamin c was not statistically significant among all the samples. Flavonoid contents were lower (22.5%) in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil but higher (40.6%) in all the organic waste compost amended cultivars of garden soil compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars. The variation in Flavonoids was significant across the samples in both soil types. Phenol levels were lower (3.7%) in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil but higher (14.7%) in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of garden soil compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Similarly, the phenol variation among the garden soil cultivars was statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Tannin levels were higher (2.3%) in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil but lower (1.3%) in the case of garden soil compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Dunnett's test conducted in the post hoc analysis revealed that the flavonoid level was significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) lower in the cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil amended with leaf waste compost (LWCP), cow dung manure (CDMP), and kitchen waste compost (KWCP) compared to the cultivars of the chemical fertilizer amendment (FP). Conversely, the flavonoids in the cultivar of the leaf waste compost amendment (LWCP) of garden soil and phenol levels in the cultivars of municipal organic waste compost (MWCP) and cow dung manure amendments (CDMP) were significantly (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) higher than in the cultivars of the chemical fertilizer amendment. The Dunnett test also indicated that the overall levels of the analyzed antioxidants in Yamuna floodplain soil\u0026rsquo;s organic cultivars were lower than in the FP. In garden soil, most organic waste compost amended cultivars exhibited higher levels of analyzed antioxidants than the chemical fertilizer cultivars (\u003cb\u003eFig. S2\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe antioxidant level in the leaf waste compost amended (LWCP) cultivar in Yamuna floodplain soil was 22.2% lower than in the chemical fertilizer amended cultivar. This pattern extended to other cultivars in Yamuna floodplain soil, where the municipal organic waste compost amendment (MWCP), cow dung manure amendment (CDMP), kitchen waste compost amendment (KWCP), and vermicompost amendment (VCP) all displayed lower levels of antioxidants by 21.8%, 34.7%, 21%, and 9%, respectively. Conversely, in garden soil, the leaf waste compost amendment cultivar exhibited a comparatively higher antioxidant level at 44% than the cultivar of the chemical fertilizer amendment. Similarly, elevated levels were observed in MWCP (53.3%), CDMP (26.6%), and KWCP (13%) as well.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec39\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.8. Antinutrients\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe organic waste compost amended cultivars from Yamuna floodplain soil demonstrated lower nitrate levels (7.3%) than the chemical fertilizer cultivars. In contrast, organic waste compost amended cultivars from garden soil exhibited higher nitrate levels (2.6%) than the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Conversely, nitrite levels were higher in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil (29%) but lower in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of garden soil (2.7%) than the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Oxalate levels were lower in organic waste compost amended cultivars, approximately 3% in the organic cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil and 0.8% in the organic waste compost amended cultivars of garden soil, compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Similarly, saponin levels were lower in organic waste compost amended cultivars from both soils (4.7% in Yamuna floodplain soil and 7% in garden soil) than the chemical fertilizer cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe two-way ANOVA and Dunnett's test revealed that the variation in antinutrient levels among all the cultivars in both soil types was not statistically significant. However, the overall effect indicated an approximately 2% lower level of antinutrients in the organic cultivars of both soil types (\u003cb\u003eFig. S3\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultivars of the leaf waste compost amendment in Yamuna floodplain soil exhibited a lower level of antinutrients, approximately 10.6% lower than the chemical fertilizer cultivars. Similarly, the vermicompost amendment (VCP) cultivars displayed about a 10% reduction in antinutrient levels compared to the chemical fertilizer cultivars. In garden soil, the leaf waste compost amendment cultivars showed approximately 2.9% lower antinutrient levels than those in the cultivars of the chemical fertilizer amendment. A comparable outcome was observed in the cow dung manure (CDMP) cultivars and vermicompost (VCP) amendments, which displayed lower antinutrient levels at 0.4% and 4.5%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec40\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.9. Correlation of PTE with antioxidants and antinutrients\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn fertilizer-amended cultivars, the PTE, Cr, Ni, Cd, Hg and Pb showed a high positive correlation (0.2\u0026ndash;0.8) with vitamin c and tannins (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Such a correlation was not seen with arsenic. Whereas, in compost-amended cultivars, only cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) showed a positive correlation with vitamin c and tannins, but the values were much lower (0.1\u0026ndash;0.2) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, Cr and As showed positive correlations with flavonoids (0.15) and phenols (0.66) respectively, regardless of the different compost amendments. Observing the relationship with the antinutrients in the fertilizer-amended cultivars, it was seen that the PTE like Cr (0.2\u0026ndash;0.6), Ni (0.5\u0026ndash;0.8), Cd (0.3\u0026ndash;0.6) and Pb (0.5\u0026ndash;0.8) were highly positively correlated to nitrate, nitrite oxalate and PTE, As (0.5) and Hg (0.2) were positively correlated to saponin. Whereas, in the compost amended cultivars, these PTE, Cr (0.05), Ni (0.5), Cd (0.08) and Pb (0.09) were positively correlated only to saponin and negatively correlated to other antinutrients (nitrate, nitrite and oxalate). Furthermore, in compost amended cultivars arsenic (As) and mercury (Hg) did not show any positive correlation with any of the antinutrients but showed negative correlation with saponin. This correlation was precisely opposite to what was observed in the fertilizer-amended cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the relationship of Ni to antioxidants and antinutrients in the fertilizer-amended cultivars and compost-amended cultivars was utterly reversed. Ni was positively correlated to vitamin c and tannin in the fertiliser-amended cultivars and negatively correlated to flavonoid and phenol. In the compost-amended cultivars, the Ni was positively correlated to flavonoid and phenol and negatively correlated to vitamin c and tannin. In compost-amended cultivars, antioxidants showed a greater positive correlation than antinutrients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec42\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. The concentration of potentially toxic elements (PTE) in soil and cultivars\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis investigation represents a pioneering effort to assess the health risks associated with consuming crops cultivated on the floodplain of a densely populated metropolitan area undergoing rapid industrialization. This region, grappling with a crisis in healthy food production, serves as the focal point of our study. We aimed to assess the efficacy of various compost amendments, including traditional rural cow dung manure and diverse urban waste composts (leaf waste compost, kitchen waste compost, municipal waste compost, and vermicompost), in mitigating PTE in crops when compared to conventional chemical fertilizer methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study revealed variations in crop quality based on soil types and the amendments used during cultivation. Notably, the floodplain soil and its corresponding soil mix exhibited significantly elevated levels of PTE compared to the garden soil and its mix, surpassing permissible limits for each element (Masoud et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). This observation is substantiated by the Pollution Load Index, highlighting PTE contamination in the floodplain soil, likely exacerbated by water influx from drains carrying untreated domestic, industrial, and agricultural waste into the Yamuna River near the National Capital Region of Delhi (Kaushik et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Chaudhary et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The level of the PTE in the ground water used for irrigation were below the permissible limits according to the EU norms (Sharma et al. 2018; Aggarwal 2009).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA comparative analysis demonstrated higher concentrations of PTE in floodplain cultivars than their counterparts in garden soil, as evidenced by the Metal Pollution Index. This inequality can be attributed to the higher PTE content in floodplain soil, as observed in our analysis. However, depending on the compost type used, variations in PTE levels were observed in compost-amended floodplain cultivars. PTE levels in all cultivars were within recommended limits, except for Cr, Ni, and Cd, which were higher in all cultivars, regardless of vegetable, compost, or soil type. The permissible limits for Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Hg, and Pb, as specified by the Regulation 2011 of Food Safety and Standards (Contaminants, Toxins, and Residue) Government of India, are 1, 1, 0.2, 1.1, 1, and 2.5mg/kg, respectively (FSSAI \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Among the compost amendments for floodplain soil, cow dung manure-amended cultivars exhibited the lowest PTE content, 50% lower than chemical fertilizer cultivars. Vermicompost and kitchen waste compost-amended cultivars followed, with 33% and 25% reductions, respectively. Municipal and leaf waste compost-amended cultivars showed 20% and 11% reductions, respectively. Vermicompost-amended cultivars demonstrated the most effective remediation for several PTE. This study aligns with findings from a study in Tunisia, indicating lower levels of toxic metal content in organic waste compost amended cultivars compared to conventional crops (Sabrine et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe BCF, indicating heavy metal accumulation in food chains, was higher in floodplain soil cultivars than in garden soil cultivars. However, compost-amended cultivars showed comparatively lower mean accumulation levels than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. The mean concentrations of PTE and Bioaccumulation Factor (BCF) were 28% and 20% lower in floodplain compost-amended cultivars compared to chemical fertilizer cultivars. The diversity in BCF among compost-amended cultivars may be attributed to differences in compost maturity, with mature composts having higher humic to fulvic acid ratios, especially higher humic acid content, exhibiting a greater affinity for metals (Murray et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Singh and Kalamdhad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e;Taiwo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ruchuwararak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These findings paralleled the studies which demonstrated the potential of compost to absorb heavy metals (Ruchuwararak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Mudhoo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The overall conclusion is that vermicomposting, facilitating organo-complex formation, reduces the bio-concentration of PTE, supporting a sustainable approach to agriculture (Murray et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Singh and Kalamdhad \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Taiwo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ruchuwararak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCultivars enriched with compost exhibited metal levels similar to those enriched with chemical fertilizers in garden soil. This observation suggests that the cultivars grown with compost did not significantly reduce metal content, indicating limited bioremediation. This effect could be due to prior compost treatments of the soil, diminishing the effectiveness of current amendments in reducing the toxicity of potentially toxic elements (PTE).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec43\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. Health risk assessment of potentially toxic elements (PTE) in cultivated crops\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePotentially harmful elements pose significant threats to the environment and living organisms, having entered ecosystems through natural and anthropogenic means, affecting soil, air, and water. Plants grown in contaminated soil have the capacity to accumulate these elements, such as roots and leaves, which, when consumed, may accumulate within the human body. Daily exposure to PTE primarily occurs through food and water consumption (Harmanescu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Manzoor et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Priyanka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Singh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpon entering the human body, PTE migrate to various cells and organs, binding to nucleic acids and proteins, leading to structural damage and interference with normal cellular activities. These elements can result in adverse health outcomes, negatively impacting the central nervous system, blood composition, and vital organs like the lungs, liver, and kidneys, contributing to various diseases (Alam et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). PTE also have the potential to induce mutations, mimic hormones, disrupt the endocrine system, affect reproductive functions, and increase the risk of cancer. For instance, arsenic induces reactive oxygen species (ROS), potentially causing spleen and kidney cancer, while cadmium may lead to bone mineralization issues, contributing to diseases like osteoporosis (Jan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Ruchuwararak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the oral reference dosage (R\u003csub\u003ef\u003c/sub\u003eD) considered for several PTE for an adult human as 1.5, 0.02, 0.001, 0.0003, 0.0001, and 0.04 mg/kg/day for Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Hg, and Pb, respectively as per USEPA (Osae et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These values represent the estimated daily exposure without causing any lifelong toxic effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the six PTE studied, only Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), and Cadmium (Cd) consistently exceeded tolerable limits across all cultivars, irrespective of soil and amendment type. However, levels were notably lower in cultivars amended with compost, particularly those amended with cow dung manure, vermicompost, and kitchen waste compost. This observation suggests that contamination levels may be influenced by atmospheric depositions, soil quality, or water contamination, aligning with findings from previous studies (Pandey and Pandey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Su et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e;Hussain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concentration of Cr, Ni, and Cd was elevated in the sediment of the Yamuna stretch in Delhi, primarily attributed to industrial activities in the region. The observed enrichment factor for Ni, indicative of human-induced influx, aligns with the study's findings (Parween et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Ni accumulation was notably higher in floodplain cultivars, particularly in red amaranth and spinach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess health risks associated with consuming these cultivars, daily availability and exposure, along with the Daily Intake of Metal (DIM) and Health Risk Index (HRI), were calculated for each PTE. While Ni exhibited comparatively higher values, they remained below alarming levels. However, non-carcinogenic effects, evaluated through the Hazard Index (HI), raised concerns for floodplain cultivars. Nevertheless, cultivars grown with chemical fertilizers demonstrated heightened health risks over prolonged consumption compared to those with compost amendments, suggesting potential long-term health implications which is shown to be mitigated by compost amendments. On average, health risk assessment indices, including daily metal intake, health risk index, hazard quotient, hazard index, and cancer risk index, were lower in compost-amended cultivars than in chemical fertilizer-amended floodplain cultivars. Vermicompost-amended floodplain cultivars exhibited the least values for all these indices and its hazard index was below 1 in both soil cultivars\u0026mdash;floodplain cultivars (0.98) and garden cultivars (0.82). The leaf waste compost-amended garden cultivars had the lowest Hazard Index (0.74). The Hazard Quotient for Cd was lower in amaranthus species, especially \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus viridis\u003c/em\u003e, in all compost amendments of floodplain soil. Similar observations were made with \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus caudatus\u003c/em\u003e grown with compost amendment (Singh and Mohan 2014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec44\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3. Antioxidants and antinutrients in cultivated crops\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Yamuna floodplain soil, all the soil produce amended with bio-compost displayed no enhancement in antioxidant levels compared to the produce from chemical fertilizer amendment, potentially influenced by soil-specific factors. In garden soil, the produce from leaf waste amendment exhibited relatively higher antioxidant levels than the produce from chemical fertilizer amendment, akin to the produce from municipal, cow dung manure, and kitchen waste compost amendments. However, the overall mean levels of antioxidants in the bio-compost amendment cultivars surpassed those in the chemical fertilizer amendment cultivars. This observation aligns with a study indicating that organically grown pears possessed higher levels of antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid and phenol, than chemical fertilizer-grown ones (Carbonaro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Similar findings were reported for spinach and juice from organically grown tomatoes, which contained more carotenoids and flavonoids (Koh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Hallmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall level of antinutrients was lower in cultivars grown with organic waste compost amendments, approximately 2%, compared to cultivars amended with chemical fertilizer. Furthermore, cultivars from leaf waste and vermicompost amendments exhibited consistently lower levels of antinutrients, regardless of soil type. This aligns with studies reporting that organically grown leafy vegetables tend to have reduced levels of antinutrients, such as nitrate, compared to their chemical fertilizer-grown counterparts (Worthington, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Herencia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Roumeliotis and Siomos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the nitrate level in kitchen waste amendment cultivars of garden soil was higher than in the chemical fertilizer cultivars, the difference was not statistically significant. This discrepancy could be attributed to the elevated nitrogen levels present in the kitchen waste bio-compost (Mahongnao et al., 2023). An imbalance in nitrogen uptake could also contribute to elevated nitrate levels in the cultivars. The plant's physiology may also play a role in influencing nitrate assimilation into organic compounds, leading to higher levels. As shown in this study, the observation of comparatively higher nitrate levels in organic spinach resonates with findings reporting elevated nitrate levels in organically grown spinach (Malmauret et al., 2010). These outcomes suggest variations in the accumulation of specific antinutrients depending on cultivar types and the bio-composts used as soil amendments (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower levels of antinutrients and antioxidants in bio-compost-amended cultivars of Yamuna floodplain soil align with the higher abundance of plant-beneficial microbes (Sharma et al., 2023). These microbes contribute to plant growth and help mitigate the formation of secondary metabolites such as the antioxidants and antinutrients that are produced in response to various stress factors like climate, heavy metals and pathogens (Koza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the Yamuna floodplain soil exhibited lower concentrations of potentially toxic elements, creating less stressful conditions and resulting in a subsequent decrease in the levels of these compounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec45\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4. PTE correlation with antioxidants and antinutrients\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy metals have been observed to elevate H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e levels, a primary contributor to oxidative stress. To counteract this stress, plants employ specialized mechanisms for metal detoxification, incorporating processes such as chelation, transportation, sequestration, and overall detoxification (Carocci et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These mechanisms effectively prevent the absorption of metals by plant tissues. The activation of stress-related proteins, hormones, antioxidants, and signalling molecules, including heat-shock proteins, occurs when the plant needs to engage these systems. Under the influence of heavy metal stress, plants produce vital secondary metabolites, particularly phenolics, whose synthesis increases (Frizova et al., 2018). Studies have shown a heightened accumulation of phenolics in various plants, such as \u003cem\u003ePhyllantus tenellus\u003c/em\u003e when exposed to copper sulfate (Elzaawely et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003ePhaseolus vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e under cadmium exposure (Winkel-Shirley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), and wheat facing nickel stress (Di\u0026aacute;z et al., 2001). Furthermore, seedlings of \u003cem\u003ePhaseolus vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e treated with different concentrations of Pb, Cu, and Cd exhibited an increase in non-enzymatic antioxidants such as retinol and ascorbic acid (Zengin and Munzuroglu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenolics, functioning as antioxidants, play a crucial role in chelating metals and scavenging free radicals like hydrogen peroxide and superoxide ions\u0026mdash;also, the total polyphenols correlated with the Cd and Pb in the cultivars of strawberries ((Trebichalskỳ et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The effect of different heavy metal (Ni, Cu, and Zn) concentrations on \u003cem\u003eThymus vulgaris\u003c/em\u003e was demonstrated by Kulbat and Leszczynska, 2016. Elevated concentrations of heavy metals were found to inhibit plant growth and development, triggering oxidative stress at the cellular level. It was reported that the lowest concentration of heavy metal content resulted in increased antioxidant, phenolic, and flavonoid content, which decreased with higher concentrations of heavy metals (Kulbat and Leszczynska, 2016). That indicates an initially positive correlation between the two that later changes to a negative correlation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe correlation analysis helped us to observe the relationship between various elements, such as PTE, antinutrients, and antioxidants. The observed values ranged from positive to negative, with those nearing 1.0 indicating a strong correlation. Notably, the correlation patterns of PTE with antioxidants and antinutrients differed between chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars and compost-amended cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current investigation also highlighted the association between antioxidants and antinutrients. Vitamin c, flavonoids, tannins, nitrates, nitrites, and oxalates exhibited a positive correlation regardless of the amendments, but their correlation was notably stronger in the fertilizer-amended cultivars. A more pronounced positive correlation was observed between antioxidants and Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE) such as Cd Ni and Pb in compost-amended cultivars. In contrast, a stronger positive correlation was found between antinutrients and PTE like Cr Ni, Cd, Hg and Pb in fertilizer-amended cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the Potentially Toxic Elements (PTE), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), arsenic (As), and mercury (Hg) displayed a consistent positive correlation in four compost-amended cultivars\u0026mdash;leaf waste compost, cow dung, kitchen waste compost, and vermicompost\u0026mdash;indicating a common source. Similarly, another set of PTE, including chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb), showed a positive correlation in cultivars amended with municipal waste compost.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparing the two cultivation methods in Yamuna floodplain soil, compost-amended cultivars showed lower average levels of PTE than their chemical fertilizer-amended counterparts. Additionally, the mean antioxidant levels (vitamin c, flavonoid, phenol, and tannin) were lower in compost-amended cultivars, while the antinutrient nitrite was higher than chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. This observation suggests a potential bioremediation effect of antioxidants and antinutrients on PTE in Yamuna soil compost-amended cultivars. However, the specific response of antioxidants and antinutrients varied based on the plant species and the type of heavy metal involved (Gratao et al., 2005).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean levels of PTE were marginally higher in compost-amended garden soil cultivars than those in chemical fertilizer-amended cultivars. In these cultivars, the antioxidants vitamin c and tannin were lower. At the same time, the antinutrient nitrate levels were higher but not so high that they could create health concerns in animals and humans. The current study uncovers the potential of antioxidants and antinutrients in bioremediation, effectively reducing the levels of potentially toxic elements (PTE). This aligns with previous research efforts in the same vein. For instance, elevated levels of polyphenols and ascorbic acid in \u003cem\u003eShorea robusta\u003c/em\u003e were found to correlate with the absorption and retention of of heavy metals such as Cd, As, and Pb (Pant and Tripathi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, in buckwheat (\u003cem\u003eFagopyrum esculentum\u003c/em\u003e) exposed to Ni-contaminated aerosols, the total phenolic content increased with time and was dose-dependent (Sytar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)). Additionally, \u003cem\u003eErica andevalensis\u003c/em\u003e exhibited increased flavonoid, phenol, and total antioxidant activity when grown in post-mining soil contaminated with cadmium (M\u0026aacute;rquez-Garc\u0026iacute;a \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e 2012). Another study highlighted a direct relationship between heavy metals and flavonoid content in Tatary buckwheat tea (Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study affirms the hypothesis that \"\u003cb\u003ecompost amendments can reduce PTE content in floodplain-grown cultivars, thereby mitigating associated health risks\u003c/b\u003e.\" Also, the level of PTE positively correlated with the antioxidants and antinutrients. It underscores the potential of using compost additives to diminish the accumulation of PTE in crops cultivated on river floodplains, thus mitigating health risks. Plant species, physiology, soil composition, and environmental factors are pivotal in determining how these elements accumulate in plants and subsequently affect human health. Therefore, replicating this study in various field settings is crucial for a more comprehensive understanding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe evaluation of potentially toxic elements (PTE) toxicity across various cultivars has unveiled heightened concentrations of Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), and Cadmium (Cd) in River floodplain cultivars when compared to their counterparts in garden soil. Notably, red amaranth emerged as the cultivar with the highest levels of bioaccumulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic compost amendments demonstrated noteworthy effectiveness in diminishing PTE concentrations, surpassing the efficacy of chemical fertilizers in River floodplain cultivars. Correlation analyses reveal patterns influenced by various soil amendments, emphasizing the potential bioremediation effects of antioxidants and antinutrients. Remarkably, cultivars amended with vermicompost and cow dung manure exhibited superior remediation of PTE. The inclusion of urban waste composts\u0026mdash;Kitchen Waste Compost (KWCP), Leaf Waste Compost (LWCP), and Municipal Waste Compost (MWCP)\u0026mdash;also contributed to PTE reduction when compared to cultivars treated with chemical fertilizers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, these compost amendments significantly improved River floodplain cultivars' risk and health hazard quotients. This observation emphasizes the effectiveness of compost amendments alongside groundwater irrigation to enhance the quality of vegetables cultivated in River floodplain soil. The findings underscore the potential of sustainable agricultural practices, specifically compost amendments, in mitigating PTE-related risks and improving the overall safety of crops grown in environmentally sensitive regions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization PS and SN; Methodology PS and SM; Formal analysis, Investigation and Writing - original draft preparation PS; Writing - review and editing AG and SN\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Source\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors received no project funds from any organization for the submitted work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProvided in the manuscript, and supplementary files can be provided on request.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvided in the manuscript, and supplementary files can be provided on request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAchikanu, C.E., Ude, C.M., and Ugwuokolie, O.C., 2013. 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Sustainable Environment Research, 26 (1), 28\u0026ndash;32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.serj.2015.09.004\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDebi Prasad Mishra, Nivedita Mishra, Harshal B Musale, Pinaki Samal, Sidharth Prasad Mishra, Devi Prasanna Swain. Determination of seasonal and developmental variation in oxalate content of Anagallis arvensis plant by titration and spectrophotometric method. Pharma Innovation 2017;6(6):105-111.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDesai APD and S 2019 UV Spectroscopic Method for Determination of Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) Content in Different Fruits in South Gujarat Region. Int J Environ Sci Nat Resour 22(2):41\u0026ndash;44. https://doi.org/10.19080/ijesnr.2019.21.556056\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eD\u0026iacute;az, J., Bernal, A., Pomar, F., and Merino, F., 2001. Induction of shikimate dehydrogenase and peroxidase in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) seedlings in response to copper stress and its relation to lignification. 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Acta Biologica Cracoviensia Series Botanica, 47 (2), 157\u0026ndash;164.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archives-of-environmental-contamination-and-toxicology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aect","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology](https://www.springer.com/journal/244)","snPcode":"244","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/244/3","title":"Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Yamuna floodplain, Amaranthaceae cultivars, potentially toxic elements, antioxidants, health risk assessment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3957735/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3957735/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDelhi's agricultural hub, nestled along the Yamuna floodplains, faces soil and water contamination issues. Utilizing organic waste composts is gaining traction to improve soil quality, but uncertainties remain about their efficacy in reducing harmful elements. The study examined three \u003cem\u003eAmaranthaceae\u003c/em\u003ecultivars, comparing organic waste composts with chemical fertilizer. It calculated correlations between heavy metals, antioxidants, and antinutrients to assess their bioremediation potential. PTE levels in soil and leaves were measured by ICP-MS, while antioxidants and antinutrients were analyzed with UV-VIS spectroscopy. The study revealed higher PTE levels in floodplain soil, with Cr, Ni, and Cd exceeding safe limits in all soil cultivars. Compost amendments reduced these pollutants by 28% compared to chemical fertilizers, decreasing bioaccumulation by 20%. Health risk assessments showed lower risks in compost-amended cultivars. Additionally, compost-amendment displayed a stronger correlation between PTE and antioxidants, suggesting effective bioremediation. Overall, compost amendments offer promise for mitigating PTE in metropolitan floodplains.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Health risk assessment for potentially toxic elements accumulation in Amaranthaceae family cultivars and their correlation with antioxidants and antinutrients","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-02-16 19:18:55","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3957735/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-03-05T08:59:18+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-03-04T18:57:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-02-14T14:50:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology","date":"2024-02-14T03:54:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archives-of-environmental-contamination-and-toxicology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aect","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology](https://www.springer.com/journal/244)","snPcode":"244","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/244/3","title":"Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8a61c93f-7a43-41bb-b34c-b59913cdbcae","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 16th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-08-12T16:05:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-3957735","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-024-01084-8","journal":{"identity":"archives-of-environmental-contamination-and-toxicology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology"},"publishedOn":"2024-08-09 15:58:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"August 9th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-02-16 19:18:55","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00244-024-01084-8","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-024-01084-8","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3957735","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3957735","identity":"rs-3957735","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}