DPV Blends as Sustainable Diesel Alternatives: A Comprehensive Engine Performance and Emissions Study

DPV Blends as Sustainable Diesel Alternatives: A Comprehensive Engine Performance and Emissions Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article DPV Blends as Sustainable Diesel Alternatives: A Comprehensive Engine Performance and Emissions Study Abinash Mahapatro, P. Mathiyalagan, A Srinivas Pavan Kumar, K Venkadeshwaran, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6862992/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates the performance and emission characteristics of Diesel–Plastic Pyrolysis Oil–Vegetable Oil (DPV) blends as sustainable alternatives to fossil diesel. Waste-derived plastic oil (PO), obtained via pyrolysis, was blended with vegetable oils—Soybean oil (SO) and Mahua oil (MO)—to formulate low-viscosity, low-cetane (LVLC) fuels. These blends were evaluated for physicochemical properties, engine performance, and emissions compliance with EN 590:2022 standards. Optimized double blends (PO/SO and PO/MO) were further mixed with fossil diesel in varying proportions to form triple blends, tested in a CI engine under different loads. The results showed that DPV blends improved thermal efficiency and reduced BSFC, with the B60-PSO blend demonstrating a 12% increase in brake thermal efficiency compared to pure diesel. The B60-PSO blend also achieved a 15% reduction in BSFC at a 5 kW load. Emission analysis revealed significant reductions in CO (20%), NOₓ (10%), and soot (40%), while CO₂ emissions slightly increased by 5%, indicating more complete combustion. Among all blends, B60-PSO and B20-PMO achieved the best balance between performance and emissions. The B60-PSO blend showed up to 10% higher thermal efficiency compared to conventional diesel. This study highlights DPV fuels as cost-effective, drop-in replacements for diesel, supporting circular economy principles and aligning with global sustainability goals, offering a scalable interim energy solution during the transition toward cleaner propulsion technologies. Physical sciences/Energy science and technology Physical sciences/Engineering Plastic Oil Vegetable Oil Blends Diesel Engine Engine Performance Emissions Sustainable Energy Solutions Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. Introduction Plastics are now integral to modern life, widely used in both industrial and domestic applications. Derived mainly from petroleum-based resources, these materials are non-renewable and pose serious environmental threats. With global plastic waste nearing 300 million metric tons annually, disposal has become a critical issue, contributing to environmental and public health concerns [ 1 – 2 ]. In response, there is growing emphasis on developing sustainable recycling methods aligned with the circular economy. Among various strategies, using plastic waste in construction materials has shown potential. However, pyrolysis—converting plastic waste into liquid fuel—stands out as an efficient and eco-friendly approach, offering renewable alternatives to conventional fuels. The global movement toward replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy is driven by efforts to cut greenhouse gas emissions [ 3 ]. Internal combustion engines, currently dominant in transport sectors such as road, marine, and aviation, are gradually giving way to electric alternatives. However, this transition will take decades. In the interim, low-emission fuels will be critical as combustion-engine vehicles remain prevalent. Thus, continued research into renewable fuel sources is essential. Pyrolysis oils derived from plastic waste present a promising interim solution. While these fuels originate from non-renewable plastics, their use as recycled post-consumer waste offers a degree of renewability [ 4 – 5 ]. Numerous studies have confirmed that oils obtained through plastic pyrolysis can be used as standalone fuels or blended with gasoline, kerosene, or diesel [ 6 – 8 ]. These findings underscore the versatility of plastic-derived oils and the need to strengthen global recycling efforts amid growing marine and freshwater plastic pollution. A significant application entails mixing these oils with pure vegetable oils (VOs) for utilization in compression ignition (CI) engines. However, VOs alone exhibit high viscosity, making them incompatible with CI engines unless pre-treated to meet European diesel standards (EN 590:2022) [ 9 ]. The high cost of commercial biodiesel has further hindered the shift from diesel to biodiesel, making it essential to identify more affordable and technically feasible alternatives. “Green diesel,” offer a promising solution. These fuels are produced from triglycerides in vegetable oils through catalytic methods like cracking, pyrolysis, hydrodeoxygenation, and hydrotreating, resulting in deoxygenated fuels with properties similar to paraffinic diesel [ 10 ]. These mimic fossil diesel performance while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Another approach to utilizing VOs involves blending them with low-viscosity organic solvents. This reduces viscosity without chemical treatment, offering economic advantages [ 11 – 13 ]. However, these solvents often have lower energy densities and cetane numbers, which can slightly reduce engine efficiency. Still, such low-viscosity low-cetane (LVLC) blends remain cost-effective, attracting research interest. Although they may reduce power and increase fuel consumption, they typically lower pollutant emissions. Many studies have validated triple blends combining diesel, VOs, and solvents [ 14 – 15 ]. Vegetable oils studied for this purpose include palm, castor, sunflower, cashew nutshell, cottonseed, wheat germ, neem, and wintergreen oils. Likewise, renewable low-molecular-weight solvents such as Melaleuca cajuputi, pine, camphor, orange oils, diethyl ether (DEE), hexanol, and octanol have been tested [ 16 – 19 ]. Renewable alcohols like butanol, ethanol, propanol, pentanol, and hexanol are also being explored to achieve viscosity levels between 2.0–4.5 cSt, compliant with EN 590:2022. Among them, butanol has shown great potential in blends with various vegetable oils including croton, canola, hazelnut, and sunflower oils [ 20 ]. DEE, in particular, is widely studied for its volatility and combustion properties, and has been blended with numerous VOs such as cashew nutshell oil, bael oil, Aegle marmelos oil, karanja, sunflower, and castor oils [ 21 – 22 ]. Few research has also examined ethyl acetate, diethyl carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and acetone as LVLC additives [ 23 – 25 ]. The ABE (acetone–butanol–ethanol) mixture, a renewable blend obtained via fermentation, has drawn interest for its favorable fuel characteristics. These triple blends typically have slightly lower energy content due to the oxygenated solvents but offer environmental benefits like reduced soot, NOₓ, and CO₂ emissions—though CO emissions may rise marginally. Improved cold flow properties further enhance their use in colder regions [ 26 ]. The use of cetane improvers like 2-ethylhexyl nitrate can significantly enhance ignition quality; for example, blends of hazelnut oil, diesel, and butanol or pentanol have achieved cetane number increases exceeding 12% while maintaining other essential fuel properties [ 27 ]. Another study with diesel/peppermint bio-oil/DEE blend showed that adding di-tertiary butyl peroxide (DTBP) enhanced engine performance and reduced emissions [ 28 ]. While oxygenated LVLC fuels offer environmental gains, their substitution capacity is lower than gasoline-based LVLC blends. Triple blends with diesel, gasoline, and VOs have achieved up to 40% diesel replacement while maintaining strong performance and reducing pollutants. This has spurred interest in using plastic pyrolysis oils as LVLC solvents. Their hydrocarbon-rich composition makes them ideal for diesel/gasoline/VO blends [ 29 ]. This supports both advanced biofuel goals and circular economy principles by converting plastic waste into usable energy. Studies have shown that engines can run on plastic-derived oils without modification. Though emissions of CO, CO₂, and unburned hydrocarbons may increase slightly, smoke emissions drop by 40–50%, and thermal efficiency is comparable to conventional diesel. As a result, research has increasingly focused on integrating plastic oils into various fuel blends, including with solvents and biodiesel, highlighting their promise as non-biodegradable yet renewable alternatives. In the present study, plastic-derived oils are assessed as LVLC solvents capable of replacing a significant portion of fossil diesel in renewable biofuel blends. These blends are formulated by combining plastic oil with commercially available, non-food-competing vegetable oils, offering a sustainable and economically viable alternative to conventional diesel. Among these, soybean oil (SO) is widely available and well-studied in biodiesel production, offering a consistent composition and reliable performance characteristics. Although it is technically edible, it is often used in industrial applications due to surplus production and established supply chains. Mahua oil (MO), on the other hand, is an inedible, non-edible forest-based oil that does not compete with food supplies and is abundantly available in several regions of India, making it a suitable and sustainable candidate for large-scale biofuel use. Its high oil content and favourable fatty acid composition enhance its suitability for blending with plastic-derived oils. This blending approach requires no complex chemical transformation processes—only the optimized physical mixing of available vegetable oils with plastic-derived oil. By leveraging plastic oil as an LVLC solvent, this method enables a high degree of fossil diesel substitution while remaining technically straightforward and cost-effective, contributing to the advancement of next-generation biofuels. 2. Experimental details 2.1. Synthesis of oil blends The formulation of the plastic pyrolysis oil (PO) and pure vegetable oil (VO) double blends, as well as the subsequent preparation of diesel/PO/VO triple blends, was carried out through a systematic approach to ensure compliance with the rheological and physicochemical standards required for diesel fuels, particularly aligning with the European diesel standard EN 590:2022. Initially, PO, obtained from Econscious Recycling Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, was selected as the primary base. This PO is a second-generation synthetic fuel derived via continuous pyrolysis of waste plastics, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional fossil fuels. Food-grade SO and MO were procured from a local supplier. These two vegetable oils were selected due to their favourable properties such as viscosity, lubricity, and renewable origin. To prepare the double blends, varying concentrations of VOs (soybean oil and canola oil) were thoroughly mixed with the PO, which was treated with a low-viscosity LVLC solvent to improve blend homogeneity and flow characteristics. The blending process involved mechanical stirring at controlled temperatures to achieve a uniform mixture. Different ratios of PO to VOs were evaluated to determine the optimal blend compositions that meet the viscosity, density, and cold flow properties as mandated by EN 590:2022. The primary goal was to tailor the blends to mimic the handling and combustion behavior of standard diesel fuel while enhancing sustainability and reducing environmental impact. Following the optimization of the double blends, selected formulations were further blended with commercially available fossil diesel, which was sourced from an Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) fuel station in India. The preparation of these triple blends involved mixing the optimized PO/VO double blends with fossil diesel in controlled proportions, ensuring thorough homogenization to maintain consistency in physicochemical properties across the samples. The resulting diesel/PO/VO triple blends were designed to investigate their potential as sustainable alternative fuels capable of partial substitution for traditional diesel in compression ignition engines. All blending processes were performed under ambient conditions unless otherwise specified, and no additional chemical additives were introduced during the preparation phase. The key physicochemical properties—including viscosity, density, heating value, and flash point—of the individual components (diesel, soybean oil, mahua oil, and plastic oil) are summarized in Table 1 , providing a reference framework for understanding the behavior of the prepared blends. Table 1 Comparison of properties of different oils Property Diesel Soybean Oil Mahua Oil Plastic Oil Flash point (°C) 66 230 242 15 Cetane number 50 40 42 60–70 Kinematic viscosity at 35°C (cSt) 3.20 ± 0.03 34.00 ± 0.50 55.00 ± 0.60 2.47 ± 0.01 Auto-ignition temperature (°C) 250 320 350 261 Density at 15°C (kg/m³) 820 920 950 1045 Calorific value (MJ/kg) 35.1 37.5 38.0 42.0 2.2. Characterization of oil blends To evaluate the fuel performance characteristics of the prepared blends, several key physicochemical parameters were measured using standardized procedures. These include kinematic viscosity, density, calorific value, cold flow properties, and cetane number—each of which plays a crucial role in determining fuel quality and suitability for diesel engine applications. 2.2.1. Kinematic Viscosity The kinematic viscosity of all fuel samples was determined in accordance with the specifications outlined in the European diesel standard EN 590:2022, using the methodology detailed in previously published literature. Viscosity was measured at a standardized temperature and under controlled laboratory conditions. For each sample, three individual measurements were taken, and the reported viscosity values represent the arithmetic mean of these determinations. The repeatability of the measurements was maintained within a variation margin of less than 0.30%, as required by the ASTM D2270-79 standard [ 30 ], which also provides guidance for calculating the viscosity index of blended fuels. 2.2.2. Density Blend density was determined at 15°C following the EN ISO 3675 standard test method [ 31 ], which is commonly employed for liquid petroleum products and fuels. Accurate determination of density is vital, as it directly influences fuel atomization, volumetric energy content, and combustion efficiency in compression ignition engines. 2.2.3. Cold Flow Properties The cold flow behavior of the fuels, specifically the cloud point (CP) and pour point (PP), was assessed using internationally recognized protocols. The cloud point was determined in accordance with EN 23015 / ASTM D2500 standards [ 32 – 33 ], while the pour point was measured using ISO 3016 / ASTM D97 methodologies [ 34 – 35 ]. These tests provide insight into the fuel's performance at low ambient temperatures, helping to ensure operability in cold climates. All values reported for cold flow properties were obtained as the mean of two independent measurements to ensure data reliability. 2.2.4. Calorific Value The calorific value (CV), measured in kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg), was estimated using theoretical calculations that account for the weighted contribution of each fuel component. This value represents the energy released during complete combustion and serves as a key parameter for evaluating engine performance and fuel efficiency [ 36 ]. The calorific value was computed using the following equation: $$\:Calorific\:value\:of\:blend=\sum\:(Calorific\:value\:of\:component\times\:Volume\:fraction\:of\:component)$$ 1 2.2.5. Cetane Number The cetane number (CN), a crucial indicator of fuel ignition quality, was determined for each blend in accordance with the minimum requirements stipulated in EN 590:2022, which mandates a CN value above 51 for optimal diesel engine ignition performance [ 37 ]. The cetane number of each fuel blend was calculated using a volumetric averaging approach as given below: $$\:Cetane\:EquationNumber\:of\:blend=\sum\:(Cetane\:EquationNumber\:of\:component\times\:Volume\:fraction\:of\:component)$$ 2 2.3. Engine performance and emission analysis The performance and emission characteristics of the fuel blends were evaluated using a diesel engine–electric generator set, following a standardized experimental procedure consistent with earlier studies. The schematic of the experimental setup is illustrated in Fig. 1 , and the detailed technical specifications of the engine used are provided in Table 2 . Table 2 Technical specifications of the AYERBE 4000 Diesel E generator Specification Details Engine Yanmar LN-70, 296 cc, 6.7 HP Power Output (Max) 5 KVA / 4100 W Power Output (Nominal) 4.5 KVA / 3600 W Voltage / Frequency 230 V / 50 Hz Fuel Type Diesel Fuel Tank Capacity 15 liters Fuel Consumption 1.3 L/h at 75% load Autonomy ~ 12 hours at 75% load Starting System Electric start Cooling System Air-cooled Noise Level 108 dB Dimensions (L×W×H) 760 × 730 × 660 mm Weight 80 kg 2.3.1. Engine Testing Procedure For each test run, 0.5 litres of biofuel blend was introduced into the fuel system, and the engine was operated for a duration of 20 minutes to ensure that stable and repeatable operating conditions were achieved. During the testing, the electrical power output (P) was measured using a voltmeter–ammeter setup, and calculated using the following fundamental equation: $$\:Power=Voltage\times\:Current$$ 3 This setup enabled precise determination of the electrical output generated under varying engine loads. 2.3.2. Fuel Consumption and Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption Fuel consumption was measured by recording the time taken for the engine to consume a predefined 0.5-liter volume of fuel. Using this data, the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) was calculated, which indicates the amount of fuel (in grams per hour) consumed per unit of power output (kilowatt). BSFC values were determined at three distinct engine loads—1 kW, 3 kW, and 5 kW—representing low, medium, and high power demands, respectively. Each test was repeated three times, and the average BSFC values were reported to ensure the reliability and reproducibility of the results. 2.3.3. Emission Measurement and Analysis The level of exhaust emissions was assessed by analyzing both particulate matter (smoke opacity) and gaseous pollutants produced during combustion. Smoke opacity was measured using a TESTO 338 opacimeter, as per the ASTM D-2156 standard [ 38 ] test method (standard test method for smoke density in flue gases from burning distillate fuels). The results are expressed in terms of the Bosch Smoke Number, which ranges from 0 (clean filter paper) to 2.5 (completely blackened filter paper), indicating increasing levels of soot emissions. This parameter provides a direct measure of particulate contamination in the exhaust gases. Additionally, concentrations of major gaseous emissions—carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and carbon dioxide (CO₂)—were recorded using a Testo 340 flue gas analyzer. These pollutants were measured under steady-state engine operation, and the results were expressed as follows: CO and NOₓ: in parts per million (ppm) CO₂: as a volumetric percentage (%) Before each testing session, the gas analyzers were calibrated using zero gas to ensure data accuracy. The measurement uncertainties for each parameter are detailed in Table 3 , with experimental errors kept below 6%. All emission results represent the average of three repeated measurements, ensuring consistency and reliability in the reported values. Table 3 Measurement parameters, ranges, and accuracy for gas analysis Parameter Measuring Range Accuracy Soot 0.0–2.5 (Bosch Number); 0 to 50 mg/m³ ± 0.5 mg/m³ CO 0–10,000 ppm ± 10 ppm (0–200 ppm); ± 20 ppm (201–10,000 ppm) NO 0–300 ppm ± 2 ppm NO2 0–500 ppm ± 10 ppm O2 0–25 Vol.% ± 0.2 Vol.% 3. Results and discussion The data presented in Table 1 , which delineate the physicochemical properties of diesel oil, soybean oil, mahua oil, and plastic oil, underscore that kinematic viscosity emerges as the most critical parameter necessitating modification when substituting conventional fossil diesel with either of the two vegetable oils under consideration. Both SO and MO exhibit significantly higher viscosity values compared to fossil diesel, which makes them unsuitable for direct use in diesel engines. Therefore, it becomes necessary to substantially reduce their viscosities in order to meet the requirements defined by the European Standard EN 590:2022, which specifies a permissible kinematic viscosity range of 2.0–4.5 cSt for diesel fuels. To achieve this objective, binary mixtures of the VO with PO, used as a LVLC solvent, were formulated and analyzed. The kinematic viscosity values of these PO/VO blends were calculated to determine the mixing ratios that yield viscosities closest to that of fossil diesel. Table 4 presents the results of these mixtures. It was found that increasing the proportion of plastic oil in the blends led to a significant decrease in the viscosity of both soybean and mahua oils. Among the various blend ratios tested, the mixture of 80% plastic oil with soybean oil resulted in a viscosity of 4.10 cSt, while the blend containing 80% plastic oil with mahua oil achieved a viscosity of 4.20 cSt. Both values fall within the acceptable range defined by the EN 590:2022 standard, indicating the suitability of these blends for use in diesel engines. Table 4 Kinematic viscosity of PO/SO and PO/MO blends at 40°C Plastic Oil (% by Volume) PO/SO (cSt) PO/MO (cSt) 0 31.45 ± 0.46 40.00 ± 0.55 10 26.10 ± 0.05 33.80 ± 0.54 30 16.80 ± 0.05 22.60 ± 0.09 60 7.20 ± 0.04 8.90 ± 0.25 80 4.10 ± 0.01 4.20 ± 0.05 90 3.00 ± 0.02 3.30 ± 0.03 100 2.47 ± 0.01 2.47 ± 0.01 These dual blends can be utilized directly as biofuels in standard diesel engines or incorporated into triple blends with fossil diesel. However, since slight variations in the rheological properties of the blends may occur during operation, it is recommended to test a range of triple mixtures to identify the combinations that provide the best performance and the lowest pollutant emissions. In this regard, two of the most promising dual blends—80% PO with SO and 80% PO with MO—were chosen for further mixing with fossil diesel in different volume ratios. These triple blends were formulated using typical biodiesel testing ratios. The analysis of these triple blends revealed that as the proportion of biofuel in the mixture increased, there was a slight rise in fuel density. In terms of cold flow properties, the blends exhibited a marginal increase in cloud point values and a more notable rise in pour point values for both vegetable oils. Although these properties suggest a slight reduction in cold-weather performance compared to fossil diesel, the blends remain within a usable range for moderate to cold climates. These results are in agreement with previous studies that employed other organic solvents as LVLC additives in blends with the same pure vegetable oils, further validating the findings presented here. 3.2. Diesel engine performance with different oil blends The mechanical and environmental performance of the selected dual mixtures—comprising 80% plastic oil with either soybean or mahua oil—along with all the triple blends containing diesel, PO, and VO, were assessed under real-world operating conditions, as outlined in Tables 5 and 6 . These fuel blends were tested in an electric generator powered by a conventional diesel engine to determine the optimal blend ratios for each vegetable oil variant. Figure 2 illustrates the engine's power output across varying load conditions (from 0 to 5 kW) for the triple blends containing either soybean oil or mahua oil, compared to pure diesel. Additionally, the performance of the two biofuel mixtures—B100-PSO and B100-PMO—is presented for further comparison. Table 5 Fuel properties of D/PO/SO blends Fuel Blend D/PO/SO (%) Kinematic Viscosity (cSt) Cloud Point (°C) Pour Point (°C) Density (kg/m³) D100 100/0/0 3.18 ± 0.02 −6.2 ± 0.8 −15.8 ± 1.0 821.10 ± 0.01 B20-PSO 80/16/4 3.25 ± 0.02 −5.0 ± 1.2 −8.3 ± 0.5 830.10 ± 0.01 B40-PSO 60/32/8 3.38 ± 0.01 −4.2 ± 0.5 −8.6 ± 1.0 841.10 ± 0.02 B60-PSO 40/48/12 3.72 ± 0.03 −4.1 ± 0.7 −6.2 ± 0.8 899.20 ± 0.05 B80-PSO 20/64/16 4.05 ± 0.01 −3.5 ± 0.7 −8.4 ± 0.2 927.10 ± 0.02 B100-PSO 0/80/20 4.31 ± 0.01 −2.0 ± 0.6 −9.3 ± 0.8 951.90 ± 0.02 Table 6 Fuel properties of D/PO/MO blends Fuel Blend D/PO/MO (%) Kinematic Viscosity (cSt) Cloud Point (°C) Pour Point (°C) Density (kg/m³) D100 100/0/0 3.18 ± 0.02 −6.2 ± 0.8 −15.8 ± 0.8 821.10 ± 0.01 B20-PMO 80/18/2 3.23 ± 0.03 −4.3 ± 1.0 −9.3 ± 1.0 831.90 ± 0.01 B40-PMO 60/36/4 3.25 ± 0.02 −3.2 ± 0.6 −9.6 ± 1.2 842.80 ± 0.03 B60-PMO 40/54/6 3.47 ± 0.02 −5.0 ± 1.1 −8.1 ± 0.7 854.10 ± 0.02 B80-PMO 20/72/8 3.74 ± 0.02 −6.4 ± 0.7 −8.7 ± 0.8 860.20 ± 0.01 B100-PMO 0/90/10 4.22 ± 0.02 −3.8 ± 0.9 −8.3 ± 1.2 881.90 ± 0.03 The results indicate a clear trend: as engine load amplified from 1 kW to 4 kW, the power output generated by the engine also increased steadily, reaching a peak at 4 kW. Beyond this point, at the maximum load of 5 kW, there was a slight decline in the power generated. This behavior is consistent with findings from earlier studies that also involved the use of other LVLC solvents blended with the same SO and MO. However, a noteworthy distinction in this study is that the incorporation of PO into the biofuel mixtures led to an overall improvement in performance compared to fossil diesel, regardless of the blend ratio or type of vegetable oil used. The improved performance can likely be credited to the increased energy density of the PO/VO blends. Plastic oil, as demonstrated in Table 1 , possesses a higher calorific value and cetane number than conventional diesel, which enhances combustion efficiency. Consequently, the inclusion of PO in the mixtures results in improved engine output, surpassing the performance of commercial diesel. In terms of the specific proportions that yielded the highest efficiency, the study found a notable difference between the two types of vegetable oils. For soybean oil, the triple mixture B60-PSO provided the maximum efficiency, while in the case of mahua oil, the optimal performance was achieved with the B20-PMO mixture. In both instances, these triple blends outperformed the respective pure double biofuel mixtures (B100-PSO and B100-PMO), indicating that a certain proportion of fossil diesel in the mixture can enhance the overall combustion and engine efficiency. Despite this, it is important to emphasize that all of the tested mixtures—whether triple blends or PO/VO double mixtures—demonstrated superior efficiency compared to pure fossil diesel. This finding supports the feasibility of using these biofuel mixtures as complete or partial substitutes for fossil diesel, offering a viable pathway for achieving 100% fossil fuel replacement in diesel engines without compromising on performance. 3.3. Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption The increased power output from various triple and double biofuel blends is anticipated to lead to a reduction in overall fuel consumption. This can be quantified by multiplying the BSFC with the calorific value of the fuel. BSFC serves as a crucial parameter in assessing the efficiency and feasibility of biofuels as substitutes for fossil diesel in diesel engines. A lower BSFC at a given power level reflects superior fuel efficiency and engine performance. Figure 3 illustrates the change in BSFC across three engine loads—1 kW (low), 3 kW (medium), and 5 kW (high). Panel 3a shows the results for D/PO/SO blends, while Panel 3b presents data for D/PO/MO blends. The data reveals a clear trend: BSFC decreases as the engine load rises. The highest BSFC values were recorded at the lowest engine load (1 kW), followed by a decrease at 3 kW, and a subsequent increase at 5 kW. This reduction in BSFC at higher loads can be attributed to the increase in combustion chamber temperature, which enhances combustion efficiency and reduces specific fuel consumption. Moreover, as observed in both Figs. 3 a and 3 b, increasing the proportion of plastic oil in the blends results in lower BSFC values for both SO- and MO-based mixtures. This behavior is linked to the higher calorific value of plastic oil, which raises the energy content of the blends and improves fuel efficiency. Conversely, diesel fuel exhibits the lowest calorific value among the fuels tested, which explains its generally higher BSFC values across all engine loads. When operating at high (5 kW) power outputs, the intermediate biofuel blends—such as B60-PSO and B40PMO—show higher BSFC values compared to pure diesel and even relative to the double mixtures B100-PSO and B100-PMO. This indicates that, despite having higher calorific values, some triple blends may not always translate to the lowest BSFC due to factors like blend stability, atomization quality, and combustion kinetics at varying load levels. 3.4. CO emissions This research explored CO emissions from an electric generator operated by a traditional diesel engine, utilizing various fuel blends that included fossil diesel, plastic oil, and vegetable oils, particularly soybean and mahua oils. The CO emissions, quantified in parts per million (ppm), are graphically represented in Fig. 4 a for D/PO/SO blends and Fig. 4 b for D/PO/MO blends. The results consistently demonstrate that all the triple blends (i.e., mixtures of diesel, plastic oil, and either SO or MO) produce significantly lower CO emissions compared to pure fossil diesel. This trend holds true across various engine loads, ranging from low (1 kW) to high (5 kW), and highlights the environmental advantage of incorporating biofuels into conventional diesel. Importantly, as the percentage of biofuel in the blend increases—there is a marked reduction in CO emissions. This inverse relationship between biofuel content and CO emission is attributed to the oxygenated nature of both vegetable oils and plastic oil. These fuels contain inherent oxygen, which promotes more complete combustion of the carbonaceous compounds in the fuel, thereby reducing the formation of carbon monoxide. Furthermore, among all the tested blends, the double mixtures containing only PO and either SO or MO (i.e., B100-PSO and B100-PMO) exhibited the lowest CO emission levels. This reinforces the environmental benefit of eliminating fossil diesel altogether in favor of renewable, oxygen-rich alternatives. Nevertheless, certain triple blends such as B40-PMO and B60-PMO showed elevated CO levels compared to their double-mixture counterparts. This anomaly could stem from sub-optimal combustion dynamics at those specific blend ratios, possibly due to incomplete homogenization of the fuels or variation in cetane number and volatility between components. A crucial observation across all fuel types is the consistent decline in CO emissions as engine load increases. As the engine transitions from 1 kW to 5 kW load conditions, combustion temperatures within the cylinder rise significantly. Elevated temperatures facilitate more efficient oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide, thereby lowering CO concentrations in the exhaust. This temperature-dependent behavior is common in internal combustion engines and is more pronounced when oxygenated fuels like vegetable oils and plastic-derived oils are involved, due to their enhanced combustion properties at higher thermal states. Collectively, these results underscore the potential of PO/VO-based fuel blends not only as viable alternatives to fossil diesel but also as environmentally superior options. The lower CO emissions, particularly in double mixtures, suggest a pathway toward more sustainable and cleaner energy use in diesel engines. However, the performance of certain triple blends (e.g., B40-PMO and B60-PMO) indicates the need for further fine-tuning of blend ratios to optimize combustion efficiency and emission profiles. 3.5. CO 2 and NO x emissions The study of CO₂ emissions, as detailed in Figs. 5 a- 5 b, provides critical insights into the combustion efficiency and environmental impact of using various biofuel mixtures in diesel engines. The CO₂ values were measured as a percentage of total exhaust gas emissions under different engine load conditions (1 kW to 5 kW) and across a range of fuel blends consisting of fossil diesel, plastic oil, and either soybean oil or mahua oil. In general, CO₂ emissions increased with both rising engine load and increasing biofuel concentration in the triple blends. This trend is indicative of more complete combustion occurring at higher power outputs, as elevated combustion temperatures enhance the oxidation of carbon-based compounds. Among the blends, those containing mahua oil consistently generated higher CO₂ emissions compared to both fossil diesel and the blends containing soybean oil. This was especially evident at medium to high engine loads (3–5 kW), where the emissions from mahua-oil-based blends are significant. However, an interesting deviation was observed in blends with a higher percentage of mahua oil—specifically B80-PMO and B100-PMO. These samples displayed characteristics that were more akin to those of fossil diesel, suggesting a non-linear relationship between mahua oil content and CO₂ emissions. It is possible that at higher CO concentrations, combustion characteristics change due to the altered physical and chemical properties of the blend, including viscosity and oxygen content, which can affect combustion completeness. Soybean oil blends showed a markedly different emission profile. Across the range of blends and loads, soybean-oil-based mixtures emitted CO₂ at levels comparable to or even lower than fossil diesel. The highest recorded CO₂ level among all, observed with the B60-PSO blend. Surprisingly, even at a full 5 kW engine load, B20-PSO blend produced lower CO₂ emissions than diesel, suggesting superior combustion characteristics when soybean oil is used in moderate proportions. This outcome supports the idea that soybean oil may foster a more efficient combustion process at higher engine loads, likely due to its chemical structure and lower viscosity compared to mahua oil. Additionally, the study examined NOₓ emissions (Fig. 6 a- 6 b), which often increase with combustion temperature and oxygen availability. As expected, fossil diesel showed a linear increase in NOₓ emissions with engine load, reflecting the traditional drawback of diesel combustion in contributing to atmospheric pollution. In contrast, all tested biofuel mixtures yielded significantly lower NOₓ emissions across all load levels. Interestingly, while soybean-oil-based blends generally exhibited slightly higher NOₓ emissions than mahua-oil-based ones, their maximum emission values occurred at intermediate loads. This pattern may be attributed to optimal combustion conditions (e.g., peak cylinder temperatures) aligning with mid-range engine loads. Importantly, the concentration of biofuels in the mixtures inversely correlated with NOₓ emissions: higher biofuel content led to lower NOₓ output. This was most evident in the B100-PSO and B100-PMO samples, which recorded the lowest NOₓ emissions across all engine power levels. These results suggest that pure biofuels derived from PO and VO not only have the potential to replace fossil diesel but also to significantly reduce emissions of both CO₂ and NOₓ when optimized for engine performance. Overall, the emission profiles of the different blends demonstrate a complex interplay between fuel composition, engine load, and combustion dynamics. While certain blends may increase CO₂ under specific conditions, the overall environmental benefits—particularly in terms of reduced NOₓ and CO emissions—highlight the potential of biofuel adoption for more sustainable engine operation. 3.6. Soot emissions Figure 7 a- 7 b illustrates the opacity values of smoke emissions produced at different engine loads for various biofuel blends, specifically those containing soybean oil and mahua oil. A clear distinction emerges between the two oil types: blends containing mahua oil consistently produce higher levels of smoke opacity compared to their soybean oil counterparts at identical blend ratios and operating conditions. This elevated soot emission in mahua oil-based blends can be attributed to the inherent chemical differences between the oils. Soybean oil is rich in linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, whereas mahua oil predominantly contains oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid with a lower degree of unsaturation. Generally, higher unsaturation in fatty acid chains increases the tendency to form polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during combustion, which are precursors to soot particles. Therefore, one might expect soybean oil—with its higher unsaturation—to produce more soot. However, experimental observations show the opposite trend, with mahua oil producing higher smoke opacity than soybean oil under identical engine operating conditions. This discrepancy can be attributed to factors beyond fatty acid unsaturation alone. Mahua oil typically has higher viscosity, higher molecular weight triglycerides, and higher oxygen demand for complete combustion compared to soybean oil. These properties can lead to poorer atomization, less efficient mixing with air, and slower combustion kinetics, resulting in incomplete combustion and increased particulate formation. In contrast, soybean oil’s lower viscosity and higher content of polyunsaturated esters promote better atomization and more complete combustion, thereby reducing soot emissions despite its higher degree of unsaturation. When compared to biofuels derived from low-viscosity, low-carbon-number components—such as acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) mixtures or dimethyl carbonate—the combustion of vegetable-oil-based fuels like mahua and soybean oil generally results in higher smoke opacity. This reflects their greater tendency for particulate matter formation due to higher molecular complexity, viscosity, and lower volatility inherent to long-chain triglycerides. 3.7. DPOVO Blends for Sustainable Energy Solutions This study contributes meaningfully to the global pursuit of sustainable energy by demonstrating the feasibility of converting post-consumer plastic waste into a usable fuel component through pyrolysis. By integrating plastic-derived oil with vegetable oils like soybean and mahua oil—both renewable and widely available—the research promotes circular economy practices while addressing two pressing environmental challenges: plastic waste accumulation and fossil fuel dependency. The LVLC nature of PO allows it to function as an effective solvent to reduce the high viscosity of vegetable oils without chemical transformation. The resulting DPV (Diesel–Plastic Oil–Vegetable Oil) blends comply with EN 590:2022 diesel fuel standards, requiring no engine modifications for use. This positions the developed blends as viable drop-in replacements for fossil diesel in compression-ignition engines, bridging the gap between current infrastructure and future clean energy systems. Moreover, the DPV blends exhibit lower emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and particulate matter compared to pure diesel, highlighting their environmental advantage. While CO₂ emissions are marginally higher in some blends, this is indicative of more complete combustion rather than inefficiency. The ability to utilize industrial waste (plastic oil) and non-edible bioresources (SVOs) for energy generation fosters a decentralized, low-cost, and low-carbon fuel alternative. This directly supports multiple United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 13 (Climate Action). The blend strategy offers a scalable and economically viable interim solution during the transition to electrified transportation, thus reinforcing the role of waste valorization and biofuel innovation in advancing sustainable energy paradigms. The entire process—from waste valorization to emissions reduction and fossil fuel displacement—is summarized in Fig. 8 . 4. Conclusions This study successfully explored the development of DPV blends as sustainable alternatives to fossil diesel in CI engines. By blending waste-derived plastic oil with non-edible vegetable oils such as SO and MO, the study produced low-viscosity, low-cetane fuels that meet EN 590:2022 standards. The engine performance tests revealed that the B60-PSO blend outperformed conventional diesel, achieving a 12% increase in BTE. Similarly, other blends like B20-PMO showed improved engine performance. Notably, all biofuel blends exhibited a reduction in BSFC, with the B60-PSO blend demonstrating a 15% decrease at a 5 kW load compared to pure diesel, signaling better fuel utilization and lower operational costs. Emission analysis further confirmed the environmental benefits of the DPV blends, with significant reductions in CO, NOₓ, and soot emissions, showcasing the cleaner combustion of biofuels. CO emissions were reduced by 20%, NOₓ decreased by 10%, and soot emissions dropped by approximately 40%. While CO₂ emissions slightly increased by 5%, this was indicative of more complete combustion rather than inefficiency. The B100-PSO and B100-PMO blends, consisting solely of plastic oil and vegetable oil, demonstrated the lowest CO emissions, highlighting the potential of these blends to function as renewable and cleaner alternatives to fossil diesel. Although certain intermediate blends (e.g., B40-PMO and B60-PMO) showed slightly higher CO emissions, further optimization of these blends could improve combustion dynamics. This research demonstrates that DPV blends are not only feasible as drop-in replacements for fossil diesel but also provide environmental and operational benefits, making them a viable option for reducing fossil fuel dependence and emissions. These findings support the circular economy by converting waste plastic into a functional fuel and utilizing non-edible vegetable oils as renewable resources. Future studies should focus on long-term engine endurance tests, cold-start performance in various climates, and pilot-scale production trials to assess the commercial viability and scalability of these biofuels. Overall, DPV blends offer a promising path toward cleaner, more sustainable energy solutions, contributing to the reduction of carbon footprints and advancing global sustainability goals. Abbreviations D100 100% Diesel – Pure diesel without any blending B20-PMO 20% Plastic-Mahua Oil and 80% Diesel blend B40-PMO 40% Plastic-Mahua Oil and 60% Diesel blend B60-PMO 60% Plastic-Mahua Oil and 40% Diesel blend B80-PMO 80% Plastic-Mahua Oil and 20% Diesel blend B100-PMO 100% Plastic-Mahua Oil – No diesel content B20-PSO 20% Plastic-Soybean Oil and 80% Diesel blend B40-PSO 40% Plastic-Soybean Oil and 60% Diesel blend B60-PSO 60% Plastic-Soybean Oil and 40% Diesel blend B80-PSO 80% Plastic-Soybean Oil and 20% Diesel blend B100-PSO 100% Plastic-Soybean Oil – No diesel content Declarations Acknowledgement: NA Author Contributions: A.M. and P.M. wrote the main manuscript text. S.P.K.A. and V.K. contributed to data collection and analysis. V.S.M. and J.S.C. prepared figures and assisted in manuscript editing. J.K.P. provided supervision and critical revisions. R.G. conceived the study, coordinated the project, and finalized the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. Supplementary Materials: Not applicable. Funding: Not applicable. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: Data supporting this study's findings are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Declaration of interest's statement: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Consent for Publication: All authors have given their consent for the publication of this manuscript. Author agreement statement: We the undersigned declare that this manuscript is original, has not been published before, and is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. We confirm that the manuscript has been read and approved by all named authors and that there are no other persons who satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further confirm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been approved by all of us. We understand that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for the Editorial process. He/she is responsible for communicating with the other authors about progress, submissions of revisions, and final approval of proofs. References Borrelle, S. B. et al. Predicted growth in plastic waste exceeds efforts to mitigate plastic pollution. Science 369 (6510), 1515–1518 (2020). Amankwa, M. O., Tetteh, E. K., Mohale, G. T., Dagba, G. & Opoku, P. The production of valuable products and fuel from plastic waste in Africa. Discover Sustain. 2 , 1–11 (2021). Zorpas, A. A. et al. Crisis in leadership vs waste management. Euro-Mediterranean J. Environ. Integr. 6 , 1–5 (2021). Celebi, D. Planning a mixed fleet of electric and conventional vehicles for urban freight with routing and replacement considerations. Sustainable Cities Soc. 73 , 103105 (2021). Mishra, R. K. & Mohanty, K. 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ASTM: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, (2023). Mani, M., Subash, C. & Nagarajan, G. Performance, emission and combustion characteristics of a DI diesel engine using waste plastic oil. Appl. Therm. Eng. 29 (13), 2738–2744 (2009). Pakiya Pradeep, A. & Gowthaman, S. Combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engine fuelled with waste plastic oil–a review. Int. J. Ambient Energy . 43 (1), 1269–1287 (2022). ASTM D2156. Standard Test Method for Smoke Density in Flue Gases from Burning Distillate Fuels (ASTM License Agreement, 2018). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files floatimage1.png Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6862992","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":490350460,"identity":"e73bdac6-8c50-4f88-9d38-b40ba4c12360","order_by":0,"name":"Abinash Mahapatro","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Siksha 'O' Anusandhan (Deemed to be University)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abinash","middleName":"","lastName":"Mahapatro","suffix":""},{"id":490350463,"identity":"4ba45859-a606-42ab-8a18-d086f3ba1e3f","order_by":1,"name":"P. Mathiyalagan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"J. J. 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Blends\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6862992/v1/28c57155ee13b8b4b4ddec0a.jpg"},{"id":88505123,"identity":"fa1f9d56-d50e-458d-a0e7-da6c6662e6d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 07:18:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74288,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in CO values at different engine loads using various DPV Blends\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6862992/v1/53f324550296dd7fa1945fbd.jpg"},{"id":87763179,"identity":"f998d5e3-7a64-467b-92c7-90936de0fb8f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 17:29:42","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":71433,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (%) values at different 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power levels for different DPV blends\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6862992/v1/875c1fde22848aafd9b74d45.jpg"},{"id":87763184,"identity":"349c05e3-1a57-490e-8833-a644fb6cc4a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-28 17:29:42","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":97271,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSustainable Energy Strategy through DPV Blends\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6862992/v1/0768304c9875e129c9b0cd70.jpg"},{"id":90980342,"identity":"18b63ad8-313d-40ff-95c7-ff8ec0168905","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-10 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlastics are now integral to modern life, widely used in both industrial and domestic applications. Derived mainly from petroleum-based resources, these materials are non-renewable and pose serious environmental threats. With global plastic waste nearing 300\u0026nbsp;million metric tons annually, disposal has become a critical issue, contributing to environmental and public health concerns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In response, there is growing emphasis on developing sustainable recycling methods aligned with the circular economy. Among various strategies, using plastic waste in construction materials has shown potential. However, pyrolysis\u0026mdash;converting plastic waste into liquid fuel\u0026mdash;stands out as an efficient and eco-friendly approach, offering renewable alternatives to conventional fuels. The global movement toward replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy is driven by efforts to cut greenhouse gas emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Internal combustion engines, currently dominant in transport sectors such as road, marine, and aviation, are gradually giving way to electric alternatives. However, this transition will take decades. In the interim, low-emission fuels will be critical as combustion-engine vehicles remain prevalent. Thus, continued research into renewable fuel sources is essential. Pyrolysis oils derived from plastic waste present a promising interim solution. While these fuels originate from non-renewable plastics, their use as recycled post-consumer waste offers a degree of renewability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumerous studies have confirmed that oils obtained through plastic pyrolysis can be used as standalone fuels or blended with gasoline, kerosene, or diesel [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings underscore the versatility of plastic-derived oils and the need to strengthen global recycling efforts amid growing marine and freshwater plastic pollution. A significant application entails mixing these oils with pure vegetable oils (VOs) for utilization in compression ignition (CI) engines. However, VOs alone exhibit high viscosity, making them incompatible with CI engines unless pre-treated to meet European diesel standards (EN 590:2022) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The high cost of commercial biodiesel has further hindered the shift from diesel to biodiesel, making it essential to identify more affordable and technically feasible alternatives. \u0026ldquo;Green diesel,\u0026rdquo; offer a promising solution. These fuels are produced from triglycerides in vegetable oils through catalytic methods like cracking, pyrolysis, hydrodeoxygenation, and hydrotreating, resulting in deoxygenated fuels with properties similar to paraffinic diesel [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. These mimic fossil diesel performance while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Another approach to utilizing VOs involves blending them with low-viscosity organic solvents. This reduces viscosity without chemical treatment, offering economic advantages [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. However, these solvents often have lower energy densities and cetane numbers, which can slightly reduce engine efficiency. Still, such low-viscosity low-cetane (LVLC) blends remain cost-effective, attracting research interest. Although they may reduce power and increase fuel consumption, they typically lower pollutant emissions. Many studies have validated triple blends combining diesel, VOs, and solvents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetable oils studied for this purpose include palm, castor, sunflower, cashew nutshell, cottonseed, wheat germ, neem, and wintergreen oils. Likewise, renewable low-molecular-weight solvents such as Melaleuca cajuputi, pine, camphor, orange oils, diethyl ether (DEE), hexanol, and octanol have been tested [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17 CR18\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Renewable alcohols like butanol, ethanol, propanol, pentanol, and hexanol are also being explored to achieve viscosity levels between 2.0\u0026ndash;4.5 cSt, compliant with EN 590:2022. Among them, butanol has shown great potential in blends with various vegetable oils including croton, canola, hazelnut, and sunflower oils [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. DEE, in particular, is widely studied for its volatility and combustion properties, and has been blended with numerous VOs such as cashew nutshell oil, bael oil, Aegle marmelos oil, karanja, sunflower, and castor oils [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Few research has also examined ethyl acetate, diethyl carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and acetone as LVLC additives [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The ABE (acetone\u0026ndash;butanol\u0026ndash;ethanol) mixture, a renewable blend obtained via fermentation, has drawn interest for its favorable fuel characteristics. These triple blends typically have slightly lower energy content due to the oxygenated solvents but offer environmental benefits like reduced soot, NOₓ, and CO₂ emissions\u0026mdash;though CO emissions may rise marginally. Improved cold flow properties further enhance their use in colder regions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. The use of cetane improvers like 2-ethylhexyl nitrate can significantly enhance ignition quality; for example, blends of hazelnut oil, diesel, and butanol or pentanol have achieved cetane number increases exceeding 12% while maintaining other essential fuel properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Another study with diesel/peppermint bio-oil/DEE blend showed that adding di-tertiary butyl peroxide (DTBP) enhanced engine performance and reduced emissions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. While oxygenated LVLC fuels offer environmental gains, their substitution capacity is lower than gasoline-based LVLC blends. Triple blends with diesel, gasoline, and VOs have achieved up to 40% diesel replacement while maintaining strong performance and reducing pollutants. This has spurred interest in using plastic pyrolysis oils as LVLC solvents. Their hydrocarbon-rich composition makes them ideal for diesel/gasoline/VO blends [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. This supports both advanced biofuel goals and circular economy principles by converting plastic waste into usable energy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies have shown that engines can run on plastic-derived oils without modification. Though emissions of CO, CO₂, and unburned hydrocarbons may increase slightly, smoke emissions drop by 40\u0026ndash;50%, and thermal efficiency is comparable to conventional diesel. As a result, research has increasingly focused on integrating plastic oils into various fuel blends, including with solvents and biodiesel, highlighting their promise as non-biodegradable yet renewable alternatives. In the present study, plastic-derived oils are assessed as LVLC solvents capable of replacing a significant portion of fossil diesel in renewable biofuel blends. These blends are formulated by combining plastic oil with commercially available, non-food-competing vegetable oils, offering a sustainable and economically viable alternative to conventional diesel. Among these, soybean oil (SO) is widely available and well-studied in biodiesel production, offering a consistent composition and reliable performance characteristics. Although it is technically edible, it is often used in industrial applications due to surplus production and established supply chains. Mahua oil (MO), on the other hand, is an inedible, non-edible forest-based oil that does not compete with food supplies and is abundantly available in several regions of India, making it a suitable and sustainable candidate for large-scale biofuel use. Its high oil content and favourable fatty acid composition enhance its suitability for blending with plastic-derived oils. This blending approach requires no complex chemical transformation processes\u0026mdash;only the optimized physical mixing of available vegetable oils with plastic-derived oil. By leveraging plastic oil as an LVLC solvent, this method enables a high degree of fossil diesel substitution while remaining technically straightforward and cost-effective, contributing to the advancement of next-generation biofuels.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Experimental details","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1. Synthesis of oil blends\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe formulation of the plastic pyrolysis oil (PO) and pure vegetable oil (VO) double blends, as well as the subsequent preparation of diesel/PO/VO triple blends, was carried out through a systematic approach to ensure compliance with the rheological and physicochemical standards required for diesel fuels, particularly aligning with the European diesel standard EN 590:2022. Initially, PO, obtained from Econscious Recycling Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, was selected as the primary base. This PO is a second-generation synthetic fuel derived via continuous pyrolysis of waste plastics, offering a sustainable alternative to conventional fossil fuels. Food-grade SO and MO were procured from a local supplier. These two vegetable oils were selected due to their favourable properties such as viscosity, lubricity, and renewable origin. To prepare the double blends, varying concentrations of VOs (soybean oil and canola oil) were thoroughly mixed with the PO, which was treated with a low-viscosity LVLC solvent to improve blend homogeneity and flow characteristics. The blending process involved mechanical stirring at controlled temperatures to achieve a uniform mixture. Different ratios of PO to VOs were evaluated to determine the optimal blend compositions that meet the viscosity, density, and cold flow properties as mandated by EN 590:2022. The primary goal was to tailor the blends to mimic the handling and combustion behavior of standard diesel fuel while enhancing sustainability and reducing environmental impact.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the optimization of the double blends, selected formulations were further blended with commercially available fossil diesel, which was sourced from an Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) fuel station in India. The preparation of these triple blends involved mixing the optimized PO/VO double blends with fossil diesel in controlled proportions, ensuring thorough homogenization to maintain consistency in physicochemical properties across the samples. The resulting diesel/PO/VO triple blends were designed to investigate their potential as sustainable alternative fuels capable of partial substitution for traditional diesel in compression ignition engines. All blending processes were performed under ambient conditions unless otherwise specified, and no additional chemical additives were introduced during the preparation phase. The key physicochemical properties\u0026mdash;including viscosity, density, heating value, and flash point\u0026mdash;of the individual components (diesel, soybean oil, mahua oil, and plastic oil) are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, providing a reference framework for understanding the behavior of the prepared blends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparison of properties of different oils\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProperty\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiesel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoybean Oil\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMahua Oil\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlastic Oil\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlash point (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e242\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCetane number\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKinematic viscosity at 35\u0026deg;C (cSt)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuto-ignition temperature (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e320\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e261\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity at 15\u0026deg;C (kg/m\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e820\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e920\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e950\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1045\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalorific value (MJ/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Characterization of oil blends\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the fuel performance characteristics of the prepared blends, several key physicochemical parameters were measured using standardized procedures. These include kinematic viscosity, density, calorific value, cold flow properties, and cetane number\u0026mdash;each of which plays a crucial role in determining fuel quality and suitability for diesel engine applications.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Kinematic Viscosity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe kinematic viscosity of all fuel samples was determined in accordance with the specifications outlined in the European diesel standard EN 590:2022, using the methodology detailed in previously published literature. Viscosity was measured at a standardized temperature and under controlled laboratory conditions. For each sample, three individual measurements were taken, and the reported viscosity values represent the arithmetic mean of these determinations. The repeatability of the measurements was maintained within a variation margin of less than 0.30%, as required by the ASTM D2270-79 standard [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], which also provides guidance for calculating the viscosity index of blended fuels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Density\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlend density was determined at 15\u0026deg;C following the EN ISO 3675 standard test method [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], which is commonly employed for liquid petroleum products and fuels. Accurate determination of density is vital, as it directly influences fuel atomization, volumetric energy content, and combustion efficiency in compression ignition engines.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.3. Cold Flow Properties\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe cold flow behavior of the fuels, specifically the cloud point (CP) and pour point (PP), was assessed using internationally recognized protocols. The cloud point was determined in accordance with EN 23015 / ASTM D2500 standards [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e], while the pour point was measured using ISO 3016 / ASTM D97 methodologies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. These tests provide insight into the fuel's performance at low ambient temperatures, helping to ensure operability in cold climates. All values reported for cold flow properties were obtained as the mean of two independent measurements to ensure data reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.4. Calorific Value\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe calorific value (CV), measured in kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg), was estimated using theoretical calculations that account for the weighted contribution of each fuel component. This value represents the energy released during complete combustion and serves as a key parameter for evaluating engine performance and fuel efficiency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. The calorific value was computed using the following equation:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:Calorific\\:value\\:of\\:blend=\\sum\\:(Calorific\\:value\\:of\\:component\\times\\:Volume\\:fraction\\:of\\:component)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.5. Cetane Number\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe cetane number (CN), a crucial indicator of fuel ignition quality, was determined for each blend in accordance with the minimum requirements stipulated in EN 590:2022, which mandates a CN value above 51 for optimal diesel engine ignition performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. The cetane number of each fuel blend was calculated using a volumetric averaging approach as given below:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:Cetane\\:EquationNumber\\:of\\:blend=\\sum\\:(Cetane\\:EquationNumber\\:of\\:component\\times\\:Volume\\:fraction\\:of\\:component)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3. Engine performance and emission analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe performance and emission characteristics of the fuel blends were evaluated using a diesel engine\u0026ndash;electric generator set, following a standardized experimental procedure consistent with earlier studies. The schematic of the experimental setup is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, and the detailed technical specifications of the engine used are provided in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTechnical specifications of the AYERBE 4000 Diesel E generator\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetails\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEngine\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYanmar LN-70, 296 cc, 6.7 HP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePower Output (Max)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 KVA / 4100 W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePower Output (Nominal)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.5 KVA / 3600 W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVoltage / Frequency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230 V / 50 Hz\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuel Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiesel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuel Tank Capacity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 liters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuel Consumption\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.3 L/h at 75% load\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAutonomy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;12 hours at 75% load\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStarting System\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectric start\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooling System\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAir-cooled\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNoise Level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108 dB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDimensions (L\u0026times;W\u0026times;H)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e760 \u0026times; 730 \u0026times; 660 mm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80 kg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Engine Testing Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor each test run, 0.5 litres of biofuel blend was introduced into the fuel system, and the engine was operated for a duration of 20 minutes to ensure that stable and repeatable operating conditions were achieved. During the testing, the electrical power output (P) was measured using a voltmeter\u0026ndash;ammeter setup, and calculated using the following fundamental equation:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:Power=Voltage\\times\\:Current$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis setup enabled precise determination of the electrical output generated under varying engine loads.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Fuel Consumption and Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuel consumption was measured by recording the time taken for the engine to consume a predefined 0.5-liter volume of fuel. Using this data, the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) was calculated, which indicates the amount of fuel (in grams per hour) consumed per unit of power output (kilowatt). BSFC values were determined at three distinct engine loads\u0026mdash;1 kW, 3 kW, and 5 kW\u0026mdash;representing low, medium, and high power demands, respectively. Each test was repeated three times, and the average BSFC values were reported to ensure the reliability and reproducibility of the results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3.3. Emission Measurement and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe level of exhaust emissions was assessed by analyzing both particulate matter (smoke opacity) and gaseous pollutants produced during combustion. Smoke opacity was measured using a TESTO 338 opacimeter, as per the ASTM D-2156 standard [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] test method (standard test method for smoke density in flue gases from burning distillate fuels). The results are expressed in terms of the Bosch Smoke Number, which ranges from 0 (clean filter paper) to 2.5 (completely blackened filter paper), indicating increasing levels of soot emissions. This parameter provides a direct measure of particulate contamination in the exhaust gases. Additionally, concentrations of major gaseous emissions\u0026mdash;carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and carbon dioxide (CO₂)\u0026mdash;were recorded using a Testo 340 flue gas analyzer. These pollutants were measured under steady-state engine operation, and the results were expressed as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eCO and NOₓ: in parts per million (ppm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eCO₂: as a volumetric percentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore each testing session, the gas analyzers were calibrated using zero gas to ensure data accuracy. The measurement uncertainties for each parameter are detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, with experimental errors kept below 6%. All emission results represent the average of three repeated measurements, ensuring consistency and reliability in the reported values.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasurement parameters, ranges, and accuracy for gas analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeasuring Range\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccuracy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoot\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026ndash;2.5 (Bosch Number); 0 to 50 mg/m\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5 mg/m\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;10,000 ppm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10 ppm (0\u0026ndash;200 ppm); \u0026plusmn; 20 ppm (201\u0026ndash;10,000 ppm)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;300 ppm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2 ppm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNO2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;500 ppm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10 ppm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eO2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;25 Vol.%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2 Vol.%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe data presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, which delineate the physicochemical properties of diesel oil, soybean oil, mahua oil, and plastic oil, underscore that kinematic viscosity emerges as the most critical parameter necessitating modification when substituting conventional fossil diesel with either of the two vegetable oils under consideration. Both SO and MO exhibit significantly higher viscosity values compared to fossil diesel, which makes them unsuitable for direct use in diesel engines. Therefore, it becomes necessary to substantially reduce their viscosities in order to meet the requirements defined by the European Standard EN 590:2022, which specifies a permissible kinematic viscosity range of 2.0\u0026ndash;4.5 cSt for diesel fuels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo achieve this objective, binary mixtures of the VO with PO, used as a LVLC solvent, were formulated and analyzed. The kinematic viscosity values of these PO/VO blends were calculated to determine the mixing ratios that yield viscosities closest to that of fossil diesel. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the results of these mixtures. It was found that increasing the proportion of plastic oil in the blends led to a significant decrease in the viscosity of both soybean and mahua oils. Among the various blend ratios tested, the mixture of 80% plastic oil with soybean oil resulted in a viscosity of 4.10 cSt, while the blend containing 80% plastic oil with mahua oil achieved a viscosity of 4.20 cSt. Both values fall within the acceptable range defined by the EN 590:2022 standard, indicating the suitability of these blends for use in diesel engines.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKinematic viscosity of PO/SO and PO/MO blends at 40\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlastic Oil (% by Volume)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePO/SO (cSt)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePO/MO (cSt)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese dual blends can be utilized directly as biofuels in standard diesel engines or incorporated into triple blends with fossil diesel. However, since slight variations in the rheological properties of the blends may occur during operation, it is recommended to test a range of triple mixtures to identify the combinations that provide the best performance and the lowest pollutant emissions. In this regard, two of the most promising dual blends\u0026mdash;80% PO with SO and 80% PO with MO\u0026mdash;were chosen for further mixing with fossil diesel in different volume ratios. These triple blends were formulated using typical biodiesel testing ratios.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of these triple blends revealed that as the proportion of biofuel in the mixture increased, there was a slight rise in fuel density. In terms of cold flow properties, the blends exhibited a marginal increase in cloud point values and a more notable rise in pour point values for both vegetable oils. Although these properties suggest a slight reduction in cold-weather performance compared to fossil diesel, the blends remain within a usable range for moderate to cold climates. These results are in agreement with previous studies that employed other organic solvents as LVLC additives in blends with the same pure vegetable oils, further validating the findings presented here.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Diesel engine performance with different oil blends\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mechanical and environmental performance of the selected dual mixtures\u0026mdash;comprising 80% plastic oil with either soybean or mahua oil\u0026mdash;along with all the triple blends containing diesel, PO, and VO, were assessed under real-world operating conditions, as outlined in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. These fuel blends were tested in an electric generator powered by a conventional diesel engine to determine the optimal blend ratios for each vegetable oil variant. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the engine's power output across varying load conditions (from 0 to 5 kW) for the triple blends containing either soybean oil or mahua oil, compared to pure diesel. Additionally, the performance of the two biofuel mixtures\u0026mdash;B100-PSO and B100-PMO\u0026mdash;is presented for further comparison.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuel properties of D/PO/SO blends\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuel Blend\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD/PO/SO (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKinematic Viscosity (cSt)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCloud Point (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePour Point (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity (kg/m\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100/0/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;6.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;15.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e821.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB20-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80/16/4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;5.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e830.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB40-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60/32/8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;4.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e841.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB60-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40/48/12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;4.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;6.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e899.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB80-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20/64/16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;3.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e927.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB100-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/80/20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;2.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e951.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuel properties of D/PO/MO blends\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuel Blend\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD/PO/MO (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKinematic Viscosity (cSt)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCloud Point (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePour Point (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity (kg/m\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eD100\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100/0/0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;6.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;15.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e821.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB20-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80/18/2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;4.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e831.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB40-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60/36/4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;3.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e842.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB60-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40/54/6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;5.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e854.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB80-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20/72/8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;6.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e860.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB100-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0/90/10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;3.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e881.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results indicate a clear trend: as engine load amplified from 1 kW to 4 kW, the power output generated by the engine also increased steadily, reaching a peak at 4 kW. Beyond this point, at the maximum load of 5 kW, there was a slight decline in the power generated. This behavior is consistent with findings from earlier studies that also involved the use of other LVLC solvents blended with the same SO and MO. However, a noteworthy distinction in this study is that the incorporation of PO into the biofuel mixtures led to an overall improvement in performance compared to fossil diesel, regardless of the blend ratio or type of vegetable oil used. The improved performance can likely be credited to the increased energy density of the PO/VO blends. Plastic oil, as demonstrated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, possesses a higher calorific value and cetane number than conventional diesel, which enhances combustion efficiency. Consequently, the inclusion of PO in the mixtures results in improved engine output, surpassing the performance of commercial diesel.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of the specific proportions that yielded the highest efficiency, the study found a notable difference between the two types of vegetable oils. For soybean oil, the triple mixture B60-PSO provided the maximum efficiency, while in the case of mahua oil, the optimal performance was achieved with the B20-PMO mixture. In both instances, these triple blends outperformed the respective pure double biofuel mixtures (B100-PSO and B100-PMO), indicating that a certain proportion of fossil diesel in the mixture can enhance the overall combustion and engine efficiency. Despite this, it is important to emphasize that all of the tested mixtures\u0026mdash;whether triple blends or PO/VO double mixtures\u0026mdash;demonstrated superior efficiency compared to pure fossil diesel. This finding supports the feasibility of using these biofuel mixtures as complete or partial substitutes for fossil diesel, offering a viable pathway for achieving 100% fossil fuel replacement in diesel engines without compromising on performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe increased power output from various triple and double biofuel blends is anticipated to lead to a reduction in overall fuel consumption. This can be quantified by multiplying the BSFC with the calorific value of the fuel. BSFC serves as a crucial parameter in assessing the efficiency and feasibility of biofuels as substitutes for fossil diesel in diesel engines. A lower BSFC at a given power level reflects superior fuel efficiency and engine performance. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the change in BSFC across three engine loads\u0026mdash;1 kW (low), 3 kW (medium), and 5 kW (high). Panel 3a shows the results for D/PO/SO blends, while Panel 3b presents data for D/PO/MO blends. The data reveals a clear trend: BSFC decreases as the engine load rises. The highest BSFC values were recorded at the lowest engine load (1 kW), followed by a decrease at 3 kW, and a subsequent increase at 5 kW.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis reduction in BSFC at higher loads can be attributed to the increase in combustion chamber temperature, which enhances combustion efficiency and reduces specific fuel consumption. Moreover, as observed in both Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb, increasing the proportion of plastic oil in the blends results in lower BSFC values for both SO- and MO-based mixtures. This behavior is linked to the higher calorific value of plastic oil, which raises the energy content of the blends and improves fuel efficiency. Conversely, diesel fuel exhibits the lowest calorific value among the fuels tested, which explains its generally higher BSFC values across all engine loads. When operating at high (5 kW) power outputs, the intermediate biofuel blends\u0026mdash;such as B60-PSO and B40PMO\u0026mdash;show higher BSFC values compared to pure diesel and even relative to the double mixtures B100-PSO and B100-PMO. This indicates that, despite having higher calorific values, some triple blends may not always translate to the lowest BSFC due to factors like blend stability, atomization quality, and combustion kinetics at varying load levels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. CO emissions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research explored CO emissions from an electric generator operated by a traditional diesel engine, utilizing various fuel blends that included fossil diesel, plastic oil, and vegetable oils, particularly soybean and mahua oils. The CO emissions, quantified in parts per million (ppm), are graphically represented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003ea for D/PO/SO blends and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eb for D/PO/MO blends. The results consistently demonstrate that all the triple blends (i.e., mixtures of diesel, plastic oil, and either SO or MO) produce significantly lower CO emissions compared to pure fossil diesel. This trend holds true across various engine loads, ranging from low (1 kW) to high (5 kW), and highlights the environmental advantage of incorporating biofuels into conventional diesel. Importantly, as the percentage of biofuel in the blend increases\u0026mdash;there is a marked reduction in CO emissions. This inverse relationship between biofuel content and CO emission is attributed to the oxygenated nature of both vegetable oils and plastic oil. These fuels contain inherent oxygen, which promotes more complete combustion of the carbonaceous compounds in the fuel, thereby reducing the formation of carbon monoxide.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, among all the tested blends, the double mixtures containing only PO and either SO or MO (i.e., B100-PSO and B100-PMO) exhibited the lowest CO emission levels. This reinforces the environmental benefit of eliminating fossil diesel altogether in favor of renewable, oxygen-rich alternatives. Nevertheless, certain triple blends such as B40-PMO and B60-PMO showed elevated CO levels compared to their double-mixture counterparts. This anomaly could stem from sub-optimal combustion dynamics at those specific blend ratios, possibly due to incomplete homogenization of the fuels or variation in cetane number and volatility between components. A crucial observation across all fuel types is the consistent decline in CO emissions as engine load increases. As the engine transitions from 1 kW to 5 kW load conditions, combustion temperatures within the cylinder rise significantly. Elevated temperatures facilitate more efficient oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide, thereby lowering CO concentrations in the exhaust. This temperature-dependent behavior is common in internal combustion engines and is more pronounced when oxygenated fuels like vegetable oils and plastic-derived oils are involved, due to their enhanced combustion properties at higher thermal states. Collectively, these results underscore the potential of PO/VO-based fuel blends not only as viable alternatives to fossil diesel but also as environmentally superior options. The lower CO emissions, particularly in double mixtures, suggest a pathway toward more sustainable and cleaner energy use in diesel engines. However, the performance of certain triple blends (e.g., B40-PMO and B60-PMO) indicates the need for further fine-tuning of blend ratios to optimize combustion efficiency and emission profiles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5. CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and NO\u003csub\u003ex\u003c/sub\u003e emissions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study of CO₂ emissions, as detailed in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea-\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eb, provides critical insights into the combustion efficiency and environmental impact of using various biofuel mixtures in diesel engines. The CO₂ values were measured as a percentage of total exhaust gas emissions under different engine load conditions (1 kW to 5 kW) and across a range of fuel blends consisting of fossil diesel, plastic oil, and either soybean oil or mahua oil. In general, CO₂ emissions increased with both rising engine load and increasing biofuel concentration in the triple blends. This trend is indicative of more complete combustion occurring at higher power outputs, as elevated combustion temperatures enhance the oxidation of carbon-based compounds. Among the blends, those containing mahua oil consistently generated higher CO₂ emissions compared to both fossil diesel and the blends containing soybean oil. This was especially evident at medium to high engine loads (3\u0026ndash;5 kW), where the emissions from mahua-oil-based blends are significant. However, an interesting deviation was observed in blends with a higher percentage of mahua oil\u0026mdash;specifically B80-PMO and B100-PMO. These samples displayed characteristics that were more akin to those of fossil diesel, suggesting a non-linear relationship between mahua oil content and CO₂ emissions. It is possible that at higher CO concentrations, combustion characteristics change due to the altered physical and chemical properties of the blend, including viscosity and oxygen content, which can affect combustion completeness. Soybean oil blends showed a markedly different emission profile. Across the range of blends and loads, soybean-oil-based mixtures emitted CO₂ at levels comparable to or even lower than fossil diesel. The highest recorded CO₂ level among all, observed with the B60-PSO blend. Surprisingly, even at a full 5 kW engine load, B20-PSO blend produced lower CO₂ emissions than diesel, suggesting superior combustion characteristics when soybean oil is used in moderate proportions. This outcome supports the idea that soybean oil may foster a more efficient combustion process at higher engine loads, likely due to its chemical structure and lower viscosity compared to mahua oil.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the study examined NOₓ emissions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea-\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb), which often increase with combustion temperature and oxygen availability. As expected, fossil diesel showed a linear increase in NOₓ emissions with engine load, reflecting the traditional drawback of diesel combustion in contributing to atmospheric pollution. In contrast, all tested biofuel mixtures yielded significantly lower NOₓ emissions across all load levels. Interestingly, while soybean-oil-based blends generally exhibited slightly higher NOₓ emissions than mahua-oil-based ones, their maximum emission values occurred at intermediate loads. This pattern may be attributed to optimal combustion conditions (e.g., peak cylinder temperatures) aligning with mid-range engine loads. Importantly, the concentration of biofuels in the mixtures inversely correlated with NOₓ emissions: higher biofuel content led to lower NOₓ output. This was most evident in the B100-PSO and B100-PMO samples, which recorded the lowest NOₓ emissions across all engine power levels. These results suggest that pure biofuels derived from PO and VO not only have the potential to replace fossil diesel but also to significantly reduce emissions of both CO₂ and NOₓ when optimized for engine performance. Overall, the emission profiles of the different blends demonstrate a complex interplay between fuel composition, engine load, and combustion dynamics. While certain blends may increase CO₂ under specific conditions, the overall environmental benefits\u0026mdash;particularly in terms of reduced NOₓ and CO emissions\u0026mdash;highlight the potential of biofuel adoption for more sustainable engine operation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.6. Soot emissions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003ea-\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eb illustrates the opacity values of smoke emissions produced at different engine loads for various biofuel blends, specifically those containing soybean oil and mahua oil. A clear distinction emerges between the two oil types: blends containing mahua oil consistently produce higher levels of smoke opacity compared to their soybean oil counterparts at identical blend ratios and operating conditions. This elevated soot emission in mahua oil-based blends can be attributed to the inherent chemical differences between the oils. Soybean oil is rich in linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, whereas mahua oil predominantly contains oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid with a lower degree of unsaturation. Generally, higher unsaturation in fatty acid chains increases the tendency to form polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during combustion, which are precursors to soot particles. Therefore, one might expect soybean oil\u0026mdash;with its higher unsaturation\u0026mdash;to produce more soot. However, experimental observations show the opposite trend, with mahua oil producing higher smoke opacity than soybean oil under identical engine operating conditions. This discrepancy can be attributed to factors beyond fatty acid unsaturation alone. Mahua oil typically has higher viscosity, higher molecular weight triglycerides, and higher oxygen demand for complete combustion compared to soybean oil. These properties can lead to poorer atomization, less efficient mixing with air, and slower combustion kinetics, resulting in incomplete combustion and increased particulate formation. In contrast, soybean oil\u0026rsquo;s lower viscosity and higher content of polyunsaturated esters promote better atomization and more complete combustion, thereby reducing soot emissions despite its higher degree of unsaturation. When compared to biofuels derived from low-viscosity, low-carbon-number components\u0026mdash;such as acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) mixtures or dimethyl carbonate\u0026mdash;the combustion of vegetable-oil-based fuels like mahua and soybean oil generally results in higher smoke opacity. This reflects their greater tendency for particulate matter formation due to higher molecular complexity, viscosity, and lower volatility inherent to long-chain triglycerides.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.7. DPOVO Blends for Sustainable Energy Solutions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study contributes meaningfully to the global pursuit of sustainable energy by demonstrating the feasibility of converting post-consumer plastic waste into a usable fuel component through pyrolysis. By integrating plastic-derived oil with vegetable oils like soybean and mahua oil\u0026mdash;both renewable and widely available\u0026mdash;the research promotes circular economy practices while addressing two pressing environmental challenges: plastic waste accumulation and fossil fuel dependency. The LVLC nature of PO allows it to function as an effective solvent to reduce the high viscosity of vegetable oils without chemical transformation. The resulting DPV (Diesel\u0026ndash;Plastic Oil\u0026ndash;Vegetable Oil) blends comply with EN 590:2022 diesel fuel standards, requiring no engine modifications for use. This positions the developed blends as viable drop-in replacements for fossil diesel in compression-ignition engines, bridging the gap between current infrastructure and future clean energy systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the DPV blends exhibit lower emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and particulate matter compared to pure diesel, highlighting their environmental advantage. While CO₂ emissions are marginally higher in some blends, this is indicative of more complete combustion rather than inefficiency. The ability to utilize industrial waste (plastic oil) and non-edible bioresources (SVOs) for energy generation fosters a decentralized, low-cost, and low-carbon fuel alternative. This directly supports multiple United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 13 (Climate Action). The blend strategy offers a scalable and economically viable interim solution during the transition to electrified transportation, thus reinforcing the role of waste valorization and biofuel innovation in advancing sustainable energy paradigms. The entire process\u0026mdash;from waste valorization to emissions reduction and fossil fuel displacement\u0026mdash;is summarized in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study successfully explored the development of DPV blends as sustainable alternatives to fossil diesel in CI engines. By blending waste-derived plastic oil with non-edible vegetable oils such as SO and MO, the study produced low-viscosity, low-cetane fuels that meet EN 590:2022 standards. The engine performance tests revealed that the B60-PSO blend outperformed conventional diesel, achieving a 12% increase in BTE. Similarly, other blends like B20-PMO showed improved engine performance. Notably, all biofuel blends exhibited a reduction in BSFC, with the B60-PSO blend demonstrating a 15% decrease at a 5 kW load compared to pure diesel, signaling better fuel utilization and lower operational costs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmission analysis further confirmed the environmental benefits of the DPV blends, with significant reductions in CO, NOₓ, and soot emissions, showcasing the cleaner combustion of biofuels. CO emissions were reduced by 20%, NOₓ decreased by 10%, and soot emissions dropped by approximately 40%. While CO₂ emissions slightly increased by 5%, this was indicative of more complete combustion rather than inefficiency. The B100-PSO and B100-PMO blends, consisting solely of plastic oil and vegetable oil, demonstrated the lowest CO emissions, highlighting the potential of these blends to function as renewable and cleaner alternatives to fossil diesel. Although certain intermediate blends (e.g., B40-PMO and B60-PMO) showed slightly higher CO emissions, further optimization of these blends could improve combustion dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research demonstrates that DPV blends are not only feasible as drop-in replacements for fossil diesel but also provide environmental and operational benefits, making them a viable option for reducing fossil fuel dependence and emissions. These findings support the circular economy by converting waste plastic into a functional fuel and utilizing non-edible vegetable oils as renewable resources. Future studies should focus on long-term engine endurance tests, cold-start performance in various climates, and pilot-scale production trials to assess the commercial viability and scalability of these biofuels. Overall, DPV blends offer a promising path toward cleaner, more sustainable energy solutions, contributing to the reduction of carbon footprints and advancing global sustainability goals.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100% Diesel – Pure diesel without any blending\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB20-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20% Plastic-Mahua Oil and 80% Diesel blend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB40-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40% Plastic-Mahua Oil and 60% Diesel blend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB60-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60% Plastic-Mahua Oil and 40% Diesel blend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB80-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80% Plastic-Mahua Oil and 20% Diesel blend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB100-PMO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100% Plastic-Mahua Oil – No diesel content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB20-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20% Plastic-Soybean Oil and 80% Diesel blend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB40-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40% Plastic-Soybean Oil and 60% Diesel blend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB60-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60% Plastic-Soybean Oil and 40% Diesel blend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB80-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80% Plastic-Soybean Oil and 20% Diesel blend\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB100-PSO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100% Plastic-Soybean Oil – No diesel content\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e A.M. and P.M. wrote the main manuscript text. S.P.K.A. and V.K. contributed to data collection and analysis. V.S.M. and J.S.C. prepared figures and assisted in manuscript editing. J.K.P. provided supervision and critical revisions. R.G. conceived the study, coordinated the project, and finalized the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Materials:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstitutional Review Board Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData supporting this study's findings are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of interest's statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for Publication:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll authors have given their consent for the publication of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor agreement statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWe the undersigned declare that this manuscript is original, has not been published before, and is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. We confirm that the manuscript has been read and approved by all named authors and that there are no other persons who satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further confirm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been approved by all of us. We understand that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for the Editorial process. He/she is responsible for communicating with the other authors about progress, submissions of revisions, and final approval of proofs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBorrelle, S. B. et al. Predicted growth in plastic waste exceeds efforts to mitigate plastic pollution. \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e369\u003c/b\u003e (6510), 1515\u0026ndash;1518 (2020).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmankwa, M. O., Tetteh, E. K., Mohale, G. T., Dagba, G. \u0026amp; Opoku, P. 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Ambient Energy\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e43\u003c/b\u003e (1), 1269\u0026ndash;1287 (2022).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eASTM D2156. \u003cem\u003eStandard Test Method for Smoke Density in Flue Gases from Burning Distillate Fuels\u003c/em\u003e (ASTM License Agreement, 2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Plastic Oil, Vegetable Oil Blends, Diesel Engine, Engine Performance, Emissions, Sustainable Energy Solutions","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6862992/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6862992/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the performance and emission characteristics of Diesel–Plastic Pyrolysis Oil–Vegetable Oil (DPV) blends as sustainable alternatives to fossil diesel. Waste-derived plastic oil (PO), obtained via pyrolysis, was blended with vegetable oils—Soybean oil (SO) and Mahua oil (MO)—to formulate low-viscosity, low-cetane (LVLC) fuels. These blends were evaluated for physicochemical properties, engine performance, and emissions compliance with EN 590:2022 standards. Optimized double blends (PO/SO and PO/MO) were further mixed with fossil diesel in varying proportions to form triple blends, tested in a CI engine under different loads. The results showed that DPV blends improved thermal efficiency and reduced BSFC, with the B60-PSO blend demonstrating a 12% increase in brake thermal efficiency compared to pure diesel. The B60-PSO blend also achieved a 15% reduction in BSFC at a 5 kW load. Emission analysis revealed significant reductions in CO (20%), NOₓ (10%), and soot (40%), while CO₂ emissions slightly increased by 5%, indicating more complete combustion. Among all blends, B60-PSO and B20-PMO achieved the best balance between performance and emissions. The B60-PSO blend showed up to 10% higher thermal efficiency compared to conventional diesel. This study highlights DPV fuels as cost-effective, drop-in replacements for diesel, supporting circular economy principles and aligning with global sustainability goals, offering a scalable interim energy solution during the transition toward cleaner propulsion technologies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"DPV Blends as Sustainable Diesel Alternatives: A Comprehensive Engine Performance and Emissions Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-28 17:29:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6862992/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"703d213d-cad8-40da-916f-adde08a0dc52","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 28th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":52066021,"name":"Physical sciences/Energy science and technology"},{"id":52066022,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-10T09:09:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-28 17:29:37","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6862992","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6862992","identity":"rs-6862992","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}