Comparative study of university physical education between Vietnam and Taiwan: lessons for Vietnam

Comparative study of university physical education between Vietnam and Taiwan: lessons for Vietnam | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Comparative study of university physical education between Vietnam and Taiwan: lessons for Vietnam Dinh Quy Pham, Yen Hsiang Huang, Hoang Hieu Do, Anh Tuan Dang This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027021/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract University physical education (PE) plays an increasingly important role in promoting students’ health, well-being, and lifelong engagement in physical activity. However, differences in educational policies, institutional conditions, and levels of digital transformation have led to substantial variations in how PE is organized and implemented across higher education systems in Asia. This study aimed to compare university physical education in Vietnam and Taiwan in order to identify structural differences, developmental gaps, and implications for future reform in Vietnam. A qualitative comparative research design was adopted. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with lecturers, administrators, and students, together with an analysis of institutional and policy documents. The analysis was guided by a four-dimensional framework comprising curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, students’ perceptions and motivation, and technological integration. The findings indicate that university PE in Taiwan is characterized by greater curricular flexibility, higher levels of technological integration, and a stronger emphasis on student-centered and health-oriented learning. In contrast, PE programs in Vietnamese universities remain largely compulsory and fitness-oriented, with limited opportunities for personalization and comparatively modest digital support. Differences between the two systems are influenced not only by resource availability but also by institutional governance and learning culture. The study highlights the need for Vietnam to adopt a more flexible, health-oriented, and digitally enabled model of university physical education to better support student well-being and sustainable physical activity participation. physical education higher education university students Vietnam Taiwan digital transformation… Figures Figure 1 1. INTRODUCTION Physical education (PE) is widely recognized as an essential component of higher education, contributing not only to students’ physical health but also to their psychological well-being, social development, and lifelong engagement in physical activity. In contemporary educational discourse, university PE is no longer viewed merely as a form of physical training; rather, it is increasingly understood as an educational process that supports physical literacy, healthy lifestyles, and holistic human development. Within the context of rapid social change and digital transformation, universities are under growing pressure to redesign PE systems in ways that better respond to students’ diverse needs, learning cultures, and health-related challenges. Recent international scholarship has emphasized the role of PE in fostering physical literacy and sustainable health behaviors across the lifespan. From this perspective, university PE is expected to move beyond standardized and fitness-oriented curricula toward learner-centered models that emphasize intrinsic motivation, autonomy, and the integration of health education. Such approaches align closely with broader higher education goals related to student well-being, quality of life, and the development of human capital in knowledge-based societies. Across Asia, many higher education systems have initiated reforms of university PE in response to these changing educational paradigms. Several countries, including Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan, have gradually shifted from traditional, compulsory and performance-based PE models toward more flexible and diversified curricular structures. These reforms typically involve expanded elective course systems, the integration of health and wellness education, and the incorporation of digital technologies to support teaching, learning, and assessment. In particular, Taiwan has emerged as a notable example of systematic reform, characterized by diversified PE curricula, extensive elective offerings, and the integration of digital and smart technologies into both instructional and administrative processes within a broader “healthy campus” and student well-being policy framework. In contrast, although Vietnam has implemented a number of policy initiatives aimed at improving school and university sports, university PE remains in a transitional stage. PE curricula at most Vietnamese universities continue to be predominantly compulsory, with a strong emphasis on physical conditioning and standardized content. Opportunities for students to select courses based on personal interests, health needs, or lifestyle preferences remain limited. In addition, disparities in facilities and infrastructure across institutions, as well as relatively low levels of technological integration in teaching and assessment, continue to constrain the effectiveness of university PE. Previous domestic studies have primarily focused on describing institutional practices or proposing localized improvements, while broader systemic and comparative perspectives remain underdeveloped. Comparative analysis between Vietnam and Taiwan is particularly meaningful for several reasons. The two societies share similar East Asian cultural foundations and educational traditions influenced by Confucian values, yet they differ substantially in governance structures, policy orientations, and levels of digital transformation in higher education. Such contextual similarities and contrasts provide a valuable basis for identifying development gaps, transferable practices, and culturally adaptable reform strategies. Moreover, while international research on comparative physical education has expanded in recent years, systematic bilateral studies focusing on university PE within the Southeast and East Asian context remain limited. Another important limitation in the existing literature is the lack of comprehensive analytical frameworks that simultaneously examine multiple interrelated dimensions of university PE. Prior studies have often focused on single aspects, such as curriculum structure, student participation, or facility provision, without sufficiently considering how institutional conditions, student perceptions, and technological capacities interact to shape the overall effectiveness of PE systems. In the context of digital transformation and increasing attention to student health and well-being, a multidimensional and integrative perspective is required. To address these gaps, the present study conducts a comparative analysis of university physical education in Vietnam and Taiwan using a four-dimensional analytical framework that examines (1) curriculum design, (2) facilities and infrastructure, (3) students’ perceptions and motivation, and (4) technological integration. By combining qualitative interview data and document analysis, this study seeks to identify key structural differences, developmental gaps, and contextual factors influencing university PE in the two countries. The ultimate objective is to generate evidence-based and culturally responsive policy implications that can support the reform of university physical education in Vietnam toward a more flexible, health-oriented, and digitally enabled model that promotes student well-being and lifelong physical activity. 2. Methods 2.1. Study design This study adopted a qualitative comparative research design to examine and contrast the current state of university physical education (PE) in Vietnam and Taiwan. This design was considered appropriate for exploring institutional practices, policy orientations, and stakeholder perceptions within different higher education and sociocultural contexts. The comparative approach focused on identifying similarities, differences, and contextual factors influencing university PE development in the two countries. The analysis was structured around four core analytical dimensions: curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, students’ perceptions and motivation, and technological integration. By combining interview-based evidence with documentary sources, the study aimed to provide an in-depth and context-sensitive understanding of contemporary university PE systems. Data collection and analysis were conducted between May and December 2025. 2.2. Participants and sampling A purposive sampling strategy was employed to recruit participants who were directly involved in the teaching, management, or participation in university physical education programs. In Vietnam, participants were drawn from a diverse range of higher education institutions, including public universities, private universities, multidisciplinary universities, and specialized sport universities. The participating institutions included Hanoi University of Physical Education and Sports; Hue University (Department of Physical Education); the University of Danang (Department of Physical Education); Nha Trang University; Ton Duc Thang University – Khanh Hoa Campus; Tay Nguyen University; Dong Nai University; Ton Duc Thang University (main campus); Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HUTECH); Gia Dinh University; and Ho Chi Minh City University of Physical Education and Sports. This institutional diversity was intended to enhance the representativeness of the Vietnamese sample. In Taiwan, participants were selected based on their professional experience in university PE management and instruction. The Taiwanese sample consisted of three lecturers, two administrators, and three students who were directly involved in the design, implementation, or participation in university PE programs. In total, 68 participants took part in the study, including 18 lecturers, 7 administrators, and 43 students. Among them, 60 participants were from Vietnam and 8 were from Taiwan. Most student participants were first- and second-year students, as PE courses are typically compulsory during the early years of undergraduate study at Vietnamese universities. These cohorts were therefore considered the most appropriate group for capturing current experiences of university PE. Although the Taiwanese sample size was relatively small, participants were intentionally selected as key informants with direct responsibility for PE curriculum implementation, program management, and policy interpretation. In qualitative comparative research, such an expert-oriented sampling strategy prioritizes informational depth and relevance rather than numerical representativeness. 2.3. Data collection Two primary data sources were used in this study: semi-structured interviews and documentary materials. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with lecturers, administrators, and students. The interview protocol focused on four thematic areas corresponding to the analytical framework of the study: (1) PE curriculum and content, (2) facilities and infrastructure, (3) students’ perceptions and attitudes toward PE, and (4) technological applications in PE teaching and management. Interviews were conducted face-to-face in Vietnam and online with participants in Taiwan. All interviews were audio-recorded with participants’ consent and subsequently transcribed verbatim. In addition to interviews, secondary data were collected from official policy documents, institutional reports, curriculum guidelines, and academic publications related to university physical education in both Vietnam and Taiwan. These documentary sources were used to complement interview data and to support the interpretation of institutional and policy contexts. 2.4. Data analysis Data analysis combined qualitative thematic analysis with descriptive statistical procedures to enhance analytical rigor and transparency. First, all interview transcripts were reviewed and prepared for analysis. When necessary, translations were conducted to ensure linguistic accuracy and consistency across datasets. Qualitative data were analyzed following the six-step thematic analysis framework proposed by Braun and Clarke. An initial codebook was developed based on the four core analytical dimensions of the study—curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, students’ perceptions and motivation, and technological integration—while allowing additional themes to emerge inductively from the data. Coding and data management were conducted using Atlas.ti (version 23). The software facilitated systematic coding, the identification of thematic relationships, and the organization of representative quotations. To enhance analytical reliability, two researchers independently coded 20% of the interview transcripts. Discrepancies were discussed and resolved through consensus, and the codebook was refined accordingly. Subsequently, codes were clustered into broader themes, which were compared across the two national contexts to identify convergent and divergent patterns in university PE practices and experiences. In parallel, descriptive statistics were used to summarize sample characteristics, including participant roles, institutional types, and national distribution. These descriptive data were processed using SPSS (version 26) and were used to support the contextual interpretation of qualitative findings. Finally, qualitative and descriptive results were synthesized within a comparative Vietnam–Taiwan framework to generate integrated interpretations and policy-relevant insights. 2.5. Ethics approval This study complied with established ethical principles for social science research. All participants were informed about the objectives, scope, and procedures of the study prior to their participation. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Participation was voluntary, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. All personal identifiers were removed during data processing. Interview recordings and transcripts were securely stored and were accessible only to the research team in order to ensure confidentiality and data protection. 3. RESULTS This section presents the findings derived from interview data and relevant documentary sources, structured around four core analytical dimensions: (1) university PE curriculum, (2) facilities and infrastructure, (3) student perceptions, and (4) technological integration. A bilateral comparison between Vietnam and Taiwan is employed to identify similarities, differences, and transferable lessons applicable to the development of university PE in Vietnam. 3.1. Overview of Collected Data A total of 60 participants were involved in the study, including 15 lecturers, 5 administrators, and 40 students from approximately 10–15 universities across Vietnam. In addition, eight online interviews were conducted with PE experts in Taiwan, complemented by an analysis of policy documents issued by Taiwan’s Ministry of Education and PE programs implemented at selected Taiwanese universities. Table 1 , Summary of Survey and Interview Participants Participant Group Vietnam Taiwan Total Notes Lecturers 15 3 18 Affiliated with PE departments or faculties Administrators 5 2 7 From PE–Sport Centers or Academic Affairs Offices Students 40 3 43 First- and second-year students enrolled in compulsory or elective PE courses Total 60 8 68 The student sample primarily consisted of first- and second-year students, as this is the period during which PE courses are compulsory at most Vietnamese universities. Consequently, students in these cohorts are considered more representative than those in later academic years. The selected institutions included public universities, private universities, specialized sport universities, and multidisciplinary universities with independent PE centers. This institutional diversity enhances the representativeness of the data and supports a comprehensive depiction of the current state of university PE in Vietnam. 3.2. Physical Education Curriculum The findings indicate substantial differences in the organization of university physical education (PE) curricula between the two countries. In Vietnam, PE is primarily structured as compulsory physical training, characterized by limited flexibility and relatively standardized credit loads and course content across institutions. In Taiwan, by contrast, PE curricula are designed with a higher degree of flexibility, allowing students to select courses based on personal interests, including sport-specific activities, life skills, and health management. These curricula strongly integrate health education and digital technologies. Among the surveyed Vietnamese universities, the number of elective PE courses ranged from 4 to 12, depending on the institution. Some universities offered more contemporary options such as aerobics, yoga, advanced badminton, and elective martial arts. However, the overall level of curricular flexibility remained lower than in Taiwan, where students could choose from approximately 20 to 35 elective PE courses each semester. “In Taiwan, students can choose courses such as basketball, yoga, swimming, or health education, and the credits are formally recognized within the academic credit system, just like other courses.” (Lecturer, National Taiwan Sport University) Survey results further revealed that 70% of Vietnamese lecturers perceived the current PE curriculum as predominantly compulsory and insufficiently flexible in terms of course selection. In contrast, 85% of Taiwanese students expressed positive evaluations of the elective-based PE system, highlighting its diversity and high degree of personalization. 3.3. Facilities and Infrastructure Vietnamese universities continue to face limitations in physical education (PE) facilities, particularly in terms of sports fields and specialized equipment. In contrast, Taiwan has adopted public–private partnership (PPP) models for facility investment, providing universities with more stable resources to sustain sports and PE activities. “We cooperate with local governments to open university sports facilities to the community, and in return receive annual maintenance funding.” (Administrator, National Chengchi University) Table 2 , Key Differences in Facilities and Infrastructure between Vietnam and Taiwan Criteria Vietnam Taiwan Sports fields and training spaces Limited, mainly serving basic PE requirements Adequate and diverse, including integrated sports complexes Fitness assessment and measurement equipment Minimally equipped Widespread use of digital and smart devices Facility management Highly dependent on state budgets Combination of sponsorship and PPP models Technological application Limited High level, supported by software-based management systems Approximately 40% of Vietnamese universities included in the sample possessed standard athletics tracks or comprehensive sports facilities. By comparison, this figure reached around 90% in Taiwan, largely attributable to integrated sports center models and socially oriented facility development mechanisms. 3.4. Students’ Perception and Motivation The findings reveal clear differences in students’ perceptions of and motivation toward physical education (PE) between Vietnam and Taiwan. Vietnamese students generally perceive PE as a compulsory subject, with limited connections to long-term health outcomes or the development of soft skills. Many participants reported participating in PE primarily to fulfill graduation requirements rather than for intrinsic interest or personal development. In contrast, Taiwanese students demonstrated higher levels of intrinsic motivation, viewing PE as an opportunity to enhance personal skills, manage stress, and achieve balance between academic study and well-being. PE was commonly perceived not only as physical training but also as a space for social interaction and emotional regulation. “Sports courses at university are not just compulsory requirements; they are where students learn cooperation and emotional management.” (Student, National Taiwan Sport University) These differences reflect broader divergences in educational objectives and pedagogical approaches between the two systems. While Vietnamese PE tends to emphasize physical conditioning and compliance with curricular requirements, Taiwanese PE places greater focus on personal development, well-being, and experiential learning. 3.5. Technological Integration The results indicate a substantial gap in the level of technological integration in physical education (PE) between Vietnam and Taiwan. In Taiwan, technology is extensively integrated into PE through e-learning platforms, wearable fitness sensors, and mobile applications that support student monitoring, assessment, and learning management. These technologies enable continuous tracking of students’ physical performance, attendance, and learning progress, contributing to more personalized and data-driven instruction. In contrast, technological integration in Vietnamese PE remains at an experimental stage. Most universities primarily use learning management systems (LMS) for administrative purposes such as attendance tracking and grading, with limited application in physical assessment, instructional design, or individualized feedback. Interview data from Taiwanese experts emphasized that technology plays a key role in linking PE with broader “Smart Campus” and “Healthy University” initiatives, allowing PE outcomes to be systematically recorded and analyzed alongside other academic data. Meanwhile, Vietnamese respondents acknowledged the potential benefits of smart technologies but cited constraints related to funding, infrastructure, and insufficient digital training for PE lecturers. Table 3 , Illustration of Technological Integration Levels Criteria Vietnam Taiwan Learning Management System (LMS) Available, but limited use Fully integrated into university-wide PE systems Smart sports applications Not yet implemented Widely used in fitness assessment Technology training for lecturers Few professional development programs Regular annual training programs Overall digital transformation level Low to moderate High and stable 3.6. Four-Dimensional Comparative Framework between Vietnam and Taiwan Figure 1 illustrates the four-dimensional analytical framework employed in this study, comprising: (1) physical education curriculum, (2) facilities and infrastructure, (3) students’ perception and motivation, and (4) technological integration. The arrows indicate the interdependent relationships among these dimensions within the university physical education system. The analysis reveals that Taiwan demonstrates a higher level of development across the first three pillars—curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, and students’ perception. Taiwanese universities adopt a flexible and learner-centered PE model that emphasizes personal health development, social competence, and lifelong physical activity. This model is strongly supported by modern sports facilities and a campus culture in which physical activity is embedded in students’ daily life. In contrast, Vietnam shows a moderate level of development in these three pillars. While the PE curriculum structure and teaching workforce remain relatively stable, limitations persist in terms of infrastructure quality and the degree of personalization in course offerings. Physical education is still largely perceived as a compulsory academic requirement rather than an integral component of holistic student development. The most pronounced difference between the two systems lies in the fourth pillar—technological integration. Taiwan has systematically incorporated digital technologies into PE teaching and management, including learning management systems, smart PE platforms, and fitness sensors. Meanwhile, Vietnam remains at an early stage of digital transformation in university physical education, with technology mainly used for administrative purposes rather than instructional enhancement. Overall, the framework indicates that although university PE systems in Vietnam and Taiwan share a similar structural foundation, they differ significantly in developmental level and strategic orientation. These findings support the research hypothesis that policy orientation, learning culture, and technological capacity are the three key determinants shaping the gap between the two countries in the development of university physical education. 4. DISCUSSION 4.1. Theoretical Implications The findings of this study clarify the differences between Vietnam and Taiwan in the organization and perception of university physical education (PE), thereby extending the comparative theoretical framework of PE within the East Asian cultural context. The results confirm that learning culture and broader social values play a decisive role in shaping models of university physical education. In Vietnam, PE remains strongly influenced by an examination-oriented and academically driven educational tradition, resulting in a compulsory, fitness-focused approach. In contrast, Taiwan has shifted toward a wellness-oriented and experience-based PE model that emphasizes personal health, student engagement, and holistic development. This transition reflects broader trends of educational modernization and internationalization in Taiwanese higher education. These differences highlight the influence of cultural determinants in shaping PE systems. Within Confucian-influenced societies, physical education and sport tend to gain institutional legitimacy only when they are closely linked to academic values, moral education, and comprehensive human development. Consequently, the social positioning of PE is not merely a pedagogical issue but a culturally embedded phenomenon. From a theoretical perspective, this study contributes to the literature in three main ways. First, it proposes a four-dimensional analytical framework—curriculum, facilities and infrastructure, students’ perception, and technological integration—for international comparison of university PE systems. Second, it incorporates a sociocultural approach to explain cross-national differences, moving beyond purely structural or policy-based explanations. Third, it opens new directions for research in comparative physical education by integrating policy, culture, and technology within the context of global integration and digital transformation. 4.2. Practical and policy implications The findings provide several important implications for the future reform of university physical education in Vietnam. First, in terms of curriculum design, Vietnam can learn from Taiwan’s flexible and student-centered approach by expanding elective PE courses, such as yoga, community sports, and health-related skills. This flexibility may enhance student autonomy, motivation, and long-term engagement in physical activity. Second, regarding facilities and infrastructure, greater emphasis should be placed on public–private partnerships (PPP) to mobilize social resources for investment in sports facilities and ensure sustainable management. Such models could help address long-standing constraints related to funding and facility maintenance in Vietnamese universities. Third, concerning students’ perception, it is essential to shift from viewing PE as merely a compulsory subject toward recognizing the intrinsic value of health and physical activity. This transformation can be facilitated through effective communication strategies and experiential learning opportunities that highlight the personal and social benefits of physical education. Fourth, with respect to technology, universities should accelerate digital transformation in PE by developing blended learning models, integrating fitness sensors, and using online platforms to monitor learning progress and physical performance. Technological integration should serve not only administrative purposes but also pedagogical innovation and personalized learning. Importantly, Vietnamese universities must take into account learning culture and social context in any PE reform. The adoption of the Taiwanese model should follow a process of localized adaptation to ensure alignment with Vietnamese students’ psychology and the characteristics of an examination-oriented education system. Without such contextualization, policy transfer risks becoming superficial and ineffective. 4.3. Policy Recommendations Based on the research findings and discussion, this study proposes three major groups of policy recommendations: (1) At the national level:There is a need for a comprehensive national strategy for university physical ed ucation that is integrated into broader policies on holistic education and public health. Such a strategy should explicitly recognize physical education as a core component of human capital development. In addition, targeted financial support should be allocated to accelerate digital transformation in school and university sports, including investments in digital infrastructure, smart fitness technologies, and data-driven PE management systems. (2) At the university level: Universities should establish modern and autonomous physical education centers that are professionally managed and equipped with adequate facilities. These centers should function not only as teaching units but also as hubs for student wellness, extracurricular sports, and community engagement. Furthermore, universities are encouraged to strengthen international cooperation, particularly with institutions in East Asia, to exchange curricula, teaching models, and expert knowledge in physical education and sports science. (3) At the societal level: Greater emphasis should be placed on communication and advocacy regarding the value of physical activity and sport in everyday life. Public awareness campaigns and media initiatives can play a crucial role in reshaping social perceptions, helping society recognize physical education as an essential element of holistic human development rather than a supplementary or marginal subject. In summary, this study demonstrates that the differences between Vietnam and Taiwan are not solely the result of policy frameworks or levels of investment, but are deeply rooted in cultural and social determinants that shape how sport and health are perceived within academic environments. Therefore, reforming university physical education in Vietnam requires a multidimensional approach that simultaneously addresses curriculum innovation, technological development, and adaptation to students’ learning culture. Such an integrated strategy represents a sustainable pathway for advancing physical education in the era of international integration and educational modernization. 6. CONCLUSION This study compared university physical education (PE) systems in Vietnam and Taiwan through a four-dimensional analytical framework encompassing curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, students’ perceptions and motivation, and technological integration. The findings reveal substantial differences in the organization and orientation of university PE between the two countries. Taiwan demonstrates a more flexible and learner-centered curriculum, stronger institutional investment in facilities, higher levels of student engagement, and more advanced integration of digital and smart technologies. These characteristics are closely aligned with broader objectives of student health promotion, well-being, and lifelong physical activity. In contrast, university PE in Vietnam remains largely compulsory and fitness-oriented, with limited opportunities for personalized learning and relatively modest levels of technological application. Although Vietnamese universities benefit from a stable and qualified teaching workforce and a long-standing tradition of school-based physical education, persistent constraints related to infrastructure, curricular flexibility, and digital capacity continue to limit the effectiveness of PE in supporting students’ holistic development and health-related outcomes. Importantly, the results indicate that the observed differences between the two systems cannot be explained solely by levels of investment or policy design. Learning culture, institutional governance, and sociocultural perceptions of physical education play a decisive role in shaping how PE is positioned within higher education. Digital transformation in university PE therefore emerges not merely as a technological challenge, but as a broader issue of educational philosophy, organizational capacity, and learning culture. By applying an integrated and comparative framework, this study contributes to the literature on sport sciences and health-oriented education by demonstrating how curriculum structures, institutional conditions, student experiences, and technological infrastructures interact to influence the capacity of university PE to promote student well-being. The findings suggest that future reform of university physical education in Vietnam should move beyond a narrow focus on physical training toward a health-oriented and learner-centered model that supports physical literacy, psychological well-being, and sustainable engagement in physical activity. Such reform should be implemented through context-sensitive strategies that acknowledge local learning cultures while selectively adapting effective practices from more advanced regional systems, thereby supporting a culturally responsive and evidence-based pathway for the modernization of university physical education. 7. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH Several limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, the sample size was relatively modest and was mainly drawn from large and well-established universities. Consequently, the findings may not fully reflect the conditions of smaller institutions or those with limited resources for physical education development, particularly in regional or private higher education settings. Second, although this study adopted a qualitative comparative design that enabled in-depth exploration of institutional practices and stakeholder perceptions, the absence of large-scale quantitative data limits the ability to statistically estimate the magnitude of differences between Vietnam and Taiwan or to examine causal relationships among key variables such as curriculum structure, student motivation, and technological integration. Third, the Taiwanese dataset relied on a relatively small number of key informants and documentary sources. While these participants were directly involved in university PE management and curriculum implementation, broader institutional coverage would further strengthen the robustness and generalizability of cross-national comparisons. Finally, the study was conducted within a relatively short time frame and focused primarily on policy, institutional arrangements, and perceptions rather than on objective health or physical activity outcomes. As a result, the long-term effects of different university PE models on students’ physical activity behavior and health status could not be assessed. Future research is therefore encouraged to adopt mixed-methods or large-scale quantitative designs to complement qualitative insights and to examine the relationships between university PE structures, learning experiences, and measurable health and well-being outcomes. Longitudinal studies tracking changes in students’ physical activity patterns and health indicators over time would be particularly valuable. In addition, expanding comparative frameworks to include other Asian countries with diverse policy and cultural contexts would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how digital transformation and learning culture shape the development of university physical education in the region. Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author Contribution Dr Pham Dinh Quy is the main contributor and incharge of writing the manuscripts while Prof Huang provides guidance and other data from Taiwan side. Mr. Tuan Anh Dang is a lecturer at People's Police University, HCMC, Vietnam and is incharge of collecting data and demonstrates research manner at his working university. Mr. Hoang Hieu Do is a lecturer at Ho Chi Minh City University of Law, who is incharge of collecting data and demonstrates research manner at his working university.Other data and demonstrating the research manner at Hutech University and other organizations were carried out by Dr Pham Dinh Quy also. Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical and confidentiality considerations but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3 (2), 77–101. Chen, L. C., & Hung, C. F. (2019). The development and reform of physical education in Taiwan’s higher education. 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Research methods in physical education [in Vietnamese]. Bac Ninh University of Physical Education and Sports Publishing House. Tran, T. H. (2020). Physical education in the context of international integration: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities , 7 (4), 88–96. [in Vietnamese] Yang, S. M. (2020). Sports culture and health education in Taiwanese universities: A cultural determinant perspective. International Journal of Physical Education , 57 (1), 23–35. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 17 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 15 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 10 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 30 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 28 Mar, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 28 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 05 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 05 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 04 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9027021","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":614941269,"identity":"7239b17c-3507-4779-9d3d-dc1563600283","order_by":0,"name":"Dinh Quy Pham","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA1klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCCBBBhAyaZgZixgUgtaQkMbCRqOUyCFnP2BMbbvG3n8wzuNx/8XMBgI7vhAI/ZA3xaLHseMFvztt0uNjjGliw9gyHNGKjF3ACfFoMbCWzSQC2JG47xmDHzMBxO3HCALU2CCC3ngFr4vwG1/CdaywGQLWxALUDGAeZjeLVY9jxstpxzLjlx5rE0Y2keg2TjmYcJaDFnTz54402ZXWLf4cMPP/NU2Mn2HW9sw+8wYERIMLIhuJDYwa+FgUGC4Q8BVaNgFIyCUTCyAQA/BEiQ4z9ZiQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"HUTECH University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dinh","middleName":"Quy","lastName":"Pham","suffix":""},{"id":614941270,"identity":"7c133adf-5dad-4058-a33f-af0e9ebb4bcb","order_by":1,"name":"Yen Hsiang Huang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Taiwan University of Sport","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yen","middleName":"Hsiang","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""},{"id":614941271,"identity":"f104367f-b07b-4cc7-9d56-ba69b2d2b50a","order_by":2,"name":"Hoang Hieu Do","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ho Chi Minh City University of Law","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hoang","middleName":"Hieu","lastName":"Do","suffix":""},{"id":614941272,"identity":"0381c54f-5fd4-4a8e-b9eb-2a835c0a40d1","order_by":3,"name":"Anh Tuan Dang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"People'S Police University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Anh","middleName":"Tuan","lastName":"Dang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-04 07:24:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027021/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027021/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106086569,"identity":"9644802e-3eb5-46e6-bd57-07f8b7973218","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 09:45:23","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":60405,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFour-dimensional comparative framework of university physical education in Vietnam and Taiwan\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9027021/v1/1643d31fb9787bc5ba3ec632.jpeg"},{"id":106094446,"identity":"3b6d33db-c4db-4660-a17c-f833ed7bee8c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:42:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":709993,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9027021/v1/aa166a6b-ba82-4697-b778-f98e7bef5be7.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Comparative study of university physical education between Vietnam and Taiwan: lessons for Vietnam","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003ePhysical education (PE) is widely recognized as an essential component of higher education, contributing not only to students\u0026rsquo; physical health but also to their psychological well-being, social development, and lifelong engagement in physical activity. In contemporary educational discourse, university PE is no longer viewed merely as a form of physical training; rather, it is increasingly understood as an educational process that supports physical literacy, healthy lifestyles, and holistic human development. Within the context of rapid social change and digital transformation, universities are under growing pressure to redesign PE systems in ways that better respond to students\u0026rsquo; diverse needs, learning cultures, and health-related challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent international scholarship has emphasized the role of PE in fostering physical literacy and sustainable health behaviors across the lifespan. From this perspective, university PE is expected to move beyond standardized and fitness-oriented curricula toward learner-centered models that emphasize intrinsic motivation, autonomy, and the integration of health education. Such approaches align closely with broader higher education goals related to student well-being, quality of life, and the development of human capital in knowledge-based societies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross Asia, many higher education systems have initiated reforms of university PE in response to these changing educational paradigms. Several countries, including Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan, have gradually shifted from traditional, compulsory and performance-based PE models toward more flexible and diversified curricular structures. These reforms typically involve expanded elective course systems, the integration of health and wellness education, and the incorporation of digital technologies to support teaching, learning, and assessment. In particular, Taiwan has emerged as a notable example of systematic reform, characterized by diversified PE curricula, extensive elective offerings, and the integration of digital and smart technologies into both instructional and administrative processes within a broader \u0026ldquo;healthy campus\u0026rdquo; and student well-being policy framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, although Vietnam has implemented a number of policy initiatives aimed at improving school and university sports, university PE remains in a transitional stage. PE curricula at most Vietnamese universities continue to be predominantly compulsory, with a strong emphasis on physical conditioning and standardized content. Opportunities for students to select courses based on personal interests, health needs, or lifestyle preferences remain limited. In addition, disparities in facilities and infrastructure across institutions, as well as relatively low levels of technological integration in teaching and assessment, continue to constrain the effectiveness of university PE. Previous domestic studies have primarily focused on describing institutional practices or proposing localized improvements, while broader systemic and comparative perspectives remain underdeveloped.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative analysis between Vietnam and Taiwan is particularly meaningful for several reasons. The two societies share similar East Asian cultural foundations and educational traditions influenced by Confucian values, yet they differ substantially in governance structures, policy orientations, and levels of digital transformation in higher education. Such contextual similarities and contrasts provide a valuable basis for identifying development gaps, transferable practices, and culturally adaptable reform strategies. Moreover, while international research on comparative physical education has expanded in recent years, systematic bilateral studies focusing on university PE within the Southeast and East Asian context remain limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother important limitation in the existing literature is the lack of comprehensive analytical frameworks that simultaneously examine multiple interrelated dimensions of university PE. Prior studies have often focused on single aspects, such as curriculum structure, student participation, or facility provision, without sufficiently considering how institutional conditions, student perceptions, and technological capacities interact to shape the overall effectiveness of PE systems. In the context of digital transformation and increasing attention to student health and well-being, a multidimensional and integrative perspective is required.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address these gaps, the present study conducts a comparative analysis of university physical education in Vietnam and Taiwan using a four-dimensional analytical framework that examines (1) curriculum design, (2) facilities and infrastructure, (3) students\u0026rsquo; perceptions and motivation, and (4) technological integration. By combining qualitative interview data and document analysis, this study seeks to identify key structural differences, developmental gaps, and contextual factors influencing university PE in the two countries. The ultimate objective is to generate evidence-based and culturally responsive policy implications that can support the reform of university physical education in Vietnam toward a more flexible, health-oriented, and digitally enabled model that promotes student well-being and lifelong physical activity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Study design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study adopted a qualitative comparative research design to examine and contrast the current state of university physical education (PE) in Vietnam and Taiwan. This design was considered appropriate for exploring institutional practices, policy orientations, and stakeholder perceptions within different higher education and sociocultural contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe comparative approach focused on identifying similarities, differences, and contextual factors influencing university PE development in the two countries. The analysis was structured around four core analytical dimensions: curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, students\u0026rsquo; perceptions and motivation, and technological integration. By combining interview-based evidence with documentary sources, the study aimed to provide an in-depth and context-sensitive understanding of contemporary university PE systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collection and analysis were conducted between May and December 2025.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Participants and sampling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA purposive sampling strategy was employed to recruit participants who were directly involved in the teaching, management, or participation in university physical education programs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Vietnam, participants were drawn from a diverse range of higher education institutions, including public universities, private universities, multidisciplinary universities, and specialized sport universities. The participating institutions included Hanoi University of Physical Education and Sports; Hue University (Department of Physical Education); the University of Danang (Department of Physical Education); Nha Trang University; Ton Duc Thang University \u0026ndash; Khanh Hoa Campus; Tay Nguyen University; Dong Nai University; Ton Duc Thang University (main campus); Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HUTECH); Gia Dinh University; and Ho Chi Minh City University of Physical Education and Sports. This institutional diversity was intended to enhance the representativeness of the Vietnamese sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Taiwan, participants were selected based on their professional experience in university PE management and instruction. The Taiwanese sample consisted of three lecturers, two administrators, and three students who were directly involved in the design, implementation, or participation in university PE programs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn total, 68 participants took part in the study, including 18 lecturers, 7 administrators, and 43 students. Among them, 60 participants were from Vietnam and 8 were from Taiwan. Most student participants were first- and second-year students, as PE courses are typically compulsory during the early years of undergraduate study at Vietnamese universities. These cohorts were therefore considered the most appropriate group for capturing current experiences of university PE.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the Taiwanese sample size was relatively small, participants were intentionally selected as key informants with direct responsibility for PE curriculum implementation, program management, and policy interpretation. In qualitative comparative research, such an expert-oriented sampling strategy prioritizes informational depth and relevance rather than numerical representativeness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Data collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo primary data sources were used in this study: semi-structured interviews and documentary materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSemi-structured interviews were conducted with lecturers, administrators, and students. The interview protocol focused on four thematic areas corresponding to the analytical framework of the study: (1) PE curriculum and content, (2) facilities and infrastructure, (3) students\u0026rsquo; perceptions and attitudes toward PE, and (4) technological applications in PE teaching and management. Interviews were conducted face-to-face in Vietnam and online with participants in Taiwan. All interviews were audio-recorded with participants\u0026rsquo; consent and subsequently transcribed verbatim.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e In addition to interviews, secondary data were collected from official policy documents, institutional reports, curriculum guidelines, and academic publications related to university physical education in both Vietnam and Taiwan. These documentary sources were used to complement interview data and to support the interpretation of institutional and policy contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData analysis combined qualitative thematic analysis with descriptive statistical procedures to enhance analytical rigor and transparency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, all interview transcripts were reviewed and prepared for analysis. When necessary, translations were conducted to ensure linguistic accuracy and consistency across datasets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative data were analyzed following the six-step thematic analysis framework proposed by Braun and Clarke. An initial codebook was developed based on the four core analytical dimensions of the study\u0026mdash;curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, students\u0026rsquo; perceptions and motivation, and technological integration\u0026mdash;while allowing additional themes to emerge inductively from the data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoding and data management were conducted using Atlas.ti (version 23). The software facilitated systematic coding, the identification of thematic relationships, and the organization of representative quotations. To enhance analytical reliability, two researchers independently coded 20% of the interview transcripts. Discrepancies were discussed and resolved through consensus, and the codebook was refined accordingly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsequently, codes were clustered into broader themes, which were compared across the two national contexts to identify convergent and divergent patterns in university PE practices and experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn parallel, descriptive statistics were used to summarize sample characteristics, including participant roles, institutional types, and national distribution. These descriptive data were processed using SPSS (version 26) and were used to support the contextual interpretation of qualitative findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, qualitative and descriptive results were synthesized within a comparative Vietnam\u0026ndash;Taiwan framework to generate integrated interpretations and policy-relevant insights.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Ethics approval\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e This study complied with established ethical principles for social science research. All participants were informed about the objectives, scope, and procedures of the study prior to their participation. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipation was voluntary, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. All personal identifiers were removed during data processing. Interview recordings and transcripts were securely stored and were accessible only to the research team in order to ensure confidentiality and data protection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section presents the findings derived from interview data and relevant documentary sources, structured around four core analytical dimensions: (1) university PE curriculum, (2) facilities and infrastructure, (3) student perceptions, and (4) technological integration. A bilateral comparison between Vietnam and Taiwan is employed to identify similarities, differences, and transferable lessons applicable to the development of university PE in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Overview of Collected Data\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 60 participants were involved in the study, including 15 lecturers, 5 administrators, and 40 students from approximately 10\u0026ndash;15 universities across Vietnam. In addition, eight online interviews were conducted with PE experts in Taiwan, complemented by an analysis of policy documents issued by Taiwan\u0026rsquo;s Ministry of Education and PE programs implemented at selected Taiwanese universities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e, Summary of Survey and Interview Participants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipant Group\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVietnam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaiwan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLecturers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffiliated with PE departments or faculties\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdministrators\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom PE\u0026ndash;Sport Centers or Academic Affairs Offices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst- and second-year students enrolled in compulsory or elective PE courses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe student sample primarily consisted of first- and second-year students, as this is the period during which PE courses are compulsory at most Vietnamese universities. Consequently, students in these cohorts are considered more representative than those in later academic years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe selected institutions included public universities, private universities, specialized sport universities, and multidisciplinary universities with independent PE centers. This institutional diversity enhances the representativeness of the data and supports a comprehensive depiction of the current state of university PE in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Physical Education Curriculum\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings indicate substantial differences in the organization of university physical education (PE) curricula between the two countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Vietnam, PE is primarily structured as compulsory physical training, characterized by limited flexibility and relatively standardized credit loads and course content across institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Taiwan, by contrast, PE curricula are designed with a higher degree of flexibility, allowing students to select courses based on personal interests, including sport-specific activities, life skills, and health management. These curricula strongly integrate health education and digital technologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the surveyed Vietnamese universities, the number of elective PE courses ranged from 4 to 12, depending on the institution. Some universities offered more contemporary options such as aerobics, yoga, advanced badminton, and elective martial arts. However, the overall level of curricular flexibility remained lower than in Taiwan, where students could choose from approximately 20 to 35 elective PE courses each semester.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;In Taiwan, students can choose courses such as basketball, yoga, swimming, or health education, and the credits are formally recognized within the academic credit system, just like other courses.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003e(Lecturer, National Taiwan Sport University)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurvey results further revealed that 70% of Vietnamese lecturers perceived the current PE curriculum as predominantly compulsory and insufficiently flexible in terms of course selection. In contrast, 85% of Taiwanese students expressed positive evaluations of the elective-based PE system, highlighting its diversity and high degree of personalization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Facilities and Infrastructure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVietnamese universities continue to face limitations in physical education (PE) facilities, particularly in terms of sports fields and specialized equipment. In contrast, Taiwan has adopted public\u0026ndash;private partnership (PPP) models for facility investment, providing universities with more stable resources to sustain sports and PE activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;We cooperate with local governments to open university sports facilities to the community, and in return receive annual maintenance funding.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003e(Administrator, National Chengchi University)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e, Key Differences in Facilities and Infrastructure between Vietnam and Taiwan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCriteria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVietnam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaiwan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSports fields and training spaces\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited, mainly serving basic PE requirements\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdequate and diverse, including integrated sports complexes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFitness assessment and measurement equipment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMinimally equipped\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidespread use of digital and smart devices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFacility management\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighly dependent on state budgets\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCombination of sponsorship and PPP models\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnological application\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh level, supported by software-based management systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eApproximately 40% of Vietnamese universities included in the sample possessed standard athletics tracks or comprehensive sports facilities. By comparison, this figure reached around 90% in Taiwan, largely attributable to integrated sports center models and socially oriented facility development mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Students\u0026rsquo; Perception and Motivation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings reveal clear differences in students\u0026rsquo; perceptions of and motivation toward physical education (PE) between Vietnam and Taiwan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVietnamese students generally perceive PE as a compulsory subject, with limited connections to long-term health outcomes or the development of soft skills. Many participants reported participating in PE primarily to fulfill graduation requirements rather than for intrinsic interest or personal development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, Taiwanese students demonstrated higher levels of intrinsic motivation, viewing PE as an opportunity to enhance personal skills, manage stress, and achieve balance between academic study and well-being. PE was commonly perceived not only as physical training but also as a space for social interaction and emotional regulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Sports courses at university are not just compulsory requirements; they are where students learn cooperation and emotional management.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003e(Student, National Taiwan Sport University)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese differences reflect broader divergences in educational objectives and pedagogical approaches between the two systems. While Vietnamese PE tends to emphasize physical conditioning and compliance with curricular requirements, Taiwanese PE places greater focus on personal development, well-being, and experiential learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Technological Integration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results indicate a substantial gap in the level of technological integration in physical education (PE) between Vietnam and Taiwan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Taiwan, technology is extensively integrated into PE through e-learning platforms, wearable fitness sensors, and mobile applications that support student monitoring, assessment, and learning management. These technologies enable continuous tracking of students\u0026rsquo; physical performance, attendance, and learning progress, contributing to more personalized and data-driven instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, technological integration in Vietnamese PE remains at an experimental stage. Most universities primarily use learning management systems (LMS) for administrative purposes such as attendance tracking and grading, with limited application in physical assessment, instructional design, or individualized feedback.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterview data from Taiwanese experts emphasized that technology plays a key role in linking PE with broader \u0026ldquo;Smart Campus\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Healthy University\u0026rdquo; initiatives, allowing PE outcomes to be systematically recorded and analyzed alongside other academic data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, Vietnamese respondents acknowledged the potential benefits of smart technologies but cited constraints related to funding, infrastructure, and insufficient digital training for PE lecturers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e, Illustration of Technological Integration Levels\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCriteria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVietnam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaiwan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLearning Management System (LMS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvailable, but limited use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFully integrated into university-wide PE systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmart sports applications\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot yet implemented\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidely used in fitness assessment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnology training for lecturers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFew professional development programs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegular annual training programs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall digital transformation level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow to moderate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh and stable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6. Four-Dimensional Comparative Framework between Vietnam and Taiwan\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the four-dimensional analytical framework employed in this study, comprising: (1) physical education curriculum, (2) facilities and infrastructure, (3) students\u0026rsquo; perception and motivation, and (4) technological integration. The arrows indicate the interdependent relationships among these dimensions within the university physical education system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis reveals that Taiwan demonstrates a higher level of development across the first three pillars\u0026mdash;curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, and students\u0026rsquo; perception. Taiwanese universities adopt a flexible and learner-centered PE model that emphasizes personal health development, social competence, and lifelong physical activity. This model is strongly supported by modern sports facilities and a campus culture in which physical activity is embedded in students\u0026rsquo; daily life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, Vietnam shows a moderate level of development in these three pillars. While the PE curriculum structure and teaching workforce remain relatively stable, limitations persist in terms of infrastructure quality and the degree of personalization in course offerings. Physical education is still largely perceived as a compulsory academic requirement rather than an integral component of holistic student development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most pronounced difference between the two systems lies in the fourth pillar\u0026mdash;technological integration. Taiwan has systematically incorporated digital technologies into PE teaching and management, including learning management systems, smart PE platforms, and fitness sensors. Meanwhile, Vietnam remains at an early stage of digital transformation in university physical education, with technology mainly used for administrative purposes rather than instructional enhancement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the framework indicates that although university PE systems in Vietnam and Taiwan share a similar structural foundation, they differ significantly in developmental level and strategic orientation. These findings support the research hypothesis that policy orientation, learning culture, and technological capacity are the three key determinants shaping the gap between the two countries in the development of university physical education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. Theoretical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study clarify the differences between Vietnam and Taiwan in the organization and perception of university physical education (PE), thereby extending the comparative theoretical framework of PE within the East Asian cultural context. The results confirm that learning culture and broader social values play a decisive role in shaping models of university physical education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Vietnam, PE remains strongly influenced by an examination-oriented and academically driven educational tradition, resulting in a compulsory, fitness-focused approach. In contrast, Taiwan has shifted toward a wellness-oriented and experience-based PE model that emphasizes personal health, student engagement, and holistic development. This transition reflects broader trends of educational modernization and internationalization in Taiwanese higher education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese differences highlight the influence of cultural determinants in shaping PE systems. Within Confucian-influenced societies, physical education and sport tend to gain institutional legitimacy only when they are closely linked to academic values, moral education, and comprehensive human development. Consequently, the social positioning of PE is not merely a pedagogical issue but a culturally embedded phenomenon.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a theoretical perspective, this study contributes to the literature in three main ways. First, it proposes a four-dimensional analytical framework\u0026mdash;curriculum, facilities and infrastructure, students\u0026rsquo; perception, and technological integration\u0026mdash;for international comparison of university PE systems. Second, it incorporates a sociocultural approach to explain cross-national differences, moving beyond purely structural or policy-based explanations. Third, it opens new directions for research in comparative physical education by integrating policy, culture, and technology within the context of global integration and digital transformation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. Practical and policy implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings provide several important implications for the future reform of university physical education in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, in terms of curriculum design, Vietnam can learn from Taiwan\u0026rsquo;s flexible and student-centered approach by expanding elective PE courses, such as yoga, community sports, and health-related skills. This flexibility may enhance student autonomy, motivation, and long-term engagement in physical activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, regarding facilities and infrastructure, greater emphasis should be placed on public\u0026ndash;private partnerships (PPP) to mobilize social resources for investment in sports facilities and ensure sustainable management. Such models could help address long-standing constraints related to funding and facility maintenance in Vietnamese universities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, concerning students\u0026rsquo; perception, it is essential to shift from viewing PE as merely a compulsory subject toward recognizing the intrinsic value of health and physical activity. This transformation can be facilitated through effective communication strategies and experiential learning opportunities that highlight the personal and social benefits of physical education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFourth, with respect to technology, universities should accelerate digital transformation in PE by developing blended learning models, integrating fitness sensors, and using online platforms to monitor learning progress and physical performance. Technological integration should serve not only administrative purposes but also pedagogical innovation and personalized learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportantly, Vietnamese universities must take into account learning culture and social context in any PE reform. The adoption of the Taiwanese model should follow a process of localized adaptation to ensure alignment with Vietnamese students\u0026rsquo; psychology and the characteristics of an examination-oriented education system. Without such contextualization, policy transfer risks becoming superficial and ineffective.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3. Policy Recommendations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the research findings and discussion, this study proposes three major groups of policy recommendations:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1) At the national level:There is a need for a comprehensive national strategy for university physical ed ucation that is integrated into broader policies on holistic education and public health. Such a strategy should explicitly recognize physical education as a core component of human capital development. In addition, targeted financial support should be allocated to accelerate digital transformation in school and university sports, including investments in digital infrastructure, smart fitness technologies, and data-driven PE management systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2) At the university level: Universities should establish modern and autonomous physical education centers that are professionally managed and equipped with adequate facilities. These centers should function not only as teaching units but also as hubs for student wellness, extracurricular sports, and community engagement. Furthermore, universities are encouraged to strengthen international cooperation, particularly with institutions in East Asia, to exchange curricula, teaching models, and expert knowledge in physical education and sports science.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3) At the societal level: Greater emphasis should be placed on communication and advocacy regarding the value of physical activity and sport in everyday life. Public awareness campaigns and media initiatives can play a crucial role in reshaping social perceptions, helping society recognize physical education as an essential element of holistic human development rather than a supplementary or marginal subject.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study demonstrates that the differences between Vietnam and Taiwan are not solely the result of policy frameworks or levels of investment, but are deeply rooted in cultural and social determinants that shape how sport and health are perceived within academic environments. Therefore, reforming university physical education in Vietnam requires a multidimensional approach that simultaneously addresses curriculum innovation, technological development, and adaptation to students\u0026rsquo; learning culture. Such an integrated strategy represents a sustainable pathway for advancing physical education in the era of international integration and educational modernization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study compared university physical education (PE) systems in Vietnam and Taiwan through a four-dimensional analytical framework encompassing curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, students\u0026rsquo; perceptions and motivation, and technological integration. The findings reveal substantial differences in the organization and orientation of university PE between the two countries. Taiwan demonstrates a more flexible and learner-centered curriculum, stronger institutional investment in facilities, higher levels of student engagement, and more advanced integration of digital and smart technologies. These characteristics are closely aligned with broader objectives of student health promotion, well-being, and lifelong physical activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, university PE in Vietnam remains largely compulsory and fitness-oriented, with limited opportunities for personalized learning and relatively modest levels of technological application. Although Vietnamese universities benefit from a stable and qualified teaching workforce and a long-standing tradition of school-based physical education, persistent constraints related to infrastructure, curricular flexibility, and digital capacity continue to limit the effectiveness of PE in supporting students\u0026rsquo; holistic development and health-related outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportantly, the results indicate that the observed differences between the two systems cannot be explained solely by levels of investment or policy design. Learning culture, institutional governance, and sociocultural perceptions of physical education play a decisive role in shaping how PE is positioned within higher education. Digital transformation in university PE therefore emerges not merely as a technological challenge, but as a broader issue of educational philosophy, organizational capacity, and learning culture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy applying an integrated and comparative framework, this study contributes to the literature on sport sciences and health-oriented education by demonstrating how curriculum structures, institutional conditions, student experiences, and technological infrastructures interact to influence the capacity of university PE to promote student well-being. The findings suggest that future reform of university physical education in Vietnam should move beyond a narrow focus on physical training toward a health-oriented and learner-centered model that supports physical literacy, psychological well-being, and sustainable engagement in physical activity. Such reform should be implemented through context-sensitive strategies that acknowledge local learning cultures while selectively adapting effective practices from more advanced regional systems, thereby supporting a culturally responsive and evidence-based pathway for the modernization of university physical education.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH","content":"\u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, the sample size was relatively modest and was mainly drawn from large and well-established universities. Consequently, the findings may not fully reflect the conditions of smaller institutions or those with limited resources for physical education development, particularly in regional or private higher education settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, although this study adopted a qualitative comparative design that enabled in-depth exploration of institutional practices and stakeholder perceptions, the absence of large-scale quantitative data limits the ability to statistically estimate the magnitude of differences between Vietnam and Taiwan or to examine causal relationships among key variables such as curriculum structure, student motivation, and technological integration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, the Taiwanese dataset relied on a relatively small number of key informants and documentary sources. While these participants were directly involved in university PE management and curriculum implementation, broader institutional coverage would further strengthen the robustness and generalizability of cross-national comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the study was conducted within a relatively short time frame and focused primarily on policy, institutional arrangements, and perceptions rather than on objective health or physical activity outcomes. As a result, the long-term effects of different university PE models on students\u0026rsquo; physical activity behavior and health status could not be assessed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research is therefore encouraged to adopt mixed-methods or large-scale quantitative designs to complement qualitative insights and to examine the relationships between university PE structures, learning experiences, and measurable health and well-being outcomes. Longitudinal studies tracking changes in students\u0026rsquo; physical activity patterns and health indicators over time would be particularly valuable. In addition, expanding comparative frameworks to include other Asian countries with diverse policy and cultural contexts would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of how digital transformation and learning culture shape the development of university physical education in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDr Pham Dinh Quy is the main contributor and incharge of writing the manuscripts while Prof Huang provides guidance and other data from Taiwan side. Mr. Tuan Anh Dang is a lecturer at People's Police University, HCMC, Vietnam and is incharge of collecting data and demonstrates research manner at his working university. Mr. Hoang Hieu Do is a lecturer at Ho Chi Minh City University of Law, who is incharge of collecting data and demonstrates research manner at his working university.Other data and demonstrating the research manner at Hutech University and other organizations were carried out by Dr Pham Dinh Quy also.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical and confidentiality considerations but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBraun, V., \u0026amp; Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. \u003cem\u003eQualitative Research in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e(2), 77\u0026ndash;101.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen, L. C., \u0026amp; Hung, C. F. (2019). The development and reform of physical education in Taiwan\u0026rsquo;s higher education. \u003cem\u003eAsian Journal of Physical Education \u0026amp; Sport Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e(2), 45\u0026ndash;60.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDinh, V. L. (2018). \u003cem\u003ePhysical education in Vietnamese universities: Current situation and reform solutions\u003c/em\u003e [in Vietnamese]. Sports Publishing House, Hanoi.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHoang, A. T. (2020). 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Sports culture and health education in Taiwanese universities: A cultural determinant perspective. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Physical Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e57\u003c/em\u003e(1), 23\u0026ndash;35.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e "}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sport-sciences-for-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssfh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sport Sciences for Health](http://link.springer.com/journal/11332)","snPcode":"11332","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11332/3","title":"Sport Sciences for Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"physical education, higher education, university students, Vietnam, Taiwan, digital transformation…","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027021/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027021/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUniversity physical education (PE) plays an increasingly important role in promoting students\u0026rsquo; health, well-being, and lifelong engagement in physical activity. However, differences in educational policies, institutional conditions, and levels of digital transformation have led to substantial variations in how PE is organized and implemented across higher education systems in Asia. This study aimed to compare university physical education in Vietnam and Taiwan in order to identify structural differences, developmental gaps, and implications for future reform in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA qualitative comparative research design was adopted. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with lecturers, administrators, and students, together with an analysis of institutional and policy documents. The analysis was guided by a four-dimensional framework comprising curriculum design, facilities and infrastructure, students\u0026rsquo; perceptions and motivation, and technological integration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings indicate that university PE in Taiwan is characterized by greater curricular flexibility, higher levels of technological integration, and a stronger emphasis on student-centered and health-oriented learning. In contrast, PE programs in Vietnamese universities remain largely compulsory and fitness-oriented, with limited opportunities for personalization and comparatively modest digital support. Differences between the two systems are influenced not only by resource availability but also by institutional governance and learning culture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The study highlights the need for Vietnam to adopt a more flexible, health-oriented, and digitally enabled model of university physical education to better support student well-being and sustainable physical activity participation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Comparative study of university physical education between Vietnam and Taiwan: lessons for Vietnam","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-03 09:45:15","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9027021/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-18T01:29:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-15T20:18:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-10T07:17:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"309246307032634348079517523459460439622","date":"2026-03-31T03:05:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"208806051385841451402743809592089328174","date":"2026-03-28T13:00:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-28T12:09:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-05T09:19:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-05T09:13:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Sport Sciences for Health","date":"2026-03-04T07:16:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sport-sciences-for-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ssfh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sport Sciences for Health](http://link.springer.com/journal/11332)","snPcode":"11332","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11332/3","title":"Sport Sciences for Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a2a4a8f6-2cef-400b-8ff7-71744bb2114a","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 3rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-18T01:29:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-15T20:18:39+00:00","index":13,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-10T07:17:35+00:00","index":12,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-18T01:39:18+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-03 09:45:15","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9027021","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9027021","identity":"rs-9027021","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}