Low Meconium Metal Concentrations in Newborns from NYC

Low Meconium Metal Concentrations in Newborns from NYC | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Low Meconium Metal Concentrations in Newborns from NYC Fiona Fogarty, Brian Pavilonis, Jin Shin, Zhongqi Cheng, Defne Sener, and 8 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5875773/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 May, 2025 Read the published version in Exposure and Health → Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Prenatal exposure to metals is a significant concern, particularly in urban settings where environmental factors and maternal characteristics may contribute to varying exposure levels. Understanding the factors influencing metal concentrations in newborns is crucial for developing targeted interventions. This study assessed the association between maternal characteristics, including country of origin and residential factors, and prenatal metal exposure in newborns delivered at public hospitals in New York City. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted on 301 mother-newborn dyads. Meconium samples were collected and analyzed for ten metals using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Concentrations of metals, including aluminum, iron, manganese, nickel, and lead, varied based on demographic variables in the study population. Asian and Spanish-speaking mothers had significantly higher lead concentrations compared to White and English-speaking mothers. No significant associations were found between maternal housing characteristics and metal concentrations, potentially due to participants predominantly residing in environmental justice areas. The findings suggest that prenatal metal exposure in this population may be influenced by prior exposures in the country of origin and socio-economic factors post-immigration. These insights highlight the need for targeted public health interventions to reduce prenatal metal exposure in vulnerable urban populations. Metals Exposure Science Environmental Justice Child/Maternal Health 1. Introduction Metal exposure during critical developmental periods, especially the prenatal stage, can profoundly impact lifelong health, particularly neurological and cognitive functions(Wright and Baccarelli 2007 ). Research has linked prenatal exposure to lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and aluminum (Al) to delayed cognitive development, behavioral challenges, and systemic effects like oxidative stress and neuroinflammation (Garí et al. 2022 ; Heng et al. 2022 ; Liu L et al. 2018 ; Liu Z et al. 2018 ). Identifying high-risk groups for interventions is necessary to mitigate the impacts of metal exposure before and after birth. Decades of discriminatory housing and zoning practices have left a profound legacy across the US urban landscape, where marginalized communities face disproportionately high exposure to pollution. In New York City (NYC), the placement of waste storage facilities, polluting industries, and major highways near residential neighborhoods has created pockets of environmental vulnerability (New York City Mayor's Office of Climate and Environmental Justice 2024 ). Recognizing these disparities, the city enacted two landmark laws in 2017 to address environmental inequities by mapping Environmental Justice Areas (EJAs) and implementing plans to reduce disparities. These EJAs represent neighborhoods where residents face heightened exposure to environmental pollutants and related health risks. Alarmingly, nearly half of the city's population (49%) resides in these designated areas, underscoring the pervasive and systemic nature of environmental injustice in the nation’s largest urban center (New York City Mayor's Office of Climate and Environmental Justice 2024 ). Even minimal maternal exposure to toxic metals can have profound implications for fetal health due to the body’s ability to store metals for months or even decades (Tietz et al. 2019 ; Collin et al. 2022 ; O'Neal and Zheng 2015 ). During pregnancy, increased nutritional demands mobilize calcium and other minerals from maternal bones to the developing fetus, particularly in the third trimester (Gulson et al. 2004 ). Unfortunately, this process also releases stored toxic metals, such as Pb, Cd, and Al, into maternal bloodstreams, where they can cross the placental and impact the developing fetus (Gulson et al. 2016 ; Buha et al. 2019 ; Röllin et al. 2018). These risks are magnified in populations from lower- and middle-income countries, where environmental exposure to Pb and Cd remains high (Anyanwu et al. 2018 ; Heng et al. 2022 ; Ericson et al. 2021 ). For immigrant mothers delivering in New York City, the cumulative burden of prior environmental exposures from their countries of origin, combined with ongoing exposures in their new environment, can significantly heighten vulnerability to adverse fetal health outcomes. Meconium is an invaluable biological medium for quantifying cumulative fetal exposure to metals. This material begins forming early in the second trimester, comprising a complex mixture of substances, including amniotic fluid, shed epithelial cells, intestinal secretions, and urine. Typically, meconium is not excreted until delivery or within the first 24–48 hours postpartum (Michelsen-Correa et al. 2021 ; García et al. 2006 ). As a waste product, its collection is minimally invasive, making it an ideal specimen for research. More importantly, meconium reflects exposure during the second and third trimesters far more accurately than circulating blood concentrations. Due to these properties, it can be a reliable biological material for detecting gestational metal exposure, offering critical insights into fetal environmental risk factors (Mateusz Kacper et al. 2018 ; García et al. 2006 ; Michelsen-Correa et al. 2021 ). However, there are no established standards for acceptable meconium levels of either the nutritionally necessary metals, or for the toxic metals. This study offers valuable insights into metal exposure among infants born in NYC public hospitals primarily serving recent immigrants. Characterizing metal exposure in this vulnerable population is particularly important for early targeted public health interventions. Additionally, this study explores the associations between maternal sociodemographic characteristics and metal levels. The study hypothesizes that 1: children of foreign-born mothers have higher levels of metal exposure than those of US-born mothers, and 2: maternal residential characteristics are associated with meconium metal concentrations. 2. Subjects and Methods This was a cross-sectional study, with data collected on the postpartum units of three public hospitals located in Brooklyn, Queens, and Manhattan boroughs of New York City. We recruited and consented a convenience sample of mother-newborn dyads, collected their meconium during the first day of the newborn’s life, and then assessed the samples’ metal concentrations. Of 351 mothers and their children enrolled, 301 dyads produced measurable meconium samples. Meconium samples were missed for some consented dyads if there was too little sample in the diaper, if the collected diaper was no longer meconium but stool, or if the mother or hospital staff disposed of the diaper in error. Eligibility criteria for enrollment included: the pregnancies had to be full term (≥ 37 weeks), with a birthweight of 2250 grams or more, and mothers needed to be able to speak and consent in English or Spanish. Exclusion criteria were preterm birth, low birth weight, complications during pregnancy or delivery resulting in NICU stays for more than simple monitoring, or maternal health complications that could impede the ability to consent. Participant enrollment and sample collection were conducted using the same protocol at the three hospitals. After delivery, the mothers were approached by an authorized study personnel member to inform them about the study and seek their participation. The mothers were asked to read, or be read, and sign the consent form and respond to a questionnaire in English or Spanish. Demographic information was collected, including address of residency during the majority of the pregnancy, maternal national origin, whether the entire pregnancy was experienced in the US, income, maternal ethnicity and race, maternal education, occupation during pregnancy, and maternal age. We also asked about household size, if the mother or other household member(s) smokes or vapes, whether household members remove their shoes before entering the house, and if she used prenatal or other vitamins and/or supplements during pregnancy. Infant information collected included mode of delivery (vaginal or cesarean section), infant gender, birth weight, and gestational age at birth. Contact information, including current address, email, and phone number, was also collected. The mother was given a collection bag to place the soiled diaper, and a study team member retrieved the sample. The diaper was then scraped in the soiled utility room and the meconium was placed in a vial labeled with the participant’s study ID number. The specimen was then put in a designated “Meconium Samples Only” freezer in the hospital. The recruiter then gave the mother a $ 25 gift card for her participation. 2.1 Meconium Digestion and Analyses All meconium samples collected at the hospitals were digested at CUNY’s Medgar Evers College and analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) at CUNY’s Brooklyn College and Columbia University. The samples were freeze-dried in batches of up to 40 in a Labconco Freezone benchtop freeze drier at -50℃ for 4 hours to remove 70–80% of the water content. After drying, 0.2-0.4g of meconium was placed in a 15ml Teflon digester tube with 3ml of concentrated nitric acid and 1.5ml of deionized water. All samples were then heated to 85℃ for 4 hours. At the end of the first heating, the samples were removed from the heat block, cooled to room temperature, and 1 ml of 30% H 2 O 2 was added to each. Samples were then returned to the heat block at 70℃ for 30 minutes. At the end of the second incubation, samples were again removed from the heat blocks and cooled to room temperature and diluted to 50ml with deionized water. For the ICP-MS analysis, the digested meconium samples were run on a magnetic sector Inductively Coupled Plasma mass spectrometer (Thermo Element XR) at medium resolution, 100K cps. Isobaric interferences are excluded with the high-resolution mass spectrometer. Internal standards, isotopes of germanium (Ge) and indium (In), were added to the diluent (1% HNO3, 50 µg/L Ge and 10 µg/L In), before diluting the samples for analysis. These internal standards were used to monitor and correct, when > 5%, drift in nearby mass ranges (Ge74 for Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn; In115 for Mo, Cd, and Pb). Blank samples were not diluted before ICP-MS analysis. The meconium samples were diluted 5 times and analyzed for all elements (Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, Cd and Pb). All tubes and pipettes were soaked with 10% HCl and rinsed with high-purity water (18 MΩ) prior to use. For quality control, the diluent was run 7 times on the ICP-MS, reflecting the blank level and the variation of environmental contributions from the reagents (water and standard solutions, test tubes, aerial deposition, as well as contributions from the ICP-MS system). The quality control (QC) samples were run in duplicate and compared to the QC reference standard certified value. Tables for the quality control reference results and accuracy calculation are listed in the Supplementary Materials. Lab blanks and reagent blanks were used to monitor contamination from the reagents or supplies, and to determine if the reagents contributed to the test sample's measurement signal. DOLT-5 (National Research Council Canada: Dogfish Liver Certified Reference Material for Trace Metals and other Constituents) were used for the recovery test. The results showed acceptable recoveries of between 75–125% for all metals except for Al in the DOLT-5 reference. Values for isotopes Al27, Cr52, Mn55, Fe57, Ni60, Cu63, Zn66, Mo95, Cd111 were used for the quantification in meconium, with an average of Pb206, Pb207, and Pb208 used for Pb. The resulting instrument output was converted to micrograms per liter (µg/L) using a calibration curve. The detection limit for each metal were as follows: Al = 0.441 µg/L, Cr = 0.012 µg/L, Mn = 0.028 µg/L, Fe = 0.554 µg/L, Ni = 0.048 µg/L, Cu = 0.282 µg/L, Zn = 0.519 µg/L, Mo = 0.058 µg/L, Cd = 0.004 µg/L, Pb = 0.058 µg/L. The concentration was then adjusted by multiplying by the volume of dilution (.05L) and dividing by the mass of the individual meconium sample (g), resulting in the µg/g concentrations displayed in Table 3. For each metal with values below the LOD, the values were imputed with their respective LOD/ \(\:\sqrt{2}\) . 2.2 Statistical Analyses Data analyses were conducted using R statistical software (version 4.4.1 for Windows). The variables examined included meconium metal concentrations, demographic and questionnaire responses, and housing and neighborhood-level data, determined from the NYC Zoning and Land Use Map (New York City Department of City Planning 2024 ) and NYC Open Data (New York City Department of Environmental Protection 2024 ). If metal concentrations were below the limit of detection, the values below the limit were imputed, as described in the meconium digestion and analysis section. The metals’ concentration data was right-skewed and normalized by log-based 10 transformations. Bivariate analyses were run for each maternal demographic variable for each metal to determine which variables to include in the multivariate model. Independent variables included were those for which the preliminary bivariate analysis resulted in at least one significant (p-value < 0.05) result for any of the 10 log-adjusted metal concentrations. The displayed results in Table 3 include only those metals with a significant result (p < 0.005) after the Bonferroni correction for the 10 different metal dependent variables. A Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) multivariate regression model was conducted to analyze the correlation of maternal race and language on log-transformed lead concentration in relation to neighborhood clusters based on self-reported maternal residence for the majority of the pregnancy. Zip codes from the maternal addresses were recategorized together into larger neighborhood Unified Hospital Fund Codes (New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene 2018 ). Those who were not in New York City for the entirety of their pregnancy were recoded based on where they reported their pregnancy, as either outside the US or elsewhere in the US. No address, or incomplete information, was recoded as the final cluster. 3. Results Maternal demographic variables are shown in Table 1. The cohort of mothers was primarily foreign born (71.4%), with the majority identifying as Hispanic (43.2%), or Black (30.9%), had a median age of 31.0 (± 6.6), and 46.8% reported attending some college, gaining a 2-year degree or were a college graduate. Most of the mothers reported spending the entirety of their pregnancy in NYC (79.1%). Notably, 14 mothers who requested a Spanish-language consent form and questionnaire were U.S.-born. This preference for Spanish consent, despite being U.S.-born, could be attributed to factors such as being from Puerto Rico, having a partner or family member with them who only spoke Spanish, or a misunderstanding of the question, leading them to respond on behalf of the baby. (Insert Table 1) Descriptive statistics for the metal concentrations are outlined in Table 2. The 10-fold to 100-fold difference between the 75th percentile and the maximum concentration for individual metal concentrations demonstrates a strong right skew. Al, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn were detected in all samples. Zinc had the highest mean concentration at 339.20 µg/g with a wide range from 32.01 µg/g to 1441.29 µg/g. In contrast, metals like Cd and Pb had portions of samples below the LOD, at 17.28% and 16.61%, respectively. (Insert Table 2) A multivariate regression model was run for each of the ten metals and select independent variables (maternal language, race, education level, birth season, and social deprivation index and residency). The results are displayed in Table 3. Only race and birth season are shown since there were no significant differences for maternal language, education, social deprivation index, housing type (public versus private), or age of the home. Asian mothers had significantly higher Al concentrations compared to White mothers (p = 0.00461). Meconium samples for babies born in the Spring (p < 0.001) and Summer (p < 0.001) show lower levels of Cr relative to those born in the Fall. For Mo, Spring, Summer, and Winter-born children had significantly higher (p < 0.01) concentrations compared to children born in the Fall. (Insert Table 3) The results of the generalized estimating equation (GEE) analysis in Table 4 indicate significant differences by race for meconium Pb concentration when clustering for residence during most of the pregnancy by neighborhood. Asian participants had significantly larger (p = 0.013) average Pb concentration of approximately 0.074 µg/g compared to White participants (0.031 µg/g). Spanish speakers also had a significantly higher average Pb concentration (0.053 µg/g)(p = 0.022) compared to English speakers (0.036 µg/g). (Insert Table 4) 4. Discussion This study investigated the range of metal concentrations in the meconium of newborns delivered in NYC public hospitals, focusing on associations with maternal characteristics to better understand prenatal metal exposure patterns. Our first hypothesis, that race/ethnicity would significantly impact metal exposure, was partially supported. Notably, Asian participants exhibited Pb concentrations 150 to 200% higher than those of non-Hispanic White participants. Additionally, Spanish-speaking mothers showed average Pb concentrations nearly 150% greater than their English-speaking counterparts. Contrary to expectations, our second hypothesis, that maternal residential characteristics, such as housing type or ownership, would influence metal exposure, particularly Pb, was not supported. The cohort's diversity and the broad array of potential exposure sources make it challenging to pinpoint specific pathways of early-life exposure. Among Asian participants, the mean lead concentration was 0.041 µg/g higher than that of non-Hispanic White participants. With all Asian participants in the study being foreign-born, this raises questions about whether the elevated metal concentrations reflect exposures accumulated earlier in the mother’s life, before immigration to NYC, or if they result from sources unique to the city. Furthermore, of the 26 Asian participants, 11 identified as Nepalese and 7 as Bangladeshi, highlighting the importance of disaggregating data to understand exposure risks across subpopulations better. Spanish-speaking participants in our cohort are likely more representative of recent immigrants from Spanish-speaking countries than the broader foreign-born category. This group had significantly higher Pb levels, possibly due to exposures prior to immigration. Within our cohort, 11.0% reported having been born in Ecuador, 10.3% from Mexico, 3% from Colombia and 2.3% from the Dominican Republic. A recent study on blood Pb levels of urban Ecuadorian mothers and children found that 45% of mothers studied had elevated blood lead levels ≥ 5 µg/dL(Armijos et al. 2021 ). These elevated concentrations were partially attributed in the study to residing in homes with earthen floors or in close proximity to dirt roads. While legacy sources of metal pollution in NYC may still be an issue to contend with, our findings indicate that NYC levels of metals exposure identified in meconium are more similar to those in low-pollution areas (Cassoulet et al. 2019 ; Jiang et al. 2014 ; Gundacker et al. 2010 ; Hamzaoglu et al. 2014 ; McDermott et al. 2020 ) compared to some other urban, industrial or otherwise high-exposure areas (Peng et al. 2015 ; Ostrea et al. 2002 ; Hamzaoglu et al. 2014 ; McDermott et al. 2020 ). These comparisons are shown in the Supplementary materials. Metals exposure later in childhood may still be of concern, as elevated levels of Zn and Pb in soil have been observed in community gardens throughout NYC as a result historic industrial activity (Mitchell et al. 2014 ; Cheng et al. 2015 ), and in proximity to major roads and airports (Yan et al. 2013 ), where piston-engine aircraft operate on leaded aviation fuel. Housing variables, including apartment versus single-family, private versus public, and the year of the home’s construction, were run to investigate the association between these factors and lead concentration of meconium. No significant associations were found. This may be due to the unequal distribution of the study population in regard to housing. Most of the homes were private (77.4%), with only 15 participants (5.0%) reporting living in public housing. Similarly, most participants lived in an environmental justice area during the majority of their pregnancy (74.4%), and only 14 participants (4.7%) lived in a non- environmental justice area. With such a small reference sample, the comparisons were limited. Secondly, most homes were built prior to 1960 (60.1%), the year NYC banned lead paint in new construction. While this has been characterized as a hazard for young children if the lead paint is not remediated, the exposure potential to the mother during pregnancy is likely low. Significant progress over the decades since the NYC Pb paint ban in 1960 and the national ban in 1978 has led to substantial reductions in childhood Pb exposure (New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene 2024 ). Several limitations to this study should direct future research. First, as this was a convenience sample of mothers giving birth in public hospitals the maternal residential locations were not equally distributed throughout NYC. In addition, a residential history prior to pregnancy was not collected, and participants were not selected to be representative of their neighborhoods. The regression analyses were potentially limited in their power to detect a difference between US versus Foreign-born mothers, and our interpretation of differences between racial groups is limited, in part, due to the diversity of countries of origin and, therefore, potentially different exposures of concern. 5. Conclusions The findings from this study highlight the complex interplay between maternal demographic factors, particularly immigration status and language, and prenatal metal exposure in newborns within New York City's public hospitals. While children of Asian and Spanish-speaking mothers showed elevated levels of certain metals, no significant associations were found between maternal housing characteristics and metal concentrations. This suggests that other unmeasured factors, such as environmental exposures or previous living conditions, may play a more critical role. No significant differences in Pb concentrations were found between mothers residing in public versus private housing or age of residence. This study provides evidence that NYC policies, regulations, and subsequent drastic reductions in industrial land use, have resulted in limited prenatal exposure to toxic metals. Declarations Competing interests: No authors have any competing interests to disclose. Ethics Approval: All protocols relating to human subjects involved in the study were reviewed and approved by the City University of New York Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy Institutional Review Board (IRB) (Protocol # 2020 − 0882). Consent to Participate: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Funding statement: This project was funded by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with grant number R840454. Author Contribution: BP and SM conceived of the project and contributed to the writing and editing of the manuscript. FF consented participants, collected the samples, analyzed the data, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. UP, AG, and NL contributed to the concept of the project, supervised and facilitated sample collection and collaboration at the hospitals. JJ, KG, and RY further facilitated sample collection, collaboration at the hospitals, and enrolled participants and collected samples. JS, DS, and ZC analyzed the samples and contributed to data analysis and interpretation. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors of this paper wish to thank Adriana Padilla, Julia Jardine, Nancy Pasala for their valuable contributions to the project by recruiting participants and collecting meconium samples. Data Availability Statement: A deidentified dataset can be requested from the corresponding author, with details about potential use. References Anyanwu BO, Ezejiofor AN, Igweze ZN, Orisakwe OE (2018) Heavy metal mixture exposure and effects in developing nations: An update. Toxics 6 https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics6040065 Armijos RX, Weigel MM, Obeng-Gyasi E, Racines-Orbe M (2021) Elevated blood lead and metal/metalloid levels and environmental exposure sources in urban Ecuadorian school-age children and mothers. 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Curr Environ Health Rep 2:315-328 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-015-0056-x Ostrea EM, Morales V, Ngoumgna E, Prescilla R, Tan E, Hernandez E, Ramirez GB, Cifra HL, Manlapaz ML (2002) Prevalence of fetal exposure to environmental toxins as determined by meconium analysis. Neurotoxicology 23:329-339 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0161-813x(02)00077-3 Peng S, Liu L, Zhang X, Heinrich J, Zhang J, Schramm KW, Huang Q, Tian M, Eqani SA, Shen H (2015) A nested case-control study indicating heavy metal residues in meconium associate with maternal gestational diabetes mellitus risk. Environ Health 14:19 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-015-0004-0 Rölin HB, Nogueira C, Olutola B, Channa K, Odland J (2018) Prenatal exposure to aluminum and status of selected essential trace elements in rural South African women at delivery. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071494 Tietz T, Lenzner A, Kolbaum AE, Zellmer S, Riebeling C, Gürtler R, Jung C, Kappenstein O, Tentschert J, Giulbudagian M, Merkel S, Pirow R, Lindtner O, Tralau T, Schäfer B, Laux P, Greiner M, Lampen A, Luch A, Wittkowski R, Hensel A (2019) Aggregated aluminium exposure: risk assessment for the general population. Arch Toxicol 93:3503-3521 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-019-02599-z Wright RO, Baccarelli A (2007) Metals and neurotoxicology. J Nutr 137:2809-2813 https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.12.2809 Yan X, Gao D, Zhang F, Zeng C, Xiang W, Zhang M (2013) Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in roadside topsoil and distance to road edge based on field observations in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 10:762-775 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10030762 Tables Tables 1-4 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Supplementary Files SupplementaryTable32.1.25.docx SupplementaryTables1and2forRecoveryAccuracy.docx Table1Participants.xlsx Table2Metals1.31.25.xlsx Table3Multivariable.xlsx Table4GEE1.31.24.xlsx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 May, 2025 Read the published version in Exposure and Health → Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Feb, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 10 Feb, 2025 Editor invited by journal 09 Feb, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 08 Feb, 2025 First submitted to journal 02 Feb, 2025 Editorial decision: Major revisions 25 Jan, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Fogarty","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9mZk3gcGhgQYm7EBhxaew0gcxhlEaTmAxGHmIUoLO/OxBz8Y7OTMJZKfSdv8uZPHwH7G7DEPg43shgM4tDCzpRv2MCQbW85IM5PObXtWzMCTY27Mw5BmjEuLPTOPmQQPw4HEDbcTgFoaDic2SPCYSfMwHE7EbQuPmeQfsJb0b9IWf+Ba/uPVIg2xJcdMmoENruUAHi1sadIyBsnGBvffFFv2tj1LbONJK5OcAxSZiUsL/+Fjkm8q7OQMzhzfeOPHnzuJ/eyHt0kARWT7cGiBAAMwySLBwHCAgQ3IYuIxwKccAZg/gLSAAOMP4nSMglEwCkbByAAAWwNV4b90gLcAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-8129-5927","institution":"City University of New York School of Public Health","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fiona","middleName":"","lastName":"Fogarty","suffix":""},{"id":413517644,"identity":"bb28d4ee-064b-42ed-bb1a-cb4f7d19b8ed","order_by":1,"name":"Brian Pavilonis","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"City University of New York School of Public 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06:03:00","extension":"xlsx","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":11418,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table1Participants.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5875773/v1/62f2c9cb952d36d42e55d20b.xlsx"},{"id":76077684,"identity":"dfff8f5a-3c6f-4694-b6bb-5f71968d44f8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-12 06:03:00","extension":"xlsx","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":10446,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table2Metals1.31.25.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5875773/v1/4791d8c2eb65907796e452fe.xlsx"},{"id":76077690,"identity":"56a3470c-7b6a-4760-b334-eedafc786a94","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-12 06:03:37","extension":"xlsx","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":10689,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table3Multivariable.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5875773/v1/28a3e6bf24223e6dbd1811ca.xlsx"},{"id":76077699,"identity":"c29e5dff-d213-41ba-b77f-1bcf065dc26b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-12 06:04:08","extension":"xlsx","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":10270,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table4GEE1.31.24.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5875773/v1/6713dfc407c0bd3ea521dd10.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Low Meconium Metal Concentrations in Newborns from NYC","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMetal exposure during critical developmental periods, especially the prenatal stage, can profoundly impact lifelong health, particularly neurological and cognitive functions(Wright and Baccarelli \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Research has linked prenatal exposure to lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and aluminum (Al) to delayed cognitive development, behavioral challenges, and systemic effects like oxidative stress and neuroinflammation (Gar\u0026iacute; et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Heng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Liu L et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Liu Z et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Identifying high-risk groups for interventions is necessary to mitigate the impacts of metal exposure before and after birth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecades of discriminatory housing and zoning practices have left a profound legacy across the US urban landscape, where marginalized communities face disproportionately high exposure to pollution. In New York City (NYC), the placement of waste storage facilities, polluting industries, and major highways near residential neighborhoods has created pockets of environmental vulnerability (New York City Mayor's Office of Climate and Environmental Justice \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Recognizing these disparities, the city enacted two landmark laws in 2017 to address environmental inequities by mapping Environmental Justice Areas (EJAs) and implementing plans to reduce disparities. These EJAs represent neighborhoods where residents face heightened exposure to environmental pollutants and related health risks. Alarmingly, nearly half of the city's population (49%) resides in these designated areas, underscoring the pervasive and systemic nature of environmental injustice in the nation\u0026rsquo;s largest urban center (New York City Mayor's Office of Climate and Environmental Justice \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEven minimal maternal exposure to toxic metals can have profound implications for fetal health due to the body\u0026rsquo;s ability to store metals for months or even decades (Tietz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Collin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; O'Neal and Zheng \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). During pregnancy, increased nutritional demands mobilize calcium and other minerals from maternal bones to the developing fetus, particularly in the third trimester (Gulson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Unfortunately, this process also releases stored toxic metals, such as Pb, Cd, and Al, into maternal bloodstreams, where they can cross the placental and impact the developing fetus (Gulson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Buha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; R\u0026ouml;llin et al. 2018). These risks are magnified in populations from lower- and middle-income countries, where environmental exposure to Pb and Cd remains high (Anyanwu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Heng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ericson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For immigrant mothers delivering in New York City, the cumulative burden of prior environmental exposures from their countries of origin, combined with ongoing exposures in their new environment, can significantly heighten vulnerability to adverse fetal health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeconium is an invaluable biological medium for quantifying cumulative fetal exposure to metals. This material begins forming early in the second trimester, comprising a complex mixture of substances, including amniotic fluid, shed epithelial cells, intestinal secretions, and urine. Typically, meconium is not excreted until delivery or within the first 24\u0026ndash;48 hours postpartum (Michelsen-Correa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Garc\u0026iacute;a et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). As a waste product, its collection is minimally invasive, making it an ideal specimen for research. More importantly, meconium reflects exposure during the second and third trimesters far more accurately than circulating blood concentrations. Due to these properties, it can be a reliable biological material for detecting gestational metal exposure, offering critical insights into fetal environmental risk factors (Mateusz Kacper et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Garc\u0026iacute;a et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Michelsen-Correa et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, there are no established standards for acceptable meconium levels of either the nutritionally necessary metals, or for the toxic metals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study offers valuable insights into metal exposure among infants born in NYC public hospitals primarily serving recent immigrants. Characterizing metal exposure in this vulnerable population is particularly important for early targeted public health interventions. Additionally, this study explores the associations between maternal sociodemographic characteristics and metal levels. The study hypothesizes that 1: children of foreign-born mothers have higher levels of metal exposure than those of US-born mothers, and 2: maternal residential characteristics are associated with meconium metal concentrations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Subjects and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis was a cross-sectional study, with data collected on the postpartum units of three public hospitals located in Brooklyn, Queens, and Manhattan boroughs of New York City. We recruited and consented a convenience sample of mother-newborn dyads, collected their meconium during the first day of the newborn\u0026rsquo;s life, and then assessed the samples\u0026rsquo; metal concentrations. Of 351 mothers and their children enrolled, 301 dyads produced measurable meconium samples. Meconium samples were missed for some consented dyads if there was too little sample in the diaper, if the collected diaper was no longer meconium but stool, or if the mother or hospital staff disposed of the diaper in error. Eligibility criteria for enrollment included: the pregnancies had to be full term (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;37 weeks), with a birthweight of 2250 grams or more, and mothers needed to be able to speak and consent in English or Spanish. Exclusion criteria were preterm birth, low birth weight, complications during pregnancy or delivery resulting in NICU stays for more than simple monitoring, or maternal health complications that could impede the ability to consent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Participant enrollment and sample collection were conducted using the same protocol at the three hospitals. After delivery, the mothers were approached by an authorized study personnel member to inform them about the study and seek their participation. The mothers were asked to read, or be read, and sign the consent form and respond to a questionnaire in English or Spanish. Demographic information was collected, including address of residency during the majority of the pregnancy, maternal national origin, whether the entire pregnancy was experienced in the US, income, maternal ethnicity and race, maternal education, occupation during pregnancy, and maternal age. We also asked about household size, if the mother or other household member(s) smokes or vapes, whether household members remove their shoes before entering the house, and if she used prenatal or other vitamins and/or supplements during pregnancy. Infant information collected included mode of delivery (vaginal or cesarean section), infant gender, birth weight, and gestational age at birth. Contact information, including current address, email, and phone number, was also collected. The mother was given a collection bag to place the soiled diaper, and a study team member retrieved the sample. The diaper was then scraped in the soiled utility room and the meconium was placed in a vial labeled with the participant\u0026rsquo;s study ID number. The specimen was then put in a designated \u0026ldquo;Meconium Samples Only\u0026rdquo; freezer in the hospital. The recruiter then gave the mother a \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e25 gift card for her participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Meconium Digestion and Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll meconium samples collected at the hospitals were digested at CUNY\u0026rsquo;s Medgar Evers College and analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) at CUNY\u0026rsquo;s Brooklyn College and Columbia University. The samples were freeze-dried in batches of up to 40 in a Labconco Freezone benchtop freeze drier at -50℃ for 4 hours to remove 70\u0026ndash;80% of the water content. After drying, 0.2-0.4g of meconium was placed in a 15ml Teflon digester tube with 3ml of concentrated nitric acid and 1.5ml of deionized water. All samples were then heated to 85℃ for 4 hours. At the end of the first heating, the samples were removed from the heat block, cooled to room temperature, and 1 ml of 30% H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e was added to each. Samples were then returned to the heat block at 70℃ for 30 minutes. At the end of the second incubation, samples were again removed from the heat blocks and cooled to room temperature and diluted to 50ml with deionized water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the ICP-MS analysis, the digested meconium samples were run on a magnetic sector Inductively Coupled Plasma mass spectrometer (Thermo Element XR) at medium resolution, 100K cps. Isobaric interferences are excluded with the high-resolution mass spectrometer. Internal standards, isotopes of germanium (Ge) and indium (In), were added to the diluent (1% HNO3, 50 \u0026micro;g/L Ge and 10 \u0026micro;g/L In), before diluting the samples for analysis. These internal standards were used to monitor and correct, when \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5%, drift in nearby mass ranges (Ge74 for Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn; In115 for Mo, Cd, and Pb). Blank samples were not diluted before ICP-MS analysis. The meconium samples were diluted 5 times and analyzed for all elements (Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, Cd and Pb). All tubes and pipettes were soaked with 10% HCl and rinsed with high-purity water (18 MΩ) prior to use. For quality control, the diluent was run 7 times on the ICP-MS, reflecting the blank level and the variation of environmental contributions from the reagents (water and standard solutions, test tubes, aerial deposition, as well as contributions from the ICP-MS system). The quality control (QC) samples were run in duplicate and compared to the QC reference standard certified value. Tables for the quality control reference results and accuracy calculation are listed in the Supplementary Materials. Lab blanks and reagent blanks were used to monitor contamination from the reagents or supplies, and to determine if the reagents contributed to the test sample's measurement signal. DOLT-5 (National Research Council Canada: Dogfish Liver Certified Reference Material for Trace Metals and other Constituents) were used for the recovery test. The results showed acceptable recoveries of between 75\u0026ndash;125% for all metals except for Al in the DOLT-5 reference. Values for isotopes Al27, Cr52, Mn55, Fe57, Ni60, Cu63, Zn66, Mo95, Cd111 were used for the quantification in meconium, with an average of Pb206, Pb207, and Pb208 used for Pb.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe resulting instrument output was converted to micrograms per liter (\u0026micro;g/L) using a calibration curve. The detection limit for each metal were as follows: Al\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.441 \u0026micro;g/L, Cr\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012 \u0026micro;g/L, Mn\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.028 \u0026micro;g/L, Fe\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.554 \u0026micro;g/L, Ni\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.048 \u0026micro;g/L, Cu\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.282 \u0026micro;g/L, Zn\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.519 \u0026micro;g/L, Mo\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.058 \u0026micro;g/L, Cd\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004 \u0026micro;g/L, Pb\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.058 \u0026micro;g/L. The concentration was then adjusted by multiplying by the volume of dilution (.05L) and dividing by the mass of the individual meconium sample (g), resulting in the \u0026micro;g/g concentrations displayed in Table\u0026nbsp;3. For each metal with values below the LOD, the values were imputed with their respective LOD/\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\sqrt{2}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.2 Statistical Analyses\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData analyses were conducted using R statistical software (version 4.4.1 for Windows). The variables examined included meconium metal concentrations, demographic and questionnaire responses, and housing and neighborhood-level data, determined from the NYC Zoning and Land Use Map (New York City Department of City Planning \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and NYC Open Data (New York City Department of Environmental Protection \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). If metal concentrations were below the limit of detection, the values below the limit were imputed, as described in the meconium digestion and analysis section. The metals\u0026rsquo; concentration data was right-skewed and normalized by log-based 10 transformations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBivariate analyses were run for each maternal demographic variable for each metal to determine which variables to include in the multivariate model. Independent variables included were those for which the preliminary bivariate analysis resulted in at least one significant (p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) result for any of the 10 log-adjusted metal concentrations. The displayed results in Table\u0026nbsp;3 include only those metals with a significant result (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.005) after the Bonferroni correction for the 10 different metal dependent variables. A Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) multivariate regression model was conducted to analyze the correlation of maternal race and language on log-transformed lead concentration in relation to neighborhood clusters based on self-reported maternal residence for the majority of the pregnancy. Zip codes from the maternal addresses were recategorized together into larger neighborhood Unified Hospital Fund Codes (New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Those who were not in New York City for the entirety of their pregnancy were recoded based on where they reported their pregnancy, as either outside the US or elsewhere in the US. No address, or incomplete information, was recoded as the final cluster.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eMaternal demographic variables are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;1. The cohort of mothers was primarily foreign born (71.4%), with the majority identifying as Hispanic (43.2%), or Black (30.9%), had a median age of 31.0 (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.6), and 46.8% reported attending some college, gaining a 2-year degree or were a college graduate. Most of the mothers reported spending the entirety of their pregnancy in NYC (79.1%). Notably, 14 mothers who requested a Spanish-language consent form and questionnaire were U.S.-born. This preference for Spanish consent, despite being U.S.-born, could be attributed to factors such as being from Puerto Rico, having a partner or family member with them who only spoke Spanish, or a misunderstanding of the question, leading them to respond on behalf of the baby.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Insert Table\u0026nbsp;1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics for the metal concentrations are outlined in Table\u0026nbsp;2. The 10-fold to 100-fold difference between the 75th percentile and the maximum concentration for individual metal concentrations demonstrates a strong right skew. Al, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn were detected in all samples. Zinc had the highest mean concentration at 339.20 \u0026micro;g/g with a wide range from 32.01 \u0026micro;g/g to 1441.29 \u0026micro;g/g. In contrast, metals like Cd and Pb had portions of samples below the LOD, at 17.28% and 16.61%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Insert Table\u0026nbsp;2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA multivariate regression model was run for each of the ten metals and select independent variables (maternal language, race, education level, birth season, and social deprivation index and residency). The results are displayed in Table\u0026nbsp;3. Only race and birth season are shown since there were no significant differences for maternal language, education, social deprivation index, housing type (public versus private), or age of the home. Asian mothers had significantly higher Al concentrations compared to White mothers (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.00461). Meconium samples for babies born in the Spring (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and Summer (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) show lower levels of Cr relative to those born in the Fall. For Mo, Spring, Summer, and Winter-born children had significantly higher (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) concentrations compared to children born in the Fall.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Insert Table\u0026nbsp;3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the generalized estimating equation (GEE) analysis in Table\u0026nbsp;4 indicate significant differences by race for meconium Pb concentration when clustering for residence during most of the pregnancy by neighborhood. Asian participants had significantly larger (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.013) average Pb concentration of approximately 0.074 \u0026micro;g/g compared to White participants (0.031 \u0026micro;g/g). Spanish speakers also had a significantly higher average Pb concentration (0.053 \u0026micro;g/g)(p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.022) compared to English speakers (0.036 \u0026micro;g/g).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Insert Table\u0026nbsp;4)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the range of metal concentrations in the meconium of newborns delivered in NYC public hospitals, focusing on associations with maternal characteristics to better understand prenatal metal exposure patterns. Our first hypothesis, that race/ethnicity would significantly impact metal exposure, was partially supported. Notably, Asian participants exhibited Pb concentrations 150 to 200% higher than those of non-Hispanic White participants. Additionally, Spanish-speaking mothers showed average Pb concentrations nearly 150% greater than their English-speaking counterparts. Contrary to expectations, our second hypothesis, that maternal residential characteristics, such as housing type or ownership, would influence metal exposure, particularly Pb, was not supported.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cohort's diversity and the broad array of potential exposure sources make it challenging to pinpoint specific pathways of early-life exposure. Among Asian participants, the mean lead concentration was 0.041 \u0026micro;g/g higher than that of non-Hispanic White participants. With all Asian participants in the study being foreign-born, this raises questions about whether the elevated metal concentrations reflect exposures accumulated earlier in the mother\u0026rsquo;s life, before immigration to NYC, or if they result from sources unique to the city. Furthermore, of the 26 Asian participants, 11 identified as Nepalese and 7 as Bangladeshi, highlighting the importance of disaggregating data to understand exposure risks across subpopulations better.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpanish-speaking participants in our cohort are likely more representative of recent immigrants from Spanish-speaking countries than the broader foreign-born category. This group had significantly higher Pb levels, possibly due to exposures prior to immigration. Within our cohort, 11.0% reported having been born in Ecuador, 10.3% from Mexico, 3% from Colombia and 2.3% from the Dominican Republic. A recent study on blood Pb levels of urban Ecuadorian mothers and children found that 45% of mothers studied had elevated blood lead levels\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;5 \u0026micro;g/dL(Armijos et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These elevated concentrations were partially attributed in the study to residing in homes with earthen floors or in close proximity to dirt roads.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile legacy sources of metal pollution in NYC may still be an issue to contend with, our findings indicate that NYC levels of metals exposure identified in meconium are more similar to those in low-pollution areas (Cassoulet et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Jiang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Gundacker et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Hamzaoglu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; McDermott et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) compared to some other urban, industrial or otherwise high-exposure areas (Peng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ostrea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Hamzaoglu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; McDermott et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These comparisons are shown in the Supplementary materials. Metals exposure later in childhood may still be of concern, as elevated levels of Zn and Pb in soil have been observed in community gardens throughout NYC as a result historic industrial activity (Mitchell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Cheng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), and in proximity to major roads and airports (Yan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), where piston-engine aircraft operate on leaded aviation fuel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousing variables, including apartment versus single-family, private versus public, and the year of the home\u0026rsquo;s construction, were run to investigate the association between these factors and lead concentration of meconium. No significant associations were found. This may be due to the unequal distribution of the study population in regard to housing. Most of the homes were private (77.4%), with only 15 participants (5.0%) reporting living in public housing. Similarly, most participants lived in an environmental justice area during the majority of their pregnancy (74.4%), and only 14 participants (4.7%) lived in a non- environmental justice area. With such a small reference sample, the comparisons were limited. Secondly, most homes were built prior to 1960 (60.1%), the year NYC banned lead paint in new construction. While this has been characterized as a hazard for young children if the lead paint is not remediated, the exposure potential to the mother during pregnancy is likely low. Significant progress over the decades since the NYC Pb paint ban in 1960 and the national ban in 1978 has led to substantial reductions in childhood Pb exposure (New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations to this study should direct future research. First, as this was a convenience sample of mothers giving birth in public hospitals the maternal residential locations were not equally distributed throughout NYC. In addition, a residential history prior to pregnancy was not collected, and participants were not selected to be representative of their neighborhoods. The regression analyses were potentially limited in their power to detect a difference between US versus Foreign-born mothers, and our interpretation of differences between racial groups is limited, in part, due to the diversity of countries of origin and, therefore, potentially different exposures of concern.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study highlight the complex interplay between maternal demographic factors, particularly immigration status and language, and prenatal metal exposure in newborns within New York City's public hospitals. While children of Asian and Spanish-speaking mothers showed elevated levels of certain metals, no significant associations were found between maternal housing characteristics and metal concentrations. This suggests that other unmeasured factors, such as environmental exposures or previous living conditions, may play a more critical role. No significant differences in Pb concentrations were found between mothers residing in public versus private housing or age of residence. This study provides evidence that NYC policies, regulations, and subsequent drastic reductions in industrial land use, have resulted in limited prenatal exposure to toxic metals.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo authors have any competing interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e All protocols relating to human subjects involved in the study were reviewed and approved by the City University of New York Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy Institutional Review Board (IRB) (Protocol # 2020\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0882).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding statement:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis project was funded by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with grant number R840454.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBP and SM conceived of the project and contributed to the writing and editing of the manuscript. FF consented participants, collected the samples, analyzed the data, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. UP, AG, and NL contributed to the concept of the project, supervised and facilitated sample collection and collaboration at the hospitals. JJ, KG, and RY further facilitated sample collection, collaboration at the hospitals, and enrolled participants and collected samples. JS, DS, and ZC analyzed the samples and contributed to data analysis and interpretation. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e The authors of this paper wish to thank Adriana Padilla, Julia Jardine, Nancy Pasala for their valuable contributions to the project by recruiting participants and collecting meconium samples.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability Statement:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA deidentified dataset can be requested from the corresponding author, with details about potential use.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAnyanwu BO, Ezejiofor AN, Igweze ZN, Orisakwe OE (2018) Heavy metal mixture exposure and effects in developing nations: An update. Toxics 6 https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics6040065\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArmijos RX, Weigel MM, Obeng-Gyasi E, Racines-Orbe M (2021) Elevated blood lead and metal/metalloid levels and environmental exposure sources in urban Ecuadorian school-age children and mothers. 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Bone 89:40-51 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2016.05.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGulson BL, Mizon KJ, Palmer JM, Korsch MJ, Taylor AJ, Mahaffey KR (2004) Blood lead changes during pregnancy and postpartum with calcium supplementation. Environ Health Perspect 112:1499-1507. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.6548\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGundacker C, Fr\u0026ouml;hlich S, Graf-Rohrmeister K, Eibenberger B, Jessenig V, Gicic D, Prinz S, Wittmann KJ, Zeisler H, Vallant B, Pollak A, Husslein P (2010) Perinatal lead and mercury exposure in Austria. Sci Total Environ 408:5744-5749 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.07.079\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHamzaoglu O, Yavuz M, Turker G, Savli H (2014) Air pollution and heavy metal concentration in colostrum and meconium in two different districts of an industrial city: a preliminary report. 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Environ Int 121:1331-1340 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.055\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu Z, He C, Chen M, Yang S, Li J, Lin Y, Deng Y, Li N, Guo Y, Yu P, Li X (2018) The effects of lead and aluminum exposure on congenital heart disease and the mechanism of oxidative stress. Reprod Toxicol 81:93-98 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2018.07.081\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMateusz Kacper W, Ewa J, Marek W, Żaneta P, Jacek N, Marek B (2018) Meconium analysis as a promising diagnostic tool for monitoring fetal exposure to toxic substances: Recent trends and perspectives. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 109:124-141 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcDermott S, Hailer MK, Lead JR (2020) Meconium identifies high levels of metals in newborns from a mining community in the US. Sci Total Environ 707:135528 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135528\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMichelsen-Correa S, Martin CF, Kirk AB (2021) Evaluation of fetal exposures to metals and metalloids through meconium analyses: A review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18:1975 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041975\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMitchell RG, Spliethoff HM, Ribaudo LN, Lopp DM, Shayler HA, Marquez-Bravo LG, Lambert VT, Ferenz GS, Russell-Anelli JM, Stone EB, McBride MB (2014) Lead (Pb) and other metals in New York City community garden soils: factors influencing contaminant distributions. Environ Pollut 187:162-169 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.01.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNew York City Department of City Planning (2024) ZOLA: The NYC zoning and land use map. Available: https://zola.planning.nyc.gov/. Accessed 2024 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNew York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (2018) Community health profiles 2018: Zip code-level health data. Available: https://www.nyc.gov/assets/doh/downloads/pdf/ah/zipcodetable.pdf. Accessed 2024\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNew York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (2024) Lead data explorer. Environment and Health Data Portal. Available: https://a816-dohbesp.nyc.gov/IndicatorPublic/data-explorer/lead/?id=2184#display=summary. Accessed 2024 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNew York City Department of Environmental Protection (2024) Environmental justice area census tract designations. Available: https://data.cityofnewyork.us/City-Government/Environmental-Justice-Area-Census-Tract-Designatio/ircm-rcjd. Accessed 2024\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNew York City Mayor\u0026apos;s Office of Climate and Environmental Justice (2024) Environmental justice areas. Available: https://climate.cityofnewyork.us/topic/environmental-justice/. Accessed 2024\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eO\u0026apos;Neal SL, Zheng W (2015) Manganese toxicity upon overexposure: A decade in review. Curr Environ Health Rep 2:315-328 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-015-0056-x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOstrea EM, Morales V, Ngoumgna E, Prescilla R, Tan E, Hernandez E, Ramirez GB, Cifra HL, Manlapaz ML (2002) Prevalence of fetal exposure to environmental toxins as determined by meconium analysis. Neurotoxicology 23:329-339 https://doi.org/10.1016/s0161-813x(02)00077-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePeng S, Liu L, Zhang X, Heinrich J, Zhang J, Schramm KW, Huang Q, Tian M, Eqani SA, Shen H (2015) A nested case-control study indicating heavy metal residues in meconium associate with maternal gestational diabetes mellitus risk. Environ Health 14:19 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-015-0004-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eR\u0026ouml;lin HB, Nogueira C, Olutola B, Channa K, Odland J (2018) Prenatal exposure to aluminum and status of selected essential trace elements in rural South African women at delivery. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071494\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTietz T, Lenzner A, Kolbaum AE, Zellmer S, Riebeling C, G\u0026uuml;rtler R, Jung C, Kappenstein O, Tentschert J, Giulbudagian M, Merkel S, Pirow R, Lindtner O, Tralau T, Sch\u0026auml;fer B, Laux P, Greiner M, Lampen A, Luch A, Wittkowski R, Hensel A (2019) Aggregated aluminium exposure: risk assessment for the general population. Arch Toxicol 93:3503-3521 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-019-02599-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWright RO, Baccarelli A (2007) Metals and neurotoxicology. J Nutr 137:2809-2813 https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.12.2809\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYan X, Gao D, Zhang F, Zeng C, Xiang W, Zhang M (2013) Relationships between heavy metal concentrations in roadside topsoil and distance to road edge based on field observations in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 10:762-775 https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10030762\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTables 1-4 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"exposure-and-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"wqeh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Exposure and Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/12403)","snPcode":"12403","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12403/3","title":"Exposure and Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Metals, Exposure Science, Environmental Justice, Child/Maternal Health","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5875773/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5875773/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePrenatal exposure to metals is a significant concern, particularly in urban settings where environmental factors and maternal characteristics may contribute to varying exposure levels. Understanding the factors influencing metal concentrations in newborns is crucial for developing targeted interventions. This study assessed the association between maternal characteristics, including country of origin and residential factors, and prenatal metal exposure in newborns delivered at public hospitals in New York City. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted on 301 mother-newborn dyads. Meconium samples were collected and analyzed for ten metals using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Concentrations of metals, including aluminum, iron, manganese, nickel, and lead, varied based on demographic variables in the study population. Asian and Spanish-speaking mothers had significantly higher lead concentrations compared to White and English-speaking mothers. No significant associations were found between maternal housing characteristics and metal concentrations, potentially due to participants predominantly residing in environmental justice areas. The findings suggest that prenatal metal exposure in this population may be influenced by prior exposures in the country of origin and socio-economic factors post-immigration. These insights highlight the need for targeted public health interventions to reduce prenatal metal exposure in vulnerable urban populations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Low Meconium Metal Concentrations in Newborns from NYC","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-02-12 05:54:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5875773/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-02-21T09:59:28+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-02-10T09:12:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Exposure and Health","date":"2025-02-09T12:14:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-02-08T13:31:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Exposure and Health","date":"2025-02-02T14:10:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revisions","date":"2025-01-25T06:14:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"exposure-and-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"wqeh","sideBox":"Learn more about [Exposure and Health](https://www.springer.com/journal/12403)","snPcode":"12403","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12403/3","title":"Exposure and Health","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"06000c59-04af-4337-925c-82362d4dd1c7","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-05-19T16:06:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5875773","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-025-00709-0","journal":{"identity":"exposure-and-health","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Exposure and Health"},"publishedOn":"2025-05-12 15:57:50","publishedOnDateReadable":"May 12th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-02-12 05:54:37","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s12403-025-00709-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-025-00709-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5875773","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5875773","identity":"rs-5875773","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}