When compassion protects—and when it overwhelms: Compassionate self-responding, empathy, and depression

When compassion protects—and when it overwhelms: Compassionate self-responding, empathy, and depression | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article When compassion protects—and when it overwhelms: Compassionate self-responding, empathy, and depression Paweł Holas, Patryk Roczon This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8945023/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objectives Compassion is often linked to better mental health, yet its effects may depend on whether it is directed toward oneself or others and on how empathic responses are regulated. This study examined when compassion protects against depression and when it becomes emotionally overwhelming, focusing on compassionate self-responding and affective empathy (personal distress, empathic concern). Methods A nationally representative sample of Polish adults ( N = 604) completed measures of compassionate self-responding, compassion for others, affective empathy, and depressive symptoms. Consistent with current psychometric debates, self-compassion was operationalized exclusively as compassionate self-responding. Structural equation modeling tested a parallel mediation model with personal distress and empathic concern as mediators. Results Compassionate self-responding was associated with lower personal distress, which predicted lower depressive symptom severity. Compassion for others showed a dual pattern: it was positively related to empathic concern (linked to lower depression) and to personal distress (linked to higher depression). Personal distress was the strongest mediator for both compassionate self-responding and compassion for others. Direct effects of compassionate self-responding on depression were small after accounting for affective empathic processes. Conclusions Compassion appears protective when it reduces self-focused emotional reactivity but may increase emotional burden when it heightens personal distress. Distinguishing compassionate self-responding from uncompassionate self-relating and separating empathic concern from personal distress helps clarify mixed findings and highlights affect regulation as a key mechanism linking compassion and depression. compassionate self-responding compassion for others personal distress empathic concern depression mindfulness Figures Figure 1 Introduction Compassion is widely regarded as a fundamental human capacity that supports psychological well-being and prosocial behavior. In everyday life as well as in contexts of collective adversity, compassion can motivate affiliative, caregiving responses to others’ suffering (Goetz et al., 2010 ). At the same time, sustained engagement with others’ distress may entail emotional costs, including heightened stress, emotional exhaustion, and depressive symptoms (Figley, 1995 ; Hegney et al., 2014 ; Singer & Klimecki, 2014 ; Lombardo & Eyre, 2011 ). Understanding when compassion protects against psychological distress and when it becomes burdensome remains a central question for contemporary research in mindfulness and compassion science. A growing body of work suggests that these divergent outcomes depend in part on the direction of compassion. According to theoretical models, compassion can be directed toward others or toward oneself, and these distinct “flows” of compassion may have different psychological consequences (Gilbert, 2010 ; Gilbert et al., 2011 ). Compassion for others is typically associated with empathic engagement and prosocial behavior, but it may also increase vulnerability to emotional overload when accompanied by heightened affective reactivity and empathic distress (Singer & Klimecki, 2014 ). In contrast, self-compassion has consistently been linked to lower levels of depression, anxiety, and stress, and to greater emotional resilience (Macbeth & Gumley, 2012 ; Neff, 2023 ). However, the mechanisms through which compassion for self and others differentially relate to depression remain insufficiently understood. Compassionate self-responding and the measurement of self-compassion Self-compassion is most commonly operationalized using the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003 ) and its short form (SCS-SF; Raes et al., 2011 ). These instruments include both positively worded items reflecting compassionate self-responding (e.g., self-kindness, mindfulness, common humanity) and negatively worded items reflecting uncompassionate self-responding (e.g., self-judgment, isolation, over-identification), which are typically reverse-scored and combined into a single global index. Increasingly, however, this scoring practice has been questioned. Meta-analytic and psychometric studies indicate that uncompassionate self-responding has substantially stronger associations with depression and anxiety than compassionate self-responding, and that the “protective” association of the total SCS score with psychopathology may be driven largely by the reversed uncompassionate items (López et al., 2015 ; Muris & Petrocchi, 2017 ; Muris et al., 2024 ). Moreover, evidence suggests that compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding can relate differently to psychological functioning, challenging the assumption that they represent opposite ends of a single continuum (Muris et al., 2024 ). As a result, when global self-compassion scores are used in models predicting depression, these asymmetries risk obscuring the adaptive mechanisms associated with compassionate self-responding and introducing conceptual overlap with psychopathology. In response to these concerns, recent work has increasingly emphasized the importance of examining compassionate self-responding as a distinct construct, particularly in research focused on emotion regulation and mental health outcomes (Muris & Petrocchi, 2017 ; Neff, 2023 ). Following this approach, the present study conceptualizes self-compassion specifically in terms of compassionate self-responding, defined as the tendency to respond to personal suffering with kindness, mindful awareness, and a sense of shared humanity (Neff, 2003 ). Empathy as a mechanism linking compassion and depression Empathy may represent a key mechanism through which compassion for self and others relates to depressive symptoms. Empathy is commonly conceptualized as a multidimensional construct with distinguishable cognitive and affective components (Davis, 1983 ). Within the affective domain, two trait-like responses are especially relevant to mental health: empathic concern and personal distress. Empathic concern reflects an other-oriented emotional response (e.g., warmth, care) that is reliably linked to prosocial motivation and helping behavior (Eisenberg et al., 2010 ; Decety et al., 2016 ). Personal distress, in contrast, reflects a self-focused, aversive emotional reaction (e.g., discomfort, overwhelm) in response to others’ suffering (Davis, 1983 ) and is often discussed as a marker of empathic distress rather than compassionate concern (Singer & Klimecki, 2014 ). Accumulating evidence indicates that personal distress is positively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas empathic concern tends to be unrelated or weakly negatively associated with depression (Schreiter et al., 2013 ; Hülsemann et al., 2025 ). Meta-analytic evidence likewise suggests that affective empathy is positively associated with depression (Yan et al., 2021 ). This pattern supports the idea that empathic responding can operate as a double-edged process: engagement with others’ suffering may promote adaptive, other-oriented concern, but when that engagement shifts toward self-focused distress, it may increase vulnerability to emotional overload and depressive affect (Singer & Klimecki, 2014 ). In this framework, compassion for others may be more likely to confer psychological benefits when it is accompanied by other-oriented concern rather than empathic distress. Compassionate self-responding may also be relevant, insofar as it has been linked to lower personal distress when witnessing others’ suffering, suggesting a potential buffering pathway against empathic overload (Neff & Pommier, 2013 ). The Present Study The present study tested a mediation model examining how compassion for others and compassionate self-responding relate to depressive symptom severity through two affective dimensions of empathy: personal distress and empathic concern. In line with contemporary theoretical and psychometric debates, self-compassion was operationalized exclusively as compassionate self-responding, while uncompassionate self-responding was excluded due to its low reliability and conceptual overlap with psychopathology. We hypothesized that compassion for others would be positively associated with both empathic concern and personal distress, whereas compassionate self-responding would be negatively associated with personal distress. Furthermore, we expected personal distress to be positively related to depressive symptoms and empathic concern to be negatively related to depressive symptoms. Finally, we hypothesized that personal distress and empathic concern would function as parallel mediators linking compassion for others and compassionate self-responding to depression severity, with personal distress constituting the stronger mediating pathway. Methods Participants A representative sample of 604 Poles aged 18–85 ( M = 47.93; SD = 14.55), 278 women (46.0%) aged 18–85 ( M = 50.30; SD = 13.74) and 326 men (54.0%) aged 18–80 ( M = 45.92; SD = 14.93) were recruited by a professional company specializing in nationwide Polish research panels. Table 1 depicts the sociodemographic characteristics of the sample in the current study. The sample was balanced regarding participants’ gender. Most participants lived in villages, had higher education, and were married. Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of the sample in the current study Sociodemographic variables n % Gender women 278 46.0 men 326 54.0 Place of residence village 234 38.7 small town (up 20K inhabitants) 62 10.3 medium town (20–99K inhabitants) 134 22.2 big town (100–500K inhabitants) 96 15.9 very big town (more than 500K inhabitants) 78 12.9 Education primary 18 3.0 vocational 60 9.9 secondary 183 30.3 post secondary 57 9.4 higher – bachelor 49 8.1 higher- M.A./engineer 237 39.2 Relationship status single 97 16.1 informal relationship 103 17.1 married 343 56.8 widow/widower 22 3.6 divorced 41 6.8 Procedure All data were collected online in April 2021 by a professional company using a nationwide survey panel, which also conducted the recruitment. The company possesses a valid certificate from the Pollsters' Quality Control Program (PKJPA) confirming the high quality of survey services. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the authors' institution approved the research protocol. All participants gave informed consent and received points as a reward, which they could exchange for small gifts. The study was not preregistered. Measures Brief version of the Empathic Sensitivity Questionnaire (Brief-ESQ; Woźniak-Prus et al., 2024 ). The Brief-ESQ is a 12-item short version of the multidimensional tool, the Empathic Sensitivity Questionnaire, based on Davis' theory and modeled on his Index of Interpersonal Reactivity. It uses a 5-point Likert response format. The cognitive aspect of empathy is represented by the Perspective Taking subscale (4 items), while its emotional aspects are represented by the two subscales: Personal Distress (4 items) and Empathic Concern (4 items). In the current study, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .76 for Empathic Concern, α = .77 for Perspective Taking, and α = .81 for Personal Distress. Self-Compassion Scale – Short Form (SCS-SF; Raes et al., 2011 ; Polish validation by Holas et al., 2024 ). The SCS-SF is a 12-item questionnaire measuring self-compassion across six subscales (two items each): self-kindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. Participants respond on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = almost never to 5 = almost always). An example item is, “I try to be understanding and patient towards those aspects of my personality I don’t like.” The SCS-SF is a validated abbreviated form of the original 26-item Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003 ). Internal consistency for the full SCS-SF was excellent (Cronbach’s α = .89). Internal consistency of the compassionate self-responding items was satisfactory (Cronbach’s α = .79). Moreover, the compassionate self-responding measurement model demonstrated satisfactory fit. Although the Self-Compassion Scale and its short form are often scored as a single global construct, accumulating evidence suggests that compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding (CS and RUS, respectively) reflect distinct processes rather than opposite poles of a single dimension. In particular, negatively worded SCS components (RUS) show substantially stronger associations with depression and anxiety and may overlap conceptually with psychopathology-related constructs (Muris & Petrocchi, 2017 ; Muris et al., 2024 ; Neff et al., 2018 ). Accordingly, and consistent with the conceptual framework adopted in the present study, self-compassion was operationalized exclusively as compassionate self-responding (CS). Measurement results provided converging empirical support for this decision, as uncompassionate self-responding showed low reliability and inadequate model fit, whereas the compassionate self-responding model demonstrated satisfactory fit. This approach allowed a more precise examination of adaptive self-regulatory mechanisms while minimizing conceptual overlap with depressive symptoms. The Santa Clara Brief Compassion Scale (SCBCS; Hwang et al., 2008 ). The SCBCS is a 5-item short version of the Compassionate Love Scale (strangers version; Sprecher & Fehr, 2005 ). It instructs participants to “think about all of humanity or humankind” while responding. Items measure compassion toward strangers, using a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all true of me) to 5 (very true of me). A sample item is, “I tend to feel compassion for people, even though I do not know them.” The internal consistency in the present study was α = .88. Patient Health Questionnaire-9 ( PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 2001 ; Polish version: www.phqscreeners.com ). The PHQ-9 is a widely used self-report instrument for screening depressive symptom severity according to DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. It includes 9 items assessing symptom frequency over the past two weeks, rated on a 4-point scale (0 = not at all to 3 = nearly every day). Cronbach’s alpha for the current sample was excellent (α = .91). Data analysis The analysis was based on structural equation modeling. In the first stage, measurement models were acquired with DWLS estimation method. In the next step, the model of mediation was verified. The mediation effects verification was based on user-defined estimands and the bootstrap method. The analysis was performed using R Statistics 4.5.2 software with package lavaan 0.6–20. Results Measurement models The factor structure of measurement regarding each questionnaire was verified first. Due to ordinal scale of the items DWLS estimation method was applied. For the Compassion for others model fit regarding the factorial structure of measurement was satisfactory. The fit indices were equal to CFI = .99, RMSEA = .01, SRMR = .01. However, in order to achieve this fit, additional correlations between item errors needed to be taken into account. Table 2 presents the factor loadings and additional correlations obtained in the factorial model for Compassion toward others. Table 2 Factor loadings and correlation coefficients for Compassion for others f Item no. 1 .90*** Item no. 2 .86*** Item no. 3 .71*** Item no. 4 .66*** Item no. 5 .84*** r Item no. 1 ~ Item no. 5 − .28* Item no. 3 ~ Item no. 4 .44*** Item no. 3 ~ Item no. 5 .15* Note. * p <.05; *** p <.001 When analysing the factorial model for Self-compassion, the fit was not satisfactory due to too high values for RMSEA and SRMR . The fit indices were equal to CFI = .96, RMSEA = .12, SRMR = .08. The fit of the model based on the positive CS component only was satisfactory. The fit indices were equal to CFI = .99, RMSEA = .09, SRMR = .04. Consistent with the conceptual framework adopted in the present study, uncompassionate self-responding was not included in subsequent analyses. Importantly, measurement results provided additional empirical support for this decision, as the uncompassionate self-responding component showed inadequate model fit, whereas the compassionate self-responding model demonstrated satisfactory fit. Table 3 depicts the factor loadings acquired in the factorial model for Self-compassion. Table 3 Factor loadings acquired in the factorial model for Compassionate self-responding f Item no. 7 .72*** Item no. 10 .48*** Item no. 6 .71*** Item no. 3 .71*** Item no. 5 .69*** Item no. 2 .71*** Note. *** p <.001 For Personal Distress and Empathic Concern, the model fit regarding the factorial structure of measurement was satisfactory. The fit indices were equal to CFI = .99, RMSEA = .01, SRMR = .01 for Personal Distress and to CFI = .99, RMSEA = .04, SRMR = .02 for Empathic Concern. Table 4 depicts the factor loadings and additional correlations acquired in the factorial model for Personal Distress and for Empathic Concern. Table 4 Factor loadings and correlation coefficients for Personal Distress and Empathic Concern f Personal Item no. 3 .83*** Distress Item no. 6 .76*** Item no. 9 .83*** Empathic Item no. 1 .78*** Concern Item no. 4 .80*** Item no. 5 .73*** Item no. 8 .78*** Note. *** p <.001 For depression the model fit regarding the factorial structure of measurement was satisfactory. The fit indices were equal to CFI = .99, RMSEA = .04, SRMR = .02. However, in order to achieve this fit, additional correlations between item errors also needed to be taken into account. Table 5 depicts the factor loadings and additional correlations acquired in the factorial model for Depression. Table 5 Factor loadings and correlation coefficients for Depression f Item no. 1 .79*** Item no. 2 .91*** Item no. 3 .77*** Item no. 4 .82*** Item no. 5 .84*** Item no. 6 .90*** Item no. 7 .87*** Item no. 8 .78*** Item no. 9 .81*** r Item no. 8 ~ Item no. 9 .39*** Item no. 7 ~ Item no. 8 .33*** Item no. 4 ~ Item no. 9 − .25* Item no. 2 ~ Item no. 5 − .44*** Item no. 3 ~ Item no. 4 .26*** Note. * p <.05; *** p <.001 Structural model The data in the present study were analyzed using structural equation modeling. We hypothesized that compassion for others and self-compassion would influence personal distress and empathic concern, which in turn would affect the severity of depressive symptoms. In other words, we proposed that personal distress and empathic concern function as parallel mediators of the relationship between compassion for others, self-compassion, and depressive symptom severity. The preliminary model is presented in Fig. 1. Figure 1 Preliminary Structural Model The analysis was conducted using the maximum likelihood estimation method, and all indirect effects were assessed via bootstrapping. Table 6 presents standardized regression coefficients for structural paths and the indirect and total effects in the mediation model. Table 6 Standardized structural path coefficients and indirect and total effects for the Compassion–Depression mediation model Components β Compassion for others ->Personal Distress .33*** Self-compassion ->Personal Distress − .34*** Compassion for others ->Empathic Concern .81*** Self-compassion ->Empathic Concern .09 Personal Distress ->Depression .58*** Empathic Concern ->Depression − .31** Compassion for others ->Depression .20* Self-compassion ->Depression − .04 Indirect effects Compassion for others -> Personal Distress -> Depression .19*** Compassion for others -> Empathic Concern -> Depression − .25*** Self-compassion -> Personal Distress -> Depression − .20*** Self-compassion -> Empathic concern -> Depression − .03 Total effects Compassion for others -> Depression .15** Self-compassion -> Depression − .27*** Note. β – standardized regression coefficient; * p <.05; ** p <.01; *** p <.001. The fit of the final model was satisfactory. The values of fit indices were equal to CFI = .95, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .05. Personal Distress was a statistically significant mediator of the relationships between Compassion for others and Depression and between Self-compassion and Depression. However, the relationship between Compassion for others and Personal Distress was positive, while the relationship between Self-compassion and Depression was negative. Both relationships were similar regarding their strength, i.e., the absolute values of both standardized regression coefficients were similar. Personal Distress was in turn related positively to Depression. Compassion for others was also related directly and positively to Depression. Empathic Concern was a statistically significant mediator of the relationship between Compassion for others and Depression. The higher the level of Compassion for others the higher the level of Empathic Concern, which in turn is related to lower level of depression. Self-compassion was not significantly related to empathic concern and did not show a direct association with depression. Consequently, empathic concern did not mediate the relationship between compassionate self-responding and depression. The analyzed model explained 12.9% of Personal Distress variance, 71.8% of Empathic Concern variance and 38.3% of Depression variance. Discussion The present study examined how compassion for others and compassionate self-responding relate to depressive symptoms through affective dimensions of empathy in a nationally representative adult sample. The findings support a differentiated view of compassion, demonstrating that compassion may protect against depression or contribute to emotional burden depending on its direction and its impact on empathic processes. In particular, compassionate self-responding emerged as a protective factor through its association with reduced personal distress, whereas compassion for others showed a dual pattern, simultaneously fostering empathic concern and increasing personal distress. These results help clarify why compassion is sometimes linked to psychological resilience and at other times to emotional overwhelm. Compassionate self-responding as a protective mechanism A central finding of this study is that compassionate self-responding was strongly and negatively associated with personal distress, which in turn was positively related to depressive symptoms. Notably, compassionate self-responding did not show a robust direct association with depression when empathic processes were included in the model, suggesting that its protective role operates primarily through indirect, regulatory pathways. This pattern is consistent with conceptualizations of self-compassion as supporting mental health in part through emotion-regulatory and coping processes, rather than functioning as a simple direct counterweight to depressive affect (Neff, 2023 ). By responding to personal suffering with kindness, mindful awareness, and a sense of shared humanity, individuals high in compassionate self-responding may remain emotionally engaged without becoming overwhelmed by affective reactivity. Reduced personal distress likely reflects greater emotional balance and lower self-focused arousal when encountering suffering, whether one’s own or others’. This interpretation aligns with previous findings showing that self-compassion is negatively related to personal distress (Neff & Pommier, 2013 ) and supports models in which self-compassion buffers against empathic overload by facilitating flexible emotional regulation. Importantly, the present findings underscore the value of examining compassionate self-responding independently of uncompassionate self-responding. When self-compassion is operationalized exclusively as an adaptive regulatory process, its association with depression appears conceptually coherent and mechanism-specific. This may help explain inconsistencies in prior studies that relied on global self-compassion scores, in which effects attributed to self-compassion may have been driven largely by the presence or absence of self-criticism (López et al., 2015 ; Muris & Petrocchi, 2017 ; Muris et al., 2024 ). When compassion for others overwhelms In contrast to compassionate self-responding, compassion for others was positively associated with both empathic concern and personal distress. These findings highlight the dual nature of other-directed compassion. On one hand, compassion for others was strongly related to empathic concern, which in turn was associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms. This pathway is consistent with evidence that other-oriented empathic responding is linked to prosocial motivation and helping behavior (Eisenberg et al., 2010 ; Decety et al., 2016 ). On the other hand, compassion for others was also associated with elevated personal distress, which emerged as a robust risk factor for depression. Prior work suggests that personal distress reflects a self-focused, aversive form of empathic responding that is positively associated with depressive symptoms (Schreiter et al., 2013 ; Yan et al., 2021 ) and has been implicated in emotional overload processes relevant to burnout and secondary traumatic stress in high-exposure helping contexts (Figley, 1995 ; Singer & Klimecki, 2014 ). Accordingly, compassion for others may be linked to greater vulnerability to depression when empathic engagement is dominated by self-focused distress rather than other-focused concern, increasing the likelihood of overwhelm. Together, these results help explain why compassion for others has shown mixed associations with mental health across studies. Compassion for others may be psychologically protective when it primarily elicits empathic concern but becomes burdensome when accompanied by heightened personal distress. This distinction is particularly relevant in contexts of sustained exposure to suffering, where empathic engagement is frequent and emotionally demanding. Empathy as a double-edged mechanism The present findings underscore the importance of distinguishing between affective components of empathy when examining the psychological consequences of compassion. Personal distress emerged as the strongest mediator linking both compassion for others and compassionate self-responding to depressive symptoms. This aligns with review evidence indicating that depression is more consistently associated with self-oriented empathic stress/personal distress than with elevated empathic concern (Schreiter et al., 2013 ), and with meta-analytic evidence suggesting that affective empathy is positively associated with depression (Yan et al., 2021 ). By contrast, empathic concern played a weaker but protective mediating role, particularly in the context of compassion for others. These results suggest that empathy is not uniformly beneficial or harmful; rather, its impact depends in part on whether empathic engagement is oriented toward alleviating others’ suffering or toward managing one’s own emotional discomfort. Recent findings indicate a similar pattern for burnout, with personal distress emerging as the strongest risk factor, whereas empathic concern tends to show weaker and sometimes protective associations depending on the burnout dimension (Holas et al., 2025 ). Compassionate self-responding appears to reduce the likelihood that empathic engagement will escalate into personal distress, thereby protecting against depressive symptoms. Implications for the measurement of self-compassion A key contribution of this study lies in its methodological implications for self-compassion research. By focusing exclusively on compassionate self-responding, the present findings indicate that potentially adaptive functions of self-compassion can be examined more precisely when uncompassionate self-responding is not treated simply as its inverse. This approach aligns with concerns that negatively worded self-compassion items may show substantial conceptual overlap with psychopathology-related vulnerability (e.g., self-criticism) rather than uniquely indexing compassion per se (López et al., 2015 ; Muris & Petrocchi, 2017 ; Muris et al., 2024 ). Our results suggest that combining compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding into a single global score may obscure mechanism-specific pathways in models of depression and increase conceptual overlap between predictors and outcomes (López et al., 2015 ; Muris & Petrocchi, 2017 ; Muris et al., 2024 ). Future research may benefit from explicitly distinguishing adaptive self-compassion processes from maladaptive self-relating when modeling mental health outcomes. (At the same time, it is important to note that there remains active debate regarding whether reduced uncompassionate responding is integral to the self-compassion system and whether total SCS scores should be retained alongside subscale scores; see Neff et al., 2018 ; Neff et al., 2019 .) Clinical and applied implications The present findings have important implications for interventions targeting compassion and mindfulness. Interventions that cultivate compassionate self-responding may help reduce depressive symptoms and psychological distress, potentially by strengthening adaptive self-relating and reducing maladaptive self-criticism. This is consistent with evidence that compassion-based and self-compassion–focused interventions are associated with reductions in depressive symptoms, on average (Kirby et al., 2017 ; Han & Kim, 2023 ), and with meta-analytic evidence that self-compassion–related interventions reduce self-criticism (Wakelin et al., 2022 ). At the same time, the present results suggest that compassion-related training may benefit from explicitly addressing empathic distress/personal distress regulation, particularly for individuals who are highly affectively reactive to others’ suffering. This aligns with conceptual accounts distinguishing compassion from empathic distress (Singer & Klimecki, 2014 ) and experimental evidence that compassion training can counteract the negative affective consequences observed following empathy training (Klimecki et al., 2014 ). Limitations and future directions Several limitations should be noted. First, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference regarding the directionality of the observed associations. Longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to clarify whether compassionate self-responding reduces personal distress over time and whether changes in personal distress subsequently predict changes in depressive symptoms. Second, all measures were self-reported, which may introduce shared method variance. Future studies incorporating behavioral or physiological indicators of empathy and emotion regulation would strengthen the conclusions. Finally, although the present study focused on affective empathy, future research may examine how cognitive empathy (perspective-taking) interacts with compassionate self-responding to shape emotional outcomes. Experience-sampling and ecological momentary assessment designs may be particularly useful for capturing within-person dynamics of compassion, empathy, and emotional well-being. Conclusion In sum, the present study demonstrates that compassion is not uniformly protective or burdensome. Compassionate self-responding protects against depression by reducing personal distress, whereas compassion for others may either alleviate or exacerbate depressive symptoms depending on its empathic pathways. By distinguishing compassionate self-responding from uncompassionate self-responding and by separating empathic concern from personal distress, the findings clarify longstanding inconsistencies in the literature and highlight the importance of affective regulation in compassion-based models of mental health. Declarations Author contributions P.H. – conceptualization, methodology, data curation, investigation, funding acquisition, supervision, project administration, resources, software, validation, visualization, formal analysis, writing–original draft, writing—review and editing; P.R. – investigation, methodology, formal analysis, software, visualization, writing—original draft, writing—review and editing; All authors reviewed the final draft of the manuscript. Ethics approval Approval was obtained from the ethics committee of the University of Warsaw Faculty of Psychology. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Funding The research was financed by the funds from the Faculty of Psychology at the University of Warsaw awarded by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education in the form of a subvention for maintaining and developing research potential in 2020. Data Availability The raw data are available at https://osf.io/fr2g7/. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. References Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 44 (1), 113-126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 Decety, J., Bartal, I. B., Uzefovsky, F., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2016). Empathy as a driver of prosocial behaviour: Highly conserved neurobehavioural mechanisms across species. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 371 (1686), 20150077. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0077 Eisenberg, N., Eggum, N. D., & Di Giunta, L. (2010). Empathy-related responding: Associations with prosocial behavior, aggression, and intergroup relations. Social Issues and Policy Review, 4 (1), 143–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2010.01020.x Figley, C. R. (1995). Compassion fatigue as secondary traumatic stress disorder: An overview. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Compassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized (pp. 1–20). Brunner/Mazel. Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion-focused therapy: Distinctive features . Routledge. Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Matos, M., & Rivis, A. (2011). Fears of compassion: Development of three self-report measures. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84 (3), 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608310X526511 Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136 (3), 351–374. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018807 Han, A., & Kim, T. H. (2023). Effects of self-compassion interventions on reducing depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress: A meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 14(7), 1553–1581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02148-x Hegney, D. G., Craigie, M., Hemsworth, D., Osseiran-Moisson, R., Aoun, S., Francis, K., & Drury, V. (2014). Compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, anxiety, depression and stress in registered nurses in Australia: Study 1 results. Journal of Nursing Management, 22 (4), 506–518. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12160 Holas, P., Gambin, M., Wojtkowiak, N., Kmita, G. & Łojek, E. (2025). Relationship of burnout with empathy dimensions in healthcare workers in Poland during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health Psychology Report , 13(2), 156–169. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/188097 Holas, P., Szewczuk, J., Rusanowska, M., Krejtz, I., Jankowski, T., & Nezlek, J. (2024). The Polish adaptation of the self-compassion scale short form. Psychiatria Polska , 58 (4), 637-651. https://doi.org/10.12740/pp/172115 Hülsemann, M. J., Kaurin, A., Kollmann, B., Chmitorz, A., Ahrens, K. F., Schenk, C., Plichta, M. M., Lutz, B., Basten, U., Fiebach, C. J., Kalisch, R., Lieb, K., Reif, A., Tüscher, O., Hermes, H., Schunk, D., & Wessa, M. (2025). Self-oriented affective empathy is associated with increased negative affect. Scientific Reports, 15, 27767. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-09860-9 Hwang, J. Y., Plante, T. G., & Lackey, K. (2008). The development of the Santa Clara Brief Compassion Scale: An abbreviation of Sprecher and Fehr’s Compassionate Love Scale. Pastoral Psychology, 56 (4), 421–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-008-0117-2 Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Steindl, S. R. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: Current state of knowledge and future directions. Behavior Therapy , 48(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Klimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Ricard, M., & Singer, T. (2014). Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(6), 873–879. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst060 Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16 (9), 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x Lombardo, B., & Eyre, C. (2011). Compassion fatigue: A nurse’s primer. OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing . https://doi.org/10.3912/ojin.vol16no01man03 López, A., Sanderman, R., Smink, A., Zhang, Y., van Sonderen, E., Ranchor, A., & Schroevers, M. J. (2015). A reconsideration of the Self-Compassion Scale’s total score: Self-compassion versus self-criticism. PLOS ONE, 10(7), e0132940. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132940 MacBeth, A., & Gumley, A. (2012). Exploring compassion: A meta-analysis of the association between self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(6), 545-552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.003 Muris, P., & Petrocchi, N. (2017). Protection or vulnerability? A meta-analysis of the relations between the positive and negative components of self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 24 (2), 373–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2005 Muris, P., Fernández-Martínez, I., & Otgaar, H. (2024). On the edge of psychopathology: Strong relations between reversed self-compassion and symptoms of anxiety and depression in young people. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 27 (2), 407–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-024-00471-w Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2 (3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027 Neff, K. D. (2023). Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 74 , 193–218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047 Neff, K. D., & Pommier, E. (2013). The relationship between self-compassion and other-focused concern among college undergraduates, community adults, and practicing meditators. Self and Identity , 12(2), 160-176. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.649546 Neff, K. D., Long, P., Knox, M. C., Davidson, O., Kuchar, A., Costigan, A., Williamson, Z., Rohleder, N., Tóth-Király, I., & Breines, J. G. (2018). The forest and the trees: Examining the association of self-compassion and its positive and negative components with psychological functioning. Self and Identity , 17(6), 627–645. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2018.1436587 Neff, K. D., Tóth-Király, I., Yarnell, L. M., Arimitsu, K., Castilho, P., Ghorbani, N., Guo, H. X., Hirsch, J. K., Hupfeld, J., Hutz, C. S., Kotsou, I., Lee, W. K., Montero-Marin, J., Sirois, F. M., de Souza, L. K., Svendsen, J. L., Wilkinson, R. B., & Mantzios, M. (2019). Examining the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in 20 diverse samples: Support for use of a total score and six subscale scores. Psychological Assessment, 31(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000629 Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the Self-Compassion Scale. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18 (3), 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.702 Schreiter, S., Pijnenborg, G. H. M., & aan het Rot, M. (2013). Empathy in adults with clinical or subclinical depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 150 (1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.03.009 Singer, T., & Klimecki, O. M. (2014). Empathy and compassion. Current Biology, 24 (18), R875–R878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.06.054 Sprecher, S., & Fehr, B. (2005). Compassionate love for close others and humanity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22 (5), 629–651. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407505056439 Wakelin, K. E., Perman, G., & Simonds, L. M. (2022). Effectiveness of self-compassion-related interventions for reducing self-criticism: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 29(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2586 Woźniak-Prus, M., Gambin, M., Sękowski, M., Cudo, A., Pisula, E., Kiepura-Nawrocka, E., Boruszak-Kiziukiewicz, J., & Kmita, G. (2024). Positive experiences in the parent–child relationship during the COVID-19 lockdown in Poland: The role of emotion regulation, empathy, parenting self-efficacy, and social support. Family Process, 63 (1), 443–468. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12856 Yan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., & Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta-analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh Journal, 10(5), 794–804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8945023","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":595503588,"identity":"7d78611e-a47d-4237-a310-a03b3fc87f45","order_by":0,"name":"Paweł Holas","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Warsaw","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paweł","middleName":"","lastName":"Holas","suffix":""},{"id":595503751,"identity":"cf0ad6f8-3bc6-4b0e-8706-123f32b9fbab","order_by":1,"name":"Patryk Roczon","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Warsaw","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Patryk","middleName":"","lastName":"Roczon","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-23 09:08:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8945023/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8945023/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":103422989,"identity":"e271942e-57c5-40c3-a42b-8c6356c75b3e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-25 13:45:53","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28757,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePreliminary Structural Model\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8945023/v1/a1140418eabfd5deb8ac848a.png"},{"id":103507266,"identity":"df62de52-6f90-4d59-9405-4c58093e97c6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-26 13:40:50","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":950581,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8945023/v1/f2e91c21-c7e2-47aa-bc37-44729263ea1f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eWhen compassion protects—and when it overwhelms: Compassionate self-responding, empathy, and depression\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCompassion is widely regarded as a fundamental human capacity that supports psychological well-being and prosocial behavior. In everyday life as well as in contexts of collective adversity, compassion can motivate affiliative, caregiving responses to others\u0026rsquo; suffering (Goetz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). At the same time, sustained engagement with others\u0026rsquo; distress may entail emotional costs, including heightened stress, emotional exhaustion, and depressive symptoms (Figley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Hegney et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Singer \u0026amp; Klimecki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Lombardo \u0026amp; Eyre, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Understanding when compassion protects against psychological distress and when it becomes burdensome remains a central question for contemporary research in mindfulness and compassion science.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA growing body of work suggests that these divergent outcomes depend in part on the direction of compassion. According to theoretical models, compassion can be directed toward others or toward oneself, and these distinct \u0026ldquo;flows\u0026rdquo; of compassion may have different psychological consequences (Gilbert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Gilbert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Compassion for others is typically associated with empathic engagement and prosocial behavior, but it may also increase vulnerability to emotional overload when accompanied by heightened affective reactivity and empathic distress (Singer \u0026amp; Klimecki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, self-compassion has consistently been linked to lower levels of depression, anxiety, and stress, and to greater emotional resilience (Macbeth \u0026amp; Gumley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Neff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, the mechanisms through which compassion for self and others differentially relate to depression remain insufficiently understood.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCompassionate self-responding and the measurement of self-compassion\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-compassion is most commonly operationalized using the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) and its short form (SCS-SF; Raes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). These instruments include both positively worded items reflecting compassionate self-responding (e.g., self-kindness, mindfulness, common humanity) and negatively worded items reflecting uncompassionate self-responding (e.g., self-judgment, isolation, over-identification), which are typically reverse-scored and combined into a single global index.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreasingly, however, this scoring practice has been questioned. Meta-analytic and psychometric studies indicate that uncompassionate self-responding has substantially stronger associations with depression and anxiety than compassionate self-responding, and that the \u0026ldquo;protective\u0026rdquo; association of the total SCS score with psychopathology may be driven largely by the reversed uncompassionate items (L\u0026oacute;pez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Muris \u0026amp; Petrocchi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Muris et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, evidence suggests that compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding can relate differently to psychological functioning, challenging the assumption that they represent opposite ends of a single continuum (Muris et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, when global self-compassion scores are used in models predicting depression, these asymmetries risk obscuring the adaptive mechanisms associated with compassionate self-responding and introducing conceptual overlap with psychopathology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn response to these concerns, recent work has increasingly emphasized the importance of examining compassionate self-responding as a distinct construct, particularly in research focused on emotion regulation and mental health outcomes (Muris \u0026amp; Petrocchi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Neff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Following this approach, the present study conceptualizes self-compassion specifically in terms of compassionate self-responding, defined as the tendency to respond to personal suffering with kindness, mindful awareness, and a sense of shared humanity (Neff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEmpathy as a mechanism linking compassion and depression\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpathy may represent a key mechanism through which compassion for self and others relates to depressive symptoms. Empathy is commonly conceptualized as a multidimensional construct with distinguishable cognitive and affective components (Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). Within the affective domain, two trait-like responses are especially relevant to mental health: empathic concern and personal distress. Empathic concern reflects an other-oriented emotional response (e.g., warmth, care) that is reliably linked to prosocial motivation and helping behavior (Eisenberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Decety et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Personal distress, in contrast, reflects a self-focused, aversive emotional reaction (e.g., discomfort, overwhelm) in response to others\u0026rsquo; suffering (Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e) and is often discussed as a marker of empathic distress rather than compassionate concern (Singer \u0026amp; Klimecki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccumulating evidence indicates that personal distress is positively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas empathic concern tends to be unrelated or weakly negatively associated with depression (Schreiter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; H\u0026uuml;lsemann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Meta-analytic evidence likewise suggests that affective empathy is positively associated with depression (Yan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This pattern supports the idea that empathic responding can operate as a double-edged process: engagement with others\u0026rsquo; suffering may promote adaptive, other-oriented concern, but when that engagement shifts toward self-focused distress, it may increase vulnerability to emotional overload and depressive affect (Singer \u0026amp; Klimecki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this framework, compassion for others may be more likely to confer psychological benefits when it is accompanied by other-oriented concern rather than empathic distress. Compassionate self-responding may also be relevant, insofar as it has been linked to lower personal distress when witnessing others\u0026rsquo; suffering, suggesting a potential buffering pathway against empathic overload (Neff \u0026amp; Pommier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Present Study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe present study tested a mediation model examining how compassion for others and compassionate self-responding relate to depressive symptom severity through two affective dimensions of empathy: personal distress and empathic concern. In line with contemporary theoretical and psychometric debates, self-compassion was operationalized exclusively as compassionate self-responding, while uncompassionate self-responding was excluded due to its low reliability and conceptual overlap with psychopathology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe hypothesized that compassion for others would be positively associated with both empathic concern and personal distress, whereas compassionate self-responding would be negatively associated with personal distress. Furthermore, we expected personal distress to be positively related to depressive symptoms and empathic concern to be negatively related to depressive symptoms. Finally, we hypothesized that personal distress and empathic concern would function as parallel mediators linking compassion for others and compassionate self-responding to depression severity, with personal distress constituting the stronger mediating pathway.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA representative sample of 604 Poles aged 18\u0026ndash;85 (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;47.93; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.55), 278 women (46.0%) aged 18\u0026ndash;85 (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;50.30; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.74) and 326 men (54.0%) aged 18\u0026ndash;80 (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;45.92; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.93) were recruited by a professional company specializing in nationwide Polish research panels. Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e depicts the sociodemographic characteristics of the sample in the current study. The sample was balanced regarding participants\u0026rsquo; gender. Most participants lived in villages, had higher education, and were married.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of the sample in the current study\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSociodemographic variables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewomen\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e278\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emen\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e326\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlace of residence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evillage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e234\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esmall town (up 20K inhabitants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emedium town (20\u0026ndash;99K inhabitants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e134\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebig town (100\u0026ndash;500K inhabitants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003every big town (more than 500K inhabitants)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eprimary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evocational\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esecondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epost secondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehigher \u0026ndash; bachelor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehigher- M.A./engineer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e237\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRelationship status\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esingle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003einformal relationship\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e343\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewidow/widower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edivorced\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eProcedure\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll data were collected online in April 2021 by a professional company using a nationwide survey panel, which also conducted the recruitment. The company possesses a valid certificate from the Pollsters\u0026apos; Quality Control Program (PKJPA) confirming the high quality of survey services. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the authors\u0026apos; institution approved the research protocol. All participants gave informed consent and received points as a reward, which they could exchange for small gifts. The study was not preregistered.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBrief version of the Empathic Sensitivity Questionnaire\u003c/strong\u003e (Brief-ESQ; Woźniak-Prus et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The Brief-ESQ is a 12-item short version of the multidimensional tool, the Empathic Sensitivity Questionnaire, based on Davis\u0026apos; theory and modeled on his Index of Interpersonal Reactivity. It uses a 5-point Likert response format. The cognitive aspect of empathy is represented by the Perspective Taking subscale (4 items), while its emotional aspects are represented by the two subscales: Personal Distress (4 items) and Empathic Concern (4 items). In the current study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha was \u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.76 for Empathic Concern, \u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.77 for Perspective Taking, and \u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.81 for Personal Distress.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSelf-Compassion Scale \u0026ndash; Short Form\u003c/strong\u003e (SCS-SF; Raes et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Polish validation by Holas et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The SCS-SF is a 12-item questionnaire measuring self-compassion across six subscales (two items each): self-kindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. Participants respond on a 5-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;almost never to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;almost always). An example item is, \u0026ldquo;I try to be understanding and patient towards those aspects of my personality I don\u0026rsquo;t like.\u0026rdquo; The SCS-SF is a validated abbreviated form of the original 26-item Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Internal consistency for the full SCS-SF was excellent (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s \u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.89). Internal consistency of the compassionate self-responding items was satisfactory (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s \u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.79). Moreover, the compassionate self-responding measurement model demonstrated satisfactory fit.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough the Self-Compassion Scale and its short form are often scored as a single global construct, accumulating evidence suggests that compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding (CS and RUS, respectively) reflect distinct processes rather than opposite poles of a single dimension. In particular, negatively worded SCS components (RUS) show substantially stronger associations with depression and anxiety and may overlap conceptually with psychopathology-related constructs (Muris \u0026amp; Petrocchi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Muris et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Neff et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccordingly, and consistent with the conceptual framework adopted in the present study, self-compassion was operationalized exclusively as compassionate self-responding (CS). Measurement results provided converging empirical support for this decision, as uncompassionate self-responding showed low reliability and inadequate model fit, whereas the compassionate self-responding model demonstrated satisfactory fit. This approach allowed a more precise examination of adaptive self-regulatory mechanisms while minimizing conceptual overlap with depressive symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Santa Clara Brief Compassion Scale\u003c/strong\u003e (SCBCS; Hwang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The SCBCS is a 5-item short version of the Compassionate Love Scale (strangers version; Sprecher \u0026amp; Fehr, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). It instructs participants to \u0026ldquo;think about all of humanity or humankind\u0026rdquo; while responding. Items measure compassion toward strangers, using a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all true of me) to 5 (very true of me). A sample item is, \u0026ldquo;I tend to feel compassion for people, even though I do not know them.\u0026rdquo; The internal consistency in the present study was \u003cem\u003e\u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.88.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePatient Health Questionnaire-9\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(\u003c/strong\u003ePHQ-9; Kroenke et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Polish version: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ewww.phqscreeners.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e).\u003c/span\u003e The PHQ-9 is a widely used self-report instrument for screening depressive symptom severity according to DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. It includes 9 items assessing symptom frequency over the past two weeks, rated on a 4-point scale (0\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not at all to 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;nearly every day). Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha for the current sample was excellent (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.91).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe analysis was based on structural equation modeling. In the first stage, measurement models were acquired with DWLS estimation method. In the next step, the model of mediation was verified. The mediation effects verification was based on user-defined estimands and the bootstrap method. The analysis was performed using R Statistics 4.5.2 software with package lavaan 0.6\u0026ndash;20.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasurement models\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe factor structure of measurement regarding each questionnaire was verified first. Due to ordinal scale of the items DWLS estimation method was applied. For the Compassion for others model fit regarding the factorial structure of measurement was satisfactory. The fit indices were equal to \u003cem\u003eCFI\u003c/em\u003e = .99, \u003cem\u003eRMSEA\u003c/em\u003e = .01, \u003cem\u003eSRMR\u003c/em\u003e = .01. However, in order to achieve this fit, additional correlations between item errors needed to be taken into account. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the factor loadings and additional correlations obtained in the factorial model for Compassion toward others.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFactor loadings and correlation coefficients for Compassion for others\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.90***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.86***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.71***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.66***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.84***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 1\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;Item no. 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.28*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 3\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;Item no. 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.44***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 3\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;Item no. 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.15*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05; *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen analysing the factorial model for Self-compassion, the fit was not satisfactory due to too high values for \u003cem\u003eRMSEA\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSRMR\u003c/em\u003e. The fit indices were equal to \u003cem\u003eCFI\u003c/em\u003e = .96, \u003cem\u003eRMSEA\u003c/em\u003e = .12, \u003cem\u003eSRMR\u003c/em\u003e = .08. The fit of the model based on the positive CS component only was satisfactory. The fit indices were equal to \u003cem\u003eCFI\u003c/em\u003e = .99, \u003cem\u003eRMSEA\u003c/em\u003e = .09, \u003cem\u003eSRMR\u003c/em\u003e = .04. Consistent with the conceptual framework adopted in the present study, uncompassionate self-responding was not included in subsequent analyses. Importantly, measurement results provided additional empirical support for this decision, as the uncompassionate self-responding component showed inadequate model fit, whereas the compassionate self-responding model demonstrated satisfactory fit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e depicts the factor loadings acquired in the factorial model for Self-compassion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFactor loadings acquired in the factorial model for Compassionate self-responding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.72***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.48***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.71***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.71***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.69***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.71***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor Personal Distress and Empathic Concern, the model fit regarding the factorial structure of measurement was satisfactory. The fit indices were equal to \u003cem\u003eCFI\u003c/em\u003e = .99, \u003cem\u003eRMSEA\u003c/em\u003e = .01, \u003cem\u003eSRMR\u003c/em\u003e = .01 for Personal Distress and to \u003cem\u003eCFI\u003c/em\u003e = .99, \u003cem\u003eRMSEA\u003c/em\u003e = .04, \u003cem\u003eSRMR\u003c/em\u003e = .02 for Empathic Concern. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e depicts the factor loadings and additional correlations acquired in the factorial model for Personal Distress and for Empathic Concern.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFactor loadings and correlation coefficients for Personal Distress and Empathic Concern\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePersonal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.83***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.76***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.83***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpathic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.80***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.73***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor depression the model fit regarding the factorial structure of measurement was satisfactory. The fit indices were equal to \u003cem\u003eCFI\u003c/em\u003e = .99, \u003cem\u003eRMSEA\u003c/em\u003e = .04, \u003cem\u003eSRMR\u003c/em\u003e = .02. However, in order to achieve this fit, additional correlations between item errors also needed to be taken into account. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e depicts the factor loadings and additional correlations acquired in the factorial model for Depression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFactor loadings and correlation coefficients for Depression\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ef\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.79***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.91***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.77***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.82***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.84***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.90***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.87***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.81***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 8\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;Item no. 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.39***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 7\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;Item no. 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.33***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 4\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;Item no. 9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.25*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 2\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;Item no. 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.44***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem no. 3\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;Item no. 4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.26***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05; *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStructural model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data in the present study were analyzed using structural equation modeling. We hypothesized that compassion for others and self-compassion would influence personal distress and empathic concern, which in turn would affect the severity of depressive symptoms. In other words, we proposed that personal distress and empathic concern function as parallel mediators of the relationship between compassion for others, self-compassion, and depressive symptom severity. The preliminary model is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure 1\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreliminary Structural Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis was conducted using the maximum likelihood estimation method, and all indirect effects were assessed via bootstrapping. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e presents standardized regression coefficients for structural paths and the indirect and total effects in the mediation model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStandardized structural path coefficients and indirect and total effects for the Compassion\u0026ndash;Depression mediation model\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComponents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompassion for others\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u0026gt;Personal Distress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.33***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-compassion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u0026gt;Personal Distress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.34***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompassion for others\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u0026gt;Empathic Concern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.81***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-compassion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u0026gt;Empathic Concern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePersonal Distress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u0026gt;Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.58***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpathic Concern\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u0026gt;Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.31**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompassion for others\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u0026gt;Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.20*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-compassion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u0026gt;Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompassion for others -\u0026gt; Personal Distress -\u0026gt; Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.19***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompassion for others -\u0026gt; Empathic Concern -\u0026gt; Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.25***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-compassion -\u0026gt; Personal Distress -\u0026gt; Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.20***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-compassion -\u0026gt; Empathic concern -\u0026gt; Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal effects\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompassion for others -\u0026gt; Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.15**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-compassion -\u0026gt; Depression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.27***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e β \u0026ndash; standardized regression coefficient; * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.05; ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.01; *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fit of the final model was satisfactory. The values of fit indices were equal to \u003cem\u003eCFI\u003c/em\u003e = .95, \u003cem\u003eRMSEA\u003c/em\u003e = .05, \u003cem\u003eSRMR\u003c/em\u003e = .05. Personal Distress was a statistically significant mediator of the relationships between Compassion for others and Depression and between Self-compassion and Depression. However, the relationship between Compassion for others and Personal Distress was positive, while the relationship between Self-compassion and Depression was negative. Both relationships were similar regarding their strength, i.e., the absolute values of both standardized regression coefficients were similar. Personal Distress was in turn related positively to Depression. Compassion for others was also related directly and positively to Depression. Empathic Concern was a statistically significant mediator of the relationship between Compassion for others and Depression. The higher the level of Compassion for others the higher the level of Empathic Concern, which in turn is related to lower level of depression. Self-compassion was not significantly related to empathic concern and did not show a direct association with depression. Consequently, empathic concern did not mediate the relationship between compassionate self-responding and depression. The analyzed model explained 12.9% of Personal Distress variance, 71.8% of Empathic Concern variance and 38.3% of Depression variance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study examined how compassion for others and compassionate self-responding relate to depressive symptoms through affective dimensions of empathy in a nationally representative adult sample. The findings support a differentiated view of compassion, demonstrating that compassion may protect against depression or contribute to emotional burden depending on its direction and its impact on empathic processes. In particular, compassionate self-responding emerged as a protective factor through its association with reduced personal distress, whereas compassion for others showed a dual pattern, simultaneously fostering empathic concern and increasing personal distress. These results help clarify why compassion is sometimes linked to psychological resilience and at other times to emotional overwhelm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompassionate self-responding as a protective mechanism\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA central finding of this study is that compassionate self-responding was strongly and negatively associated with personal distress, which in turn was positively related to depressive symptoms. Notably, compassionate self-responding did not show a robust direct association with depression when empathic processes were included in the model, suggesting that its protective role operates primarily through indirect, regulatory pathways. This pattern is consistent with conceptualizations of self-compassion as supporting mental health in part through emotion-regulatory and coping processes, rather than functioning as a simple direct counterweight to depressive affect (Neff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy responding to personal suffering with kindness, mindful awareness, and a sense of shared humanity, individuals high in compassionate self-responding may remain emotionally engaged without becoming overwhelmed by affective reactivity. Reduced personal distress likely reflects greater emotional balance and lower self-focused arousal when encountering suffering, whether one\u0026rsquo;s own or others\u0026rsquo;. This interpretation aligns with previous findings showing that self-compassion is negatively related to personal distress (Neff \u0026amp; Pommier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and supports models in which self-compassion buffers against empathic overload by facilitating flexible emotional regulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportantly, the present findings underscore the value of examining compassionate self-responding independently of uncompassionate self-responding. When self-compassion is operationalized exclusively as an adaptive regulatory process, its association with depression appears conceptually coherent and mechanism-specific. This may help explain inconsistencies in prior studies that relied on global self-compassion scores, in which effects attributed to self-compassion may have been driven largely by the presence or absence of self-criticism (L\u0026oacute;pez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Muris \u0026amp; Petrocchi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Muris et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWhen compassion for others overwhelms\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast to compassionate self-responding, compassion for others was positively associated with both empathic concern and personal distress. These findings highlight the dual nature of other-directed compassion. On one hand, compassion for others was strongly related to empathic concern, which in turn was associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms. This pathway is consistent with evidence that other-oriented empathic responding is linked to prosocial motivation and helping behavior (Eisenberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Decety et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, compassion for others was also associated with elevated personal distress, which emerged as a robust risk factor for depression. Prior work suggests that personal distress reflects a self-focused, aversive form of empathic responding that is positively associated with depressive symptoms (Schreiter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Yan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and has been implicated in emotional overload processes relevant to burnout and secondary traumatic stress in high-exposure helping contexts (Figley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Singer \u0026amp; Klimecki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, compassion for others may be linked to greater vulnerability to depression when empathic engagement is dominated by self-focused distress rather than other-focused concern, increasing the likelihood of overwhelm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTogether, these results help explain why compassion for others has shown mixed associations with mental health across studies. Compassion for others may be psychologically protective when it primarily elicits empathic concern but becomes burdensome when accompanied by heightened personal distress. This distinction is particularly relevant in contexts of sustained exposure to suffering, where empathic engagement is frequent and emotionally demanding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEmpathy as a double-edged mechanism\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present findings underscore the importance of distinguishing between affective components of empathy when examining the psychological consequences of compassion. Personal distress emerged as the strongest mediator linking both compassion for others and compassionate self-responding to depressive symptoms. This aligns with review evidence indicating that depression is more consistently associated with self-oriented empathic stress/personal distress than with elevated empathic concern (Schreiter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and with meta-analytic evidence suggesting that affective empathy is positively associated with depression (Yan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy contrast, empathic concern played a weaker but protective mediating role, particularly in the context of compassion for others. These results suggest that empathy is not uniformly beneficial or harmful; rather, its impact depends in part on whether empathic engagement is oriented toward alleviating others\u0026rsquo; suffering or toward managing one\u0026rsquo;s own emotional discomfort. Recent findings indicate a similar pattern for burnout, with personal distress emerging as the strongest risk factor, whereas empathic concern tends to show weaker and sometimes protective associations depending on the burnout dimension (Holas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Compassionate self-responding appears to reduce the likelihood that empathic engagement will escalate into personal distress, thereby protecting against depressive symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications for the measurement of self-compassion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key contribution of this study lies in its methodological implications for self-compassion research. By focusing exclusively on compassionate self-responding, the present findings indicate that potentially adaptive functions of self-compassion can be examined more precisely when uncompassionate self-responding is not treated simply as its inverse. This approach aligns with concerns that negatively worded self-compassion items may show substantial conceptual overlap with psychopathology-related vulnerability (e.g., self-criticism) rather than uniquely indexing compassion per se (L\u0026oacute;pez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Muris \u0026amp; Petrocchi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Muris et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur results suggest that combining compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding into a single global score may obscure mechanism-specific pathways in models of depression and increase conceptual overlap between predictors and outcomes (L\u0026oacute;pez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Muris \u0026amp; Petrocchi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Muris et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Future research may benefit from explicitly distinguishing adaptive self-compassion processes from maladaptive self-relating when modeling mental health outcomes. (At the same time, it is important to note that there remains active debate regarding whether reduced uncompassionate responding is integral to the self-compassion system and whether total SCS scores should be retained alongside subscale scores; see Neff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Neff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eClinical and applied implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present findings have important implications for interventions targeting compassion and mindfulness. Interventions that cultivate compassionate self-responding may help reduce depressive symptoms and psychological distress, potentially by strengthening adaptive self-relating and reducing maladaptive self-criticism. This is consistent with evidence that compassion-based and self-compassion\u0026ndash;focused interventions are associated with reductions in depressive symptoms, on average (Kirby et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Han \u0026amp; Kim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), and with meta-analytic evidence that self-compassion\u0026ndash;related interventions reduce self-criticism (Wakelin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, the present results suggest that compassion-related training may benefit from explicitly addressing empathic distress/personal distress regulation, particularly for individuals who are highly affectively reactive to others\u0026rsquo; suffering. This aligns with conceptual accounts distinguishing compassion from empathic distress (Singer \u0026amp; Klimecki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and experimental evidence that compassion training can counteract the negative affective consequences observed following empathy training (Klimecki et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cb\u003eLimitations and future directions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations should be noted. First, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference regarding the directionality of the observed associations. Longitudinal and experimental studies are needed to clarify whether compassionate self-responding reduces personal distress over time and whether changes in personal distress subsequently predict changes in depressive symptoms. Second, all measures were self-reported, which may introduce shared method variance. Future studies incorporating behavioral or physiological indicators of empathy and emotion regulation would strengthen the conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, although the present study focused on affective empathy, future research may examine how cognitive empathy (perspective-taking) interacts with compassionate self-responding to shape emotional outcomes. Experience-sampling and ecological momentary assessment designs may be particularly useful for capturing within-person dynamics of compassion, empathy, and emotional well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn sum, the present study demonstrates that compassion is not uniformly protective or burdensome. Compassionate self-responding protects against depression by reducing personal distress, whereas compassion for others may either alleviate or exacerbate depressive symptoms depending on its empathic pathways. By distinguishing compassionate self-responding from uncompassionate self-responding and by separating empathic concern from personal distress, the findings clarify longstanding inconsistencies in the literature and highlight the importance of affective regulation in compassion-based models of mental health.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eP.H. \u0026ndash; conceptualization, methodology, data curation, investigation, funding acquisition, supervision, project administration, resources, software, validation, visualization, formal analysis, writing\u0026ndash;original draft, writing\u0026mdash;review and editing; P.R. \u0026ndash; investigation, methodology, formal analysis, software, visualization, writing\u0026mdash;original draft, writing\u0026mdash;review and editing; All authors reviewed the final draft of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApproval was obtained from the ethics committee of the University of Warsaw Faculty of Psychology. The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research was financed by the funds from the Faculty of Psychology at the University of Warsaw awarded by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education in the form of a subvention for maintaining and developing research potential in 2020.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe raw data are available at https://osf.io/fr2g7/.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDavis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Personality and Social Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e44\u003c/em\u003e(1), 113-126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDecety, J., Bartal, I. B., Uzefovsky, F., \u0026amp; Knafo-Noam, A. (2016). Empathy as a driver of prosocial behaviour: Highly conserved neurobehavioural mechanisms across species. \u003cem\u003ePhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e371\u003c/em\u003e(1686), 20150077. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0077\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEisenberg, N., Eggum, N. D., \u0026amp; Di Giunta, L. (2010). Empathy-related responding: Associations with prosocial behavior, aggression, and intergroup relations. \u003cem\u003eSocial Issues and Policy Review, 4\u003c/em\u003e(1), 143\u0026ndash;180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2409.2010.01020.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFigley, C. R. (1995). Compassion fatigue as secondary traumatic stress disorder: An overview. In C. R. Figley (Ed.), \u003cem\u003eCompassion fatigue: Coping with secondary traumatic stress disorder in those who treat the traumatized\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 1\u0026ndash;20). Brunner/Mazel.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGilbert, P. (2010). \u003cem\u003eCompassion-focused therapy: Distinctive features\u003c/em\u003e. Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGilbert, P., McEwan, K., Matos, M., \u0026amp; Rivis, A. (2011). Fears of compassion: Development of three self-report measures. \u003cem\u003ePsychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84\u003c/em\u003e(3), 239\u0026ndash;255. https://doi.org/10.1348/147608310X526511\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGoetz, J. L., Keltner, D., \u0026amp; Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Bulletin, 136\u003c/em\u003e(3), 351\u0026ndash;374. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018807\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHan, A., \u0026amp; Kim, T. H. (2023). Effects of self-compassion interventions on reducing depressive symptoms, anxiety, and stress: A meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 14(7), 1553\u0026ndash;1581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02148-x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHegney, D. G., Craigie, M., Hemsworth, D., Osseiran-Moisson, R., Aoun, S., Francis, K., \u0026amp; Drury, V. (2014). Compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, anxiety, depression and stress in registered nurses in Australia: Study 1 results. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Nursing Management, 22\u003c/em\u003e(4), 506\u0026ndash;518. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12160\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHolas, P., Gambin, M., Wojtkowiak, N., Kmita, G. \u0026amp; Łojek, E. (2025). Relationship of burnout with empathy dimensions in healthcare workers in Poland during the COVID-19 pandemic. \u003cem\u003eHealth Psychology Report\u003c/em\u003e, 13(2), 156\u0026ndash;169. https://doi.org/10.5114/hpr/188097\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHolas, P., Szewczuk, J., Rusanowska, M., Krejtz, I., Jankowski, T., \u0026amp; Nezlek, J. (2024). The Polish adaptation of the self-compassion scale short form. \u003cem\u003ePsychiatria Polska\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e58\u003c/em\u003e(4), 637-651. https://doi.org/10.12740/pp/172115\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eH\u0026uuml;lsemann, M. J., Kaurin, A., Kollmann, B., Chmitorz, A., Ahrens, K. F., Schenk, C., Plichta, M. M., Lutz, B., Basten, U., Fiebach, C. J., Kalisch, R., Lieb, K., Reif, A., T\u0026uuml;scher, O., Hermes, H., Schunk, D., \u0026amp; Wessa, M. (2025). Self-oriented affective empathy is associated with increased negative affect. Scientific Reports, 15, 27767. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-09860-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHwang, J. Y., Plante, T. G., \u0026amp; Lackey, K. (2008). The development of the Santa Clara Brief Compassion Scale: An abbreviation of Sprecher and Fehr\u0026rsquo;s Compassionate Love Scale. \u003cem\u003ePastoral Psychology, 56\u003c/em\u003e(4), 421\u0026ndash;428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-008-0117-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., \u0026amp; Steindl, S. R. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: Current state of knowledge and future directions. \u003cem\u003eBehavior Therapy\u003c/em\u003e, 48(6), 778\u0026ndash;792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKlimecki, O. M., Leiberg, S., Ricard, M., \u0026amp; Singer, T. (2014). Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(6), 873\u0026ndash;879. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst060\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., \u0026amp; Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. \u003cem\u003eJournal of General Internal Medicine, 16\u003c/em\u003e(9), 606\u0026ndash;613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLombardo, B., \u0026amp; Eyre, C. (2011). Compassion fatigue: A nurse\u0026rsquo;s primer. \u003cem\u003eOJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.3912/ojin.vol16no01man03\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eL\u0026oacute;pez, A., Sanderman, R., Smink, A., Zhang, Y., van Sonderen, E., Ranchor, A., \u0026amp; Schroevers, M. J. (2015). A reconsideration of the Self-Compassion Scale\u0026rsquo;s total score: Self-compassion versus self-criticism. PLOS ONE, 10(7), e0132940. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132940\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMacBeth, A., \u0026amp; Gumley, A. (2012). Exploring compassion: A meta-analysis of the association between self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(6), 545-552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.003\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMuris, P., \u0026amp; Petrocchi, N. (2017). Protection or vulnerability? A meta-analysis of the relations between the positive and negative components of self-compassion and psychopathology. \u003cem\u003eClinical Psychology \u0026amp; Psychotherapy, 24\u003c/em\u003e(2), 373\u0026ndash;383. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMuris, P., Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Mart\u0026iacute;nez, I., \u0026amp; Otgaar, H. (2024). On the edge of psychopathology: Strong relations between reversed self-compassion and symptoms of anxiety and depression in young people. \u003cem\u003eClinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 27\u003c/em\u003e(2), 407\u0026ndash;423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-024-00471-w\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNeff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. \u003cem\u003eSelf and Identity, 2\u003c/em\u003e(3), 223\u0026ndash;250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNeff, K. D. (2023). Self-compassion: Theory, method, research, and intervention. \u003cem\u003eAnnual Review of Psychology, 74\u003c/em\u003e, 193\u0026ndash;218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031047\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNeff, K. D., \u0026amp; Pommier, E. (2013). The relationship between self-compassion and other-focused concern among college undergraduates, community adults, and practicing meditators. \u003cem\u003eSelf and Identity\u003c/em\u003e, 12(2), 160-176. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.649546\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNeff, K. D., Long, P., Knox, M. C., Davidson, O., Kuchar, A., Costigan, A., Williamson, Z., Rohleder, N., T\u0026oacute;th-Kir\u0026aacute;ly, I., \u0026amp; Breines, J. G. (2018). The forest and the trees: Examining the association of self-compassion and its positive and negative components with psychological functioning. \u003cem\u003eSelf and Identity\u003c/em\u003e, 17(6), 627\u0026ndash;645. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2018.1436587\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNeff, K. D., T\u0026oacute;th-Kir\u0026aacute;ly, I., Yarnell, L. M., Arimitsu, K., Castilho, P., Ghorbani, N., Guo, H. X., Hirsch, J. K., Hupfeld, J., Hutz, C. S., Kotsou, I., Lee, W. K., Montero-Marin, J., Sirois, F. M., de Souza, L. K., Svendsen, J. L., Wilkinson, R. B., \u0026amp; Mantzios, M. (2019). Examining the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in 20 diverse samples: Support for use of a total score and six subscale scores. Psychological Assessment, 31(1), 27\u0026ndash;45. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000629\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRaes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., \u0026amp; Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the Self-Compassion Scale. \u003cem\u003eClinical Psychology \u0026amp; Psychotherapy, 18\u003c/em\u003e(3), 250\u0026ndash;255. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.702\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchreiter, S., Pijnenborg, G. H. M., \u0026amp; aan het Rot, M. (2013). Empathy in adults with clinical or subclinical depressive symptoms. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Affective Disorders, 150\u003c/em\u003e(1), 1\u0026ndash;16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2013.03.009\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSinger, T., \u0026amp; Klimecki, O. M. (2014). Empathy and compassion. \u003cem\u003eCurrent Biology, 24\u003c/em\u003e(18), R875\u0026ndash;R878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.06.054\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSprecher, S., \u0026amp; Fehr, B. (2005). Compassionate love for close others and humanity. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22\u003c/em\u003e(5), 629\u0026ndash;651. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407505056439\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWakelin, K. E., Perman, G., \u0026amp; Simonds, L. M. (2022). Effectiveness of self-compassion-related interventions for reducing self-criticism: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology \u0026amp; Psychotherapy, 29(1), 1\u0026ndash;25. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2586\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWoźniak-Prus, M., Gambin, M., Sękowski, M., Cudo, A., Pisula, E., Kiepura-Nawrocka, E., Boruszak-Kiziukiewicz, J., \u0026amp; Kmita, G. (2024). Positive experiences in the parent\u0026ndash;child relationship during the COVID-19 lockdown in Poland: The role of emotion regulation, empathy, parenting self-efficacy, and social support. \u003cem\u003eFamily Process, 63\u003c/em\u003e(1), 443\u0026ndash;468. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12856\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYan, Z., Zeng, X., Su, J., \u0026amp; Zhang, X. (2021). The dark side of empathy: Meta-analysis evidence of the relationship between empathy and depression. PsyCh Journal, 10(5), 794\u0026ndash;804. https://doi.org/10.1002/pchj.482\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"University of Warsaw","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"compassionate self-responding, compassion for others, personal distress, empathic concern, depression, mindfulness","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8945023/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8945023/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eObjectives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompassion is often linked to better mental health, yet its effects may depend on whether it is directed toward oneself or others and on how empathic responses are regulated. This study examined when compassion protects against depression and when it becomes emotionally overwhelming, focusing on compassionate self-responding and affective empathy (personal distress, empathic concern).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA nationally representative sample of Polish adults (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;604) completed measures of compassionate self-responding, compassion for others, affective empathy, and depressive symptoms. Consistent with current psychometric debates, self-compassion was operationalized exclusively as compassionate self-responding. Structural equation modeling tested a parallel mediation model with personal distress and empathic concern as mediators.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompassionate self-responding was associated with lower personal distress, which predicted lower depressive symptom severity. Compassion for others showed a dual pattern: it was positively related to empathic concern (linked to lower depression) and to personal distress (linked to higher depression). Personal distress was the strongest mediator for both compassionate self-responding and compassion for others. Direct effects of compassionate self-responding on depression were small after accounting for affective empathic processes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompassion appears protective when it reduces self-focused emotional reactivity but may increase emotional burden when it heightens personal distress. Distinguishing compassionate self-responding from uncompassionate self-relating and separating empathic concern from personal distress helps clarify mixed findings and highlights affect regulation as a key mechanism linking compassion and depression.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"When compassion protects—and when it overwhelms: Compassionate self-responding, empathy, and depression","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-25 13:45:48","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8945023/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fad3106f-5969-428a-bcf2-00d39fa7d184","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 25th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-25T13:45:48+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-25 13:45:48","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8945023","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8945023","identity":"rs-8945023","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}