How Professional Development Influences Faculty Engagement in Higher Education

How Professional Development Influences Faculty Engagement in Higher Education | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article How Professional Development Influences Faculty Engagement in Higher Education Hussein-Elhakim Al Issa This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7101093/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study examines how professional development (PD) influences faculty engagement and work behaviors across cultural contexts in higher education. Drawing on Hofstede's cultural dimensions framework, it compares academic staff from Bahrain and Malaysia—two collectivist, high power distance societies with contrasting levels of uncertainty avoidance and indulgence. Using a cross-sectional survey of 312 faculty members and structural equation modeling, the study investigates how PD participation relates to teacher engagement and task-related, proactive, and innovative behaviors. Results show that PD positively predicts engagement, which in turn mediates its effect on work behaviors. Notably, cultural differences shaped the strength and nature of these relationships, with Malaysian faculty showing higher proactivity and innovation, while Bahraini faculty exhibited stronger compliance and structure. The findings underscore the need for culturally responsive PD design and suggest that effective faculty development must align with local cultural norms and institutional priorities. This research advances decolonizing PD scholarship by highlighting Global South perspectives and offering context-specific models of faculty engagement. It is among the first to empirically compare faculty development in Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian contexts, and its focus on faculty as a cultural subgroup challenges Western-centric assumptions. Humanities/Cultural and media studies Social science/Cultural and media studies Social science/Education Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology Teachers' professional development work engagement higher education task-related behaviour proactive behaviour innovative behaviour Introduction Teachers are central to the education system (Hattie, 2015 ), and their behaviour is crucial for educational effectiveness. Professional development (PD) enhances teacher quality and student learning (de Vries, 2013). The core of teaching involves fulfilling mandated tasks (Williams et al., 1991), but personal initiative—going beyond requirements—is also essential (Ashford et al., 2018 ; Frese et al., 1997 ). For educational success, teachers must display innovative behavior to thrive in a fast-paced knowledge society (Thurlings et al., 2015 ). PD initiatives enhance student behavioral involvement (Gregory, 2014), mainly when supported by communities that boost teacher confidence and commitment (Cai, 2022). Teacher PD and work engagement in higher education are critical due to the rapid evolution of knowledge (Yoon and Kim, 2022 ), challenges in developing inclusive education (Mäkinen, 2013 ), and the accelerated digitalization of teaching post-COVID (Damsa et al., 2021). These factors highlight PD's role in fostering engagement and goal attainment, aligning with the job demand-resources model and social cognition research. Research shows a positive relationship between online PD and instructional content, beliefs, efficacy, practices (Bragg et al., 2021 ), and proactive behavior in education (Messmann et al., 2017). Professors require resources that align with their job demands (Bakker and Albrecht, 2018 ). This study addresses the gap in understanding how PD and engagement affect teachers' behaviors, focusing on cross-cultural factors and comparing teachers from Bahrain and Malaysia (Mitra et al., 2000 ; Wang et al., 2009 ). Supporting continuous PD models that enhance TE, innovation, and multicultural education (Kennedy, 2005), this study explores the mediating role of TE and emphasizes context through cross-cultural investigation. It enriches Kennedy's framework by illustrating the dynamic interplay among PD, teacher behaviour, and educational outcomes. This aligns with Musset ( 2010 ), who highlights PD's transformative impact on teacher efficacy, classroom management, and motivation, though with variability across settings. To advance the literature on management, higher education, and PD, this study proposes a model examining PD's impact on teacher work behaviors, specifically task-related, proactive, and innovative behavior. It theorizes that teacher work engagement (TE) mediates these relationships, addressing the limited research on PD for higher education online learning and responding to calls for studying work engagement across sectors. For instance, Bragg et al. ( 2021 ) conducted a systematic review of online PD programs and concluded that there is limited empirical work connecting design features of PD to behavioral outcomes in higher education. Similarly, Gedamu et al. ( 2022 ) emphasized that professional development programs in university settings often lack clear evaluation of outcome-based impact, especially within cross-national contexts. The study examines the impact of PD on TE and behaviours, the relationship between engagement and behaviours, and the mediating role of TE. Integrating social exchange and demand resource theories offers empirical insights and suggests implications for policymakers, emphasizing PD's positive outcomes on teacher work (Schilke et al., 2018 ). Bahrain and Malaysia are selected for cross-cultural research on academic faculty development due to shared characteristics such as high Power-Distance and collectivism. However, important cultural differences influence how faculty engage with professional development. Bahraini educators tend to prefer structure, routine, and rule-based teaching, reflecting high uncertainty avoidance, while Malaysian faculty, shaped by lower uncertainty avoidance, are more open to ambiguity and experimentation in their practices. Additionally, Bahrain's cultural restraint contrasts with Malaysia's greater indulgence, influencing teacher expressiveness and willingness to innovate in the classroom. This study treats faculty as a distinct cultural subgroup, recognizing that their professional norms may diverge from broader societal values, particularly in their tolerance for uncertainty and professional risk. The comparison challenges Western-centric assumptions in professional development research by focusing on Global South contexts, thereby uncovering faculty development patterns that are more locally relevant. Cultural values also shape the design and delivery of PD initiatives. Malaysia's extremely high Power-Distance supports top-down, centralized mentorship, while Bahrain's cultural mix allows for more participatory and hybrid approaches. While group-based PD is likely effective in both countries, Malaysia's cultural flexibility may foster more innovative faculty behaviors, whereas Bahrain may reinforce more structured and compliant responses. Ultimately, the Bahrain–Malaysia comparison supports the development of culturally grounded professional development models that move beyond Eurocentric templates and align more closely with national educational values and policy goals. It enables a natural comparative framework that isolates the effects of cultural dimensions—beyond region or religion—on PD participation, engagement, and outcomes in higher education. Based on the theoretical framework and identified gaps in the literature, this study investigates the following research questions: RQ1. How does professional development (PD) influence task-related, proactive, and innovative behaviors among higher education faculty? RQ2. What is the mediating role of teacher engagement (TE) in the relationship between PD and work behaviors? RQ3. How do these relationships vary across cultural contexts, specifically between Malaysia and Bahrain? Literature review Theoretical Foundation This research model integrates the Social Exchange Theory (SET) (Homans, 1958 ) and the Job-Demand Resource (JD-R) theory (Bakker et al., 2007; Demerouti et al., 2001 ). SET suggests that reciprocal workplace exchanges enhance trust and commitment (Cropanzano et al., 2017). In contrast, the JD-R theory posits that job resources mitigate the stress caused by job demands, thereby fostering engagement and goal achievement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007 ). As a professional development resource, PD motivates teachers to innovate and take calculated risks. Birtch et al. ( 2016 ) demonstrated how job resources mitigate high demands by fulfilling psychological contracts, thereby improving job satisfaction and commitment. These frameworks are essential for understanding how PD influences teacher engagement (TE) and work behaviors in higher education. Professional development and teacher behavior outcomes Professional development (PD) involves reflective, collaborative activities that enhance teaching (deVries et al., 2013 ). However, research often lacks details on participants, methods, and outcomes (Dede et al., 2009 ), and the integration of PD in higher education is limited (Gedamu et al., 2022 ). While research on PD and work behavior in online learning is limited (Gao et al., 2022 ), studies show short-term PD positively influences desired behaviors (Lauer et al., 2014 ), and ongoing training improves digital competencies (Fernández-Batanero et al., 2022). PD enhances teaching skills, boosts confidence, and increases self-efficacy and outcome expectancy, improving educational effectiveness (Holland et al., 2022 ; Sharp et al., 2022 ). Another example is Harvey & Vlachopoulos ( 2020 ), who found that engaging in creative reflective activities during retreats can lead to positive professional outcomes. PD plays a vital role in enhancing faculty engagement and growth in higher education (O Brien et al., 2023), with well-structured programs improving motivation, teaching effectiveness, satisfaction, and adaptability to changing pedagogical demands (Siat, 2025 ). It also reinforces professional identity and contributes to student learning outcomes (Kaza et al., 2016 ). However, meaningful engagement requires institutional support that goes beyond skill-building to include alignment with workplace goals and career development (van Bruggen et al., 2020 ). Long-term initiatives, such as the University of Vermont's Sustainability Faculty Fellows Program, illustrate how sustained PD can foster leadership, curricular innovation, and institutional advancement (Witcher & Sasso, 2024 ). Thus, while PD boosts faculty engagement through enhanced teaching and identity, its success relies on flexible formats, institutional backing, and addressing barriers to participation. Hence, we postulate: H1: PD is positively related to task-related behavior. H2: PD is positively related to proactive behavior. Innovative behaviour, encompassing idea creation, promotion, and realization, is crucial for effective role performance (Janssen, 2000 ; Kwon and Kim, 2020 ; Scott and Bruce, 1994 ), firm competitiveness (Bos-Nehles and Veenendaal, 2019 ), and high-performing schools (Hashim et al., 2019 ). PD enhances teachers' knowledge, fostering innovative coping strategies (Kwon et al., 2020; Sellars et al., 2012) and providing coaching systems that improve skills and promote innovative practices essential for idea generation (Vescio et al., 2008 ). Studies show a positive relationship between PD and work outcomes, including teaching practices in STEM (Biswas et al., 2022 ), career development (Mushayikwa et al., 2009), creativity (Horng et al., 2005 ), and innovative behavior (Ching et al., 2014; Gorozidis et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2021). Online PD enhances knowledge and self-efficacy (Bragg et al., 2021 ) while mentoring and coaching significantly improve work engagement, suggesting that tailored PD can enhance teacher engagement and innovation (Weinberg and Scandura, 2024 ). Thus, the following is hypothesized: H3: PD is related to innovative behavior. Professional development and teacher engagement Teacher engagement (TE) motivates participation in PD, requiring effort, enthusiasm, and focus (Richter et al., 2011). PD fosters positive emotions, cognitive capacities, and pride, leading to work immersion and accomplishment (Simbula et al., 2011 ). Studies show a positive link between PD and work-life balance, with job engagement predicting ongoing PD (Contreras et al., 2020 ; Li et al., 2019 ; Schaufeli et al., 2009 ; Van der Heijden et al., 2015 ). Continuous PD enhances teacher effectiveness and fosters collaboration (Stosich et al., 2018), while experiential learning promotes personal growth (Koster et al., 2008 ). Van der Heijden et al. ( 2015 ) found that age and proactive personality moderate the impact of PD on work outcomes in primary education; insights from this study are expanded here to higher education. PD tailored to individual characteristics improves work engagement and employability. Bakker and Bal (2010) connect job resources like autonomy and coaching to engagement, supporting the JD-R model, which posits that resources, including PD, are crucial for better work outcomes (Saks, 2019 ). Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: H4: PD is related to teacher engagement. Teacher engagement and teaching behavior outcomes The job demands-resources model posits that work demands require effort, while resources foster growth and alleviate stress. Engaged teachers, driven by positive emotions, expand their cognitive and behavioural capacities, gaining pride and meaning in their work, which enables them to manage challenges in proactive and innovative tasks (Schaufeli et al., 2009 ). Engaged workers are more likely to seek novel ways to add value, increase innovation (Zhang and Yang, 2021 ), and exhibit better task performance (Christian et al., 2011 ; Halbesleben, 2010 ), as well as proactive behaviour (Bakker et al., 2012 ) and innovation (Orth et al., 2017). Thurlings et al. (2014) linked engagement and PD to innovation, while Van Zyl et al. ( 2021 ) emphasized work engagement as a driver of innovation and task performance. In another example, McNamee et al. ( 2004 ) highlight that academics' identification as teachers, coupled with structured professional development programs that emphasize autonomy, resources, and feedback, fosters professionalism, supports effective teaching practices, and enhances engagement by addressing staff needs. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed: H5: TE is related to task-related behavior. H6: TE is related to proactive behavior. H7: TE is related to innovative behavior. The mediating role of teacher engagement Social cognition research suggests that refining knowledge and addressing conflicting patterns motivates development. The JD-R model indicates that resources like PD foster goal achievement and positive behaviors through TE. Studies have identified work engagement as a critical mediator of the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Islam et al., 2018; Karatepe et al., 2016; Agarwal et al., 2012 ). Kwon et al. (2020) found that high demands and resources predict innovative behavior when mediated by engagement. Similarly, Eldor et al. (2016) demonstrated that engagement mediates the relationship between a learning climate and extrinsic behaviours, such as proactivity and creativity. Further, our findings are consistent with Al-Husseini and Elbeltagi ( 2016 ), who highlight that continuous PD, academic engagement, and a supportive organizational culture are key drivers of innovative behavior in higher education. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed: H8a. TE mediates the relationship between PD and task-related behavior. H8b. TE mediates the relationship between PD and proactive behavior. H8c. TE mediates the relationship between PD and innovative behavior. Methods The population and sample Data was collected via online questionnaires during the COVID-19 pandemic from instructors at public universities in Bahrain and Malaysia using WhatsApp and Google Forms. HR approval was obtained to survey 1,461 academic staff, with questionnaires translated into Arabic and Malay, and then back-translated into English (Brislin, 1986 ). Ethical approvals ensured anonymity; participants could choose between English, Malay, or Arabic. COVID-19 restrictions shifted data collection online, yielding 228 usable datasets for analysis, with correlations and descriptive statistics generated (Tables 1 and 2 ). Measures The study used existing instruments, with constructs measured on a five-point Likert scale from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree." Demographic factors, such as gender, educational level, and teaching experience, were controlled for due to mixed findings in previous research (Elias, 2017 ). Teacher work engagement was measured using three items from Schaufeli et al. ( 2017 , 2006) with an internal consistency of 0.663, operationalized as vigor, dedication, and absorption (Mäkiniemi et al., 2020 ). Task-related behaviour was measured using three items from Williams et al. (1991), with an internal consistency of 0.739, to assess how teachers complete required tasks. Proactive behaviour was measured using three items based on Frese et al. ( 1997 ), with an internal consistency of 0.635, reflecting teachers' initiative beyond required tasks. Innovative behaviour was measured using six items from Scott and Bruce ( 1994 ), with an internal consistency of 0.790, evaluating the development of new ideas and solutions. Professional development: A 16-item measure from de Vries et al. ( 2013 ), internal consistency 0.902, assessing learning activities to update, reflect, and collaborate. Minor adjustments were made for university versus school teaching contexts. Results Data analysis was conducted using SPSS v20 and PLS-SEM, with PLS-SEM chosen for its ability to handle non-normal data and complex models (Al Issa and Abdelsalam, 2021 ). Descriptive statistics, including demographic profiles, are in Table 1 . Common method variance was addressed through anonymity, and Harman's single-factor test confirmed that there was no significant variance, with the first factor explaining less than 50% of the variance (MacKenzie et al., 2012). Normality was assessed using Q-Q plots and histograms, which showed a near-normal distribution. No multicollinearity issues were found, as VIF was 1.423 and tolerance was 0.703. Table 1 Distribution of respondents Country Gender Age Education Experience Bahrain 109 (47.8%) Male 77 (33.8%) At or below 30: 109 (47.8%) Bachelor's degree: 54 (23.7%) Between 1 and 5 years: 120 (52.6%) Malaysia 119 (52.2%) Female 151 (66.2%) Between 31 and 40: 54 (23.7%) Master's degree: 64 (28.1%) Between 6 and 10 years: 57 (25%) Over 40: 65 (28.5%) PhD degree: 89 (39%) Between 11 and 15 years: 47 (20.6%) Other: 21 (9.2%) Over 15 years: 4 (1.8%) Table 2 Means, standard deviation, and a correlation matrix Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Gender 0.662 0.474 1 Education 2.338 0.941 − .158 * 1 Age 1.807 0.854 − .249 ** .246** 1 Employment type 1.851 1.136 -0.029 0.027 0.125 1 PD 3.722 0.573 -0.039 -0.116 0.065 0.035 1 TE 3.829 0.612 -0.033 -0.017 0.060 -0.012 .545** 1 TB 4.006 0.627 0.051 -0.051 -0.042 -0.065 .459** .673** 1 PB 3.88 0.597 -0.045 -0.001 -0.071 − .139* .568** .548** .630** 1 IB 3.738 0.591 -0.029 -0.064 0.032 -0.042 .648** .565** .548** .635** Note. N = 228 *p < .05, **p < .01 The measurement model was evaluated for reliability, internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Four indicators (PD11, PD12, PD6, IB1) were removed due to loadings below 0.70. Items with loadings above 0.50 were retained. Discriminant validity was confirmed using the Fornell-Larcker criterion (1981), as the square roots of the AVEs exceeded the correlations between constructs. Cross-loading and Fornell-Larcker methods were preferred over HTMT due to sample size and construct clarity (Table 3 ). Hair et al. ( 2017 )d nkkö and Cho (2022) suggested further research into advanced discriminant validity techniques, such as CICFA (sys) and χ2(sys). Table 3 Discriminant validity (Fornell-Larcker's criterion) IB PB PD TB TE IB 0.738 PB 0.636 0.76 PD 0.666 0.576 0.681 TB 0.525 0.644 0.408 0.811 TE 0.563 0.555 0.518 0.677 0.774 Note. IB, Innovative Behavior; PB, Proactive Behavior; PD, Professional Development; TB, Task-related Behavior; TE, Teacher Engagement. The structural model yielded R² values of 0.463 for task-related behaviour, 0.421 for proactive behaviour, and 0.509 for innovative behaviour. PD's effect sizes were 0.008 (small), 0.197 (medium), and 0.392 (large) for TB, PB, and IB, respectively (Cohen, 1988 ). TE's effect sizes were 0.552, 0.155, and 0.132 for TB, PB, and IB, with Q² values indicating medium predictive relevance (Hair et al., 2011 ) (Table 4 ). Table 4 Structural estimates Hypothesis Standard beta t-statistics P Values Remark Direct effects H1. PD → TB 0.079 1.108 0.268 Reject H2. PD → PB 0.394 5.007 0.000 Accept H3. PD → IB 0.513 7.047 0.000 Accept H4. PD → TE 0.518 9.026 0.000 Accept H5. TE → TB 0.636 9.995 0.000 Accept H6. TE → PB 0.350 3.892 0.000 Accept H7. TE → IB 0.297 3.471 0.001 Accept Indirect mediation effects H8a. PD → TE → TB 0.154 3.098 0.000 Full mediation H8b. PD → TE → PB 0.181 3.361 0.001 Partial mediation H8c. PD → TE → IB 0.329 6.648 0.000 Partial mediation Control variables and country comparison Gender → TB 0.077 1.690 Significant Gender → PB -0.010 0.205 Not Significant Gender → IB 0.009 0.225 Not Significant Education → TB -0.032 0.565 Not Significant Education → PB 0.048 0.847 Not Significant Education → IB 0.012 0.222 Not Significant Experience → TB -0.096 1.811 Significant Experience → PB -0.085 1.665 Significant Experience → IB -0.012 0.235 Not Significant PD → TB (Malaysian teachers) (0.238) -0.132 (2.707) 0.976 (0.007) 0.330 Significant Note: ***Significant at .01 (2-tailed), **significant at .05 (2-tailed), *significant at .10 (2-tailed). A parametric multi-group analysis revealed significant differences between Malaysian and Bahraini instructors, with PD having a more substantial effect on task-related behavior in Malaysians (β = 0.238; p < .007) than in Bahrainis (β = -0.132; p = 0.330). PD and TE had a more significant impact on task-related behavior in female instructors, while experienced teachers showed weaker influences from PD and TE. The Bahraini cohort included over 16 nationalities. Discussion and implications PD aims to enhance employees' skills, knowledge, and competencies, thereby supporting career growth, improving organizational performance, and boosting psychological well-being and work engagement (Ouweneel et al., 2013 ). With mixed results, this study examined PD's effects on teacher engagement (TE) and task-related, proactive, and innovative behaviors. While PD had no significant impact on task-related behaviours, it effectively promoted proactive and innovative behaviours (Bragg et al., 2021 ; Wu et al., 2022 ). Previous research has not directly explored the impact of PD on engagement and behaviours (Desimone et al., 2002 ; Johnson et al., 2014; Molino et al., 2013 ). PD explained 46% of task-related, 42% of proactive, and 51% of innovative behaviours, accounting for 27% of TE variance, which is consistent with prior studies (Jaramillo-Baquerizo et al., 2019 ). TE significantly influenced all three behaviors and mediated PD's impact on work behaviors, consistent with Karatepe and Olugbade ( 2016 ). The study found a stronger PD-task-related association among Malaysian teachers than Bahraini teachers, likely due to cultural factors (Hofstede, 2001 ; Javidan et al., 2006 ). Experienced teachers showed less PD influence on task-related and proactive behaviors, emphasizing practical application over PD (Scherer et al., 2021). Female teachers displayed stronger PD and TE effects on task-related behaviors but not on proactive or innovative behaviors (Scherer et al., 2021). Furthermore, our study findings align well with those of Knight et al. ( 2006 ), who argue that professional learning in higher education is best understood as a socially situated, systemic process shaped by non-formal practices and contextual interactions within institutions, for it to lead to higher academic performance. This research contributes to online learning and engagement literature by validating existing measures (Vries et al., 2013 ) and exploring cross-cultural factors in Bahrain and Malaysia. Differences in power distance, individualism, and uncertainty avoidance shape how both cultures approach work and innovation, with Malaysians more tolerant of deviance and focused on future orientation, unlike the more tradition-focused Bahraini culture (Almutairi et al., 2021 ; Minkov & Kaasa, 2022 ). Theoretical contributions and implications Management research in higher education is expanding, but further studies are needed (Høigaard et al., 2012 ; Quezada et al., 2020 ), especially on work engagement across sectors (Bakker & Albrecht, 2018 ). This study addresses these gaps by examining the relationship between PD, TE, and work behaviors. Our findings support those of Björk et al. ( 2019 ), emphasizing the importance of balancing job demands and resources to foster environments that enhance teacher satisfaction, self-efficacy, and retention. It offers new insights into teacher work outcomes, mapping effective, context-specific interventions for higher education. Practical contributions and implications The rapid digitalization of teaching, accelerated by COVID-19, has pushed higher education teachers to adopt digital tools under time and resource constraints (Damşa et al., 2021 ). PD is vital for fostering effective work behaviors, though its impact on teacher outcomes is still evolving (Li et al., 2019 ; Contreras et al., 2020 ). Traditional PD methods often fail to integrate technology into pedagogy (Fernández-Batanero et al., 2020 ; Mishra & Koehler, 2006 ), and teachers adopt new approaches only after proven success (Vescio et al., 2008 ). Practical application in PD is critical for its effectiveness, as emphasized by Wilson and Xue (2013), highlighting gradual integration and skill development. University management should incorporate PD into job descriptions and performance appraisals to enhance effectiveness (Guskey, 2002 ; Zhao, 2010 ), with resources allocated through credible communication to inspire staff and students (Jaworski, 2011 ). Structured HRM support in education enhances teacher PD through integrated recruitment, training, and appraisals, improving motivation and outcomes (Runhaar, 2017 ). PD that fosters cultural awareness enables teachers to meet diverse needs, boosting academic achievement and engagement (Parkhouse et al., 2019 ) and promoting equitable education for all. Limitations and future research This study has several limitations that suggest future research directions. First, using data from a single source (teachers) may introduce common method variance (CMV); future studies should include multiple data sources, such as leader evaluations. Second, data from two public universities may limit generalizability, necessitating replication with larger and more diverse samples. Third, the cross-sectional design restricts the ability to draw cause-and-effect conclusions, necessitating longitudinal studies. Lastly, the study focused on a single mediator (teacher engagement); future research should explore additional mediators and moderators, such as achievement motivation and inclusive leadership (Daumiller et al., 2021 ). Conclusion This research examined the impact of PD on teacher work behaviors—task-related, proactive, and innovative—and the mediating role of TE. It explored how TE mediates the relationship between PD and work behaviors, a focus not commonly addressed in other sectors. Additionally, the study analyzed cross-cultural differences (Bahrain and Malaysia), highlighting how cultural factors influence PD effectiveness. It emphasized fostering innovative and proactive behaviors, integrating technology into PD, and understanding the role of organizational support. These findings offer insights into enhancing faculty engagement and work behaviours in higher education. Future research should explore the mechanisms linking PD, its antecedents, and outcomes. Universities must address the efficiency gap between inputs, such as government spending, and outputs, including graduate employment and high-quality research (Al Issa, 2019 ). The paradigm shift requires balancing corporate and academic interests (Bolden et al., 2012 ), which is complicated by the impact of globalization on talent dispersion. 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\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), and their behaviour is crucial for educational effectiveness. Professional development (PD) enhances teacher quality and student learning (de Vries, 2013). The core of teaching involves fulfilling mandated tasks (Williams et al., 1991), but personal initiative—going beyond requirements—is also essential (Ashford et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Frese et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). For educational success, teachers must display innovative behavior to thrive in a fast-paced knowledge society (Thurlings et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePD initiatives enhance student behavioral involvement (Gregory, 2014), mainly when supported by communities that boost teacher confidence and commitment (Cai, 2022). Teacher PD and work engagement in higher education are critical due to the rapid evolution of knowledge (Yoon and Kim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), challenges in developing inclusive education (Mäkinen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and the accelerated digitalization of teaching post-COVID (Damsa et al., 2021). These factors highlight PD's role in fostering engagement and goal attainment, aligning with the job demand-resources model and social cognition research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch shows a positive relationship between online PD and instructional content, beliefs, efficacy, practices (Bragg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and proactive behavior in education (Messmann et al., 2017). Professors require resources that align with their job demands (Bakker and Albrecht, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This study addresses the gap in understanding how PD and engagement affect teachers' behaviors, focusing on cross-cultural factors and comparing teachers from Bahrain and Malaysia (Mitra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSupporting continuous PD models that enhance TE, innovation, and multicultural education (Kennedy, 2005), this study explores the mediating role of TE and emphasizes context through cross-cultural investigation. It enriches Kennedy's framework by illustrating the dynamic interplay among PD, teacher behaviour, and educational outcomes. This aligns with Musset (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), who highlights PD's transformative impact on teacher efficacy, classroom management, and motivation, though with variability across settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo advance the literature on management, higher education, and PD, this study proposes a model examining PD's impact on teacher work behaviors, specifically task-related, proactive, and innovative behavior. It theorizes that teacher work engagement (TE) mediates these relationships, addressing the limited research on PD for higher education online learning and responding to calls for studying work engagement across sectors. For instance, Bragg et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a systematic review of online PD programs and concluded that there is limited empirical work connecting design features of PD to behavioral outcomes in higher education. Similarly, Gedamu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized that professional development programs in university settings often lack clear evaluation of outcome-based impact, especially within cross-national contexts. The study examines the impact of PD on TE and behaviours, the relationship between engagement and behaviours, and the mediating role of TE. Integrating social exchange and demand resource theories offers empirical insights and suggests implications for policymakers, emphasizing PD's positive outcomes on teacher work (Schilke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBahrain and Malaysia are selected for cross-cultural research on academic faculty development due to shared characteristics such as high Power-Distance and collectivism. However, important cultural differences influence how faculty engage with professional development. Bahraini educators tend to prefer structure, routine, and rule-based teaching, reflecting high uncertainty avoidance, while Malaysian faculty, shaped by lower uncertainty avoidance, are more open to ambiguity and experimentation in their practices. Additionally, Bahrain's cultural restraint contrasts with Malaysia's greater indulgence, influencing teacher expressiveness and willingness to innovate in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study treats faculty as a distinct cultural subgroup, recognizing that their professional norms may diverge from broader societal values, particularly in their tolerance for uncertainty and professional risk. The comparison challenges Western-centric assumptions in professional development research by focusing on Global South contexts, thereby uncovering faculty development patterns that are more locally relevant. Cultural values also shape the design and delivery of PD initiatives. Malaysia's extremely high Power-Distance supports top-down, centralized mentorship, while Bahrain's cultural mix allows for more participatory and hybrid approaches. While group-based PD is likely effective in both countries, Malaysia's cultural flexibility may foster more innovative faculty behaviors, whereas Bahrain may reinforce more structured and compliant responses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUltimately, the Bahrain–Malaysia comparison supports the development of culturally grounded professional development models that move beyond Eurocentric templates and align more closely with national educational values and policy goals. It enables a natural comparative framework that isolates the effects of cultural dimensions—beyond region or religion—on PD participation, engagement, and outcomes in higher education. Based on the theoretical framework and identified gaps in the literature, this study investigates the following research questions:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRQ1. How does professional development (PD) influence task-related, proactive, and innovative behaviors among higher education faculty?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRQ2. What is the mediating role of teacher engagement (TE) in the relationship between PD and work behaviors?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRQ3. How do these relationships vary across cultural contexts, specifically between Malaysia and Bahrain?\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\n\n\n\n"},{"header":"Literature review","content":"\u003ch2\u003eTheoretical Foundation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research model integrates the Social Exchange Theory (SET) (Homans, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1958\u003c/span\u003e) and the Job-Demand Resource (JD-R) theory (Bakker et al., 2007; Demerouti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). SET suggests that reciprocal workplace exchanges enhance trust and commitment (Cropanzano et al., 2017). In contrast, the JD-R theory posits that job resources mitigate the stress caused by job demands, thereby fostering engagement and goal achievement (Bakker \u0026amp; Demerouti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). As a professional development resource, PD motivates teachers to innovate and take calculated risks. Birtch et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated how job resources mitigate high demands by fulfilling psychological contracts, thereby improving job satisfaction and commitment. These frameworks are essential for understanding how PD influences teacher engagement (TE) and work behaviors in higher education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eProfessional development and teacher behavior outcomes\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eProfessional development (PD) involves reflective, collaborative activities that enhance teaching (deVries et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). However, research often lacks details on participants, methods, and outcomes (Dede et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), and the integration of PD in higher education is limited (Gedamu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). While research on PD and work behavior in online learning is limited (Gao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), studies show short-term PD positively influences desired behaviors (Lauer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), and ongoing training improves digital competencies (Fernández-Batanero et al., 2022). PD enhances teaching skills, boosts confidence, and increases self-efficacy and outcome expectancy, improving educational effectiveness (Holland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sharp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Another example is Harvey \u0026amp; Vlachopoulos (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who found that engaging in creative reflective activities during retreats can lead to positive professional outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePD plays a vital role in enhancing faculty engagement and growth in higher education (O Brien et al., 2023), with well-structured programs improving motivation, teaching effectiveness, satisfaction, and adaptability to changing pedagogical demands (Siat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). It also reinforces professional identity and contributes to student learning outcomes (Kaza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). However, meaningful engagement requires institutional support that goes beyond skill-building to include alignment with workplace goals and career development (van Bruggen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Long-term initiatives, such as the University of Vermont's Sustainability Faculty Fellows Program, illustrate how sustained PD can foster leadership, curricular innovation, and institutional advancement (Witcher \u0026amp; Sasso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR102\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, while PD boosts faculty engagement through enhanced teaching and identity, its success relies on flexible formats, institutional backing, and addressing barriers to participation. Hence, we postulate:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH1: PD is positively related to task-related behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH2: PD is positively related to proactive behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInnovative behaviour, encompassing idea creation, promotion, and realization, is crucial for effective role performance (Janssen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Kwon and Kim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Scott and Bruce, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e), firm competitiveness (Bos-Nehles and Veenendaal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and high-performing schools (Hashim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). PD enhances teachers' knowledge, fostering innovative coping strategies (Kwon et al., 2020; Sellars et al., 2012) and providing coaching systems that improve skills and promote innovative practices essential for idea generation (Vescio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Studies show a positive relationship between PD and work outcomes, including teaching practices in STEM (Biswas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), career development (Mushayikwa et al., 2009), creativity (Horng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), and innovative behavior (Ching et al., 2014; Gorozidis et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2021). Online PD enhances knowledge and self-efficacy (Bragg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) while mentoring and coaching significantly improve work engagement, suggesting that tailored PD can enhance teacher engagement and innovation (Weinberg and Scandura, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, the following is hypothesized:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH3: PD is related to innovative behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eProfessional development and teacher engagement\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003e Teacher engagement (TE) motivates participation in PD, requiring effort, enthusiasm, and focus (Richter et al., 2011). PD fosters positive emotions, cognitive capacities, and pride, leading to work immersion and accomplishment (Simbula et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Studies show a positive link between PD and work-life balance, with job engagement predicting ongoing PD (Contreras et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Schaufeli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Van der Heijden et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Continuous PD enhances teacher effectiveness and fosters collaboration (Stosich et al., 2018), while experiential learning promotes personal growth (Koster et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Van der Heijden et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) found that age and proactive personality moderate the impact of PD on work outcomes in primary education; insights from this study are expanded here to higher education. PD tailored to individual characteristics improves work engagement and employability. Bakker and Bal (2010) connect job resources like autonomy and coaching to engagement, supporting the JD-R model, which posits that resources, including PD, are crucial for better work outcomes (Saks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH4: PD is related to teacher engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eTeacher engagement and teaching behavior outcomes\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe job demands-resources model posits that work demands require effort, while resources foster growth and alleviate stress. Engaged teachers, driven by positive emotions, expand their cognitive and behavioural capacities, gaining pride and meaning in their work, which enables them to manage challenges in proactive and innovative tasks (Schaufeli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Engaged workers are more likely to seek novel ways to add value, increase innovation (Zhang and Yang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR105\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and exhibit better task performance (Christian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Halbesleben, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), as well as proactive behaviour (Bakker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and innovation (Orth et al., 2017). Thurlings et al. (2014) linked engagement and PD to innovation, while Van Zyl et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized work engagement as a driver of innovation and task performance. In another example, McNamee et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) highlight that academics' identification as teachers, coupled with structured professional development programs that emphasize autonomy, resources, and feedback, fosters professionalism, supports effective teaching practices, and enhances engagement by addressing staff needs. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH5: TE is related to task-related behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH6: TE is related to proactive behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH7: TE is related to innovative behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe mediating role of teacher engagement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial cognition research suggests that refining knowledge and addressing conflicting patterns motivates development. The JD-R model indicates that resources like PD foster goal achievement and positive behaviors through TE. Studies have identified work engagement as a critical mediator of the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Islam et al., 2018; Karatepe et al., 2016; Agarwal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Kwon et al. (2020) found that high demands and resources predict innovative behavior when mediated by engagement. Similarly, Eldor et al. (2016) demonstrated that engagement mediates the relationship between a learning climate and extrinsic behaviours, such as proactivity and creativity. Further, our findings are consistent with Al-Husseini and Elbeltagi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who highlight that continuous PD, academic engagement, and a supportive organizational culture are key drivers of innovative behavior in higher education. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH8a. TE mediates the relationship between PD and task-related behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH8b. TE mediates the relationship between PD and proactive behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eH8c. TE mediates the relationship between PD and innovative behavior.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe population and sample\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData was collected via online questionnaires during the COVID-19 pandemic from instructors at public universities in Bahrain and Malaysia using WhatsApp and Google Forms. HR approval was obtained to survey 1,461 academic staff, with questionnaires translated into Arabic and Malay, and then back-translated into English (Brislin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). Ethical approvals ensured anonymity; participants could choose between English, Malay, or Arabic. COVID-19 restrictions shifted data collection online, yielding 228 usable datasets for analysis, with correlations and descriptive statistics generated (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study used existing instruments, with constructs measured on a five-point Likert scale from \"strongly disagree\" to \"strongly agree.\" Demographic factors, such as gender, educational level, and teaching experience, were controlled for due to mixed findings in previous research (Elias, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Teacher work engagement was measured using three items from Schaufeli et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, 2006) with an internal consistency of 0.663, operationalized as vigor, dedication, and absorption (M\u0026auml;kiniemi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Task-related behaviour was measured using three items from Williams et al. (1991), with an internal consistency of 0.739, to assess how teachers complete required tasks. Proactive behaviour was measured using three items based on Frese et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), with an internal consistency of 0.635, reflecting teachers' initiative beyond required tasks. Innovative behaviour was measured using six items from Scott and Bruce (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e), with an internal consistency of 0.790, evaluating the development of new ideas and solutions. Professional development: A 16-item measure from de Vries et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), internal consistency 0.902, assessing learning activities to update, reflect, and collaborate. Minor adjustments were made for university versus school teaching contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eData analysis was conducted using SPSS v20 and PLS-SEM, with PLS-SEM chosen for its ability to handle non-normal data and complex models (Al Issa and Abdelsalam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Descriptive statistics, including demographic profiles, are in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Common method variance was addressed through anonymity, and Harman's single-factor test confirmed that there was no significant variance, with the first factor explaining less than 50% of the variance (MacKenzie et al., 2012). Normality was assessed using Q-Q plots and histograms, which showed a near-normal distribution. No multicollinearity issues were found, as VIF was 1.423 and tolerance was 0.703.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistribution of respondents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBahrain 109 (47.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale 77 (33.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt or below 30: 109 (47.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's degree: 54 (23.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBetween 1 and 5 years: 120 (52.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMalaysia 119 (52.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale 151 (66.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBetween 31 and 40: 54 (23.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaster's degree: 64 (28.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBetween 6 and 10 years: 57 (25%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver 40: 65 (28.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhD degree: 89 (39%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBetween 11 and 15 years: 47 (20.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther: 21 (9.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver 15 years: 4 (1.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans, standard deviation, and a correlation matrix\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGender\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.662\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.474\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEducation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.338\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.941\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e− .158\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.807\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.854\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e− .249\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.246**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEmployment type\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.851\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.136\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.029\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.722\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.573\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.039\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.116\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTE\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.829\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.612\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.033\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.545**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.006\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.627\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.051\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.042\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.065\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.459**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.673**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.597\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.045\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.071\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e− .139*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.568**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.548**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.630**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.738\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.591\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.029\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.064\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.042\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.648**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.565**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.548**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.635**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote. N = 228 *p \u0026lt; .05, **p \u0026lt; .01\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe measurement model was evaluated for reliability, internal consistency, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Four indicators (PD11, PD12, PD6, IB1) were removed due to loadings below 0.70. Items with loadings above 0.50 were retained. Discriminant validity was confirmed using the Fornell-Larcker criterion (1981), as the square roots of the AVEs exceeded the correlations between constructs. Cross-loading and Fornell-Larcker methods were preferred over HTMT due to sample size and construct clarity (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Hair et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)d nkkö and Cho (2022) suggested further research into advanced discriminant validity techniques, such as CICFA (sys) and χ2(sys).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiscriminant validity (Fornell-Larcker's criterion)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.738\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.636\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.666\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.576\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.681\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.525\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.644\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.408\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.811\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.563\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.555\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.518\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.677\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.774\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003eNote. IB, Innovative Behavior; PB, Proactive Behavior; PD, Professional\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDevelopment; TB, Task-related Behavior; TE, Teacher Engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe structural model yielded R² values of 0.463 for task-related behaviour, 0.421 for proactive behaviour, and 0.509 for innovative behaviour. PD's effect sizes were 0.008 (small), 0.197 (medium), and 0.392 (large) for TB, PB, and IB, respectively (Cohen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). TE's effect sizes were 0.552, 0.155, and 0.132 for TB, PB, and IB, with Q² values indicating medium predictive relevance (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural estimates\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHypothesis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStandard beta\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et-statistics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP Values\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRemark\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eDirect effects\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH1. PD → TB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.079\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.108\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.268\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReject\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH2. PD → PB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.394\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.007\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccept\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH3. PD → IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.513\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.047\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccept\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH4. PD → TE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.518\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccept\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH5. TE → TB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.636\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.995\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccept\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH6. TE → PB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.350\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.892\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccept\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH7. TE → IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.471\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAccept\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eIndirect mediation effects\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH8a. PD → TE → TB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.154\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.098\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFull mediation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH8b. PD → TE → PB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.181\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.361\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePartial mediation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH8c. PD → TE → IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.329\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.648\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePartial mediation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eControl variables and country comparison\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender → TB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.077\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.690\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSignificant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender → PB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.205\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Significant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender → IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.225\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Significant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation → TB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.032\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.565\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Significant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation → PB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.847\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Significant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation → IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.222\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Significant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperience → TB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.096\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.811\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSignificant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperience → PB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.085\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.665\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSignificant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperience → IB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.235\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot Significant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePD → TB (Malaysian teachers)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.238)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(2.707)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.976\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(0.007)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.330\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSignificant\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNote: ***Significant at .01 (2-tailed), **significant at .05 (2-tailed), *significant at .10 (2-tailed).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA parametric multi-group analysis revealed significant differences between Malaysian and Bahraini instructors, with PD having a more substantial effect on task-related behavior in Malaysians (β = 0.238; p \u0026lt; .007) than in Bahrainis (β = -0.132; p = 0.330). PD and TE had a more significant impact on task-related behavior in female instructors, while experienced teachers showed weaker influences from PD and TE. The Bahraini cohort included over 16 nationalities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion and implications","content":"\u003cp\u003ePD aims to enhance employees' skills, knowledge, and competencies, thereby supporting career growth, improving organizational performance, and boosting psychological well-being and work engagement (Ouweneel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). With mixed results, this study examined PD's effects on teacher engagement (TE) and task-related, proactive, and innovative behaviors. While PD had no significant impact on task-related behaviours, it effectively promoted proactive and innovative behaviours (Bragg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Previous research has not directly explored the impact of PD on engagement and behaviours (Desimone et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Johnson et al., 2014; Molino et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePD explained 46% of task-related, 42% of proactive, and 51% of innovative behaviours, accounting for 27% of TE variance, which is consistent with prior studies (Jaramillo-Baquerizo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). TE significantly influenced all three behaviors and mediated PD's impact on work behaviors, consistent with Karatepe and Olugbade (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study found a stronger PD-task-related association among Malaysian teachers than Bahraini teachers, likely due to cultural factors (Hofstede, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Javidan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Experienced teachers showed less PD influence on task-related and proactive behaviors, emphasizing practical application over PD (Scherer et al., 2021). Female teachers displayed stronger PD and TE effects on task-related behaviors but not on proactive or innovative behaviors (Scherer et al., 2021). Furthermore, our study findings align well with those of Knight et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), who argue that professional learning in higher education is best understood as a socially situated, systemic process shaped by non-formal practices and contextual interactions within institutions, for it to lead to higher academic performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research contributes to online learning and engagement literature by validating existing measures (Vries et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and exploring cross-cultural factors in Bahrain and Malaysia. Differences in power distance, individualism, and uncertainty avoidance shape how both cultures approach work and innovation, with Malaysians more tolerant of deviance and focused on future orientation, unlike the more tradition-focused Bahraini culture (Almutairi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Minkov \u0026amp; Kaasa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTheoretical contributions and implications\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eManagement research in higher education is expanding, but further studies are needed (Høigaard et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Quezada et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), especially on work engagement across sectors (Bakker \u0026amp; Albrecht, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This study addresses these gaps by examining the relationship between PD, TE, and work behaviors. Our findings support those of Björk et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), emphasizing the importance of balancing job demands and resources to foster environments that enhance teacher satisfaction, self-efficacy, and retention. It offers new insights into teacher work outcomes, mapping effective, context-specific interventions for higher education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePractical contributions and implications\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rapid digitalization of teaching, accelerated by COVID-19, has pushed higher education teachers to adopt digital tools under time and resource constraints (Damşa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). PD is vital for fostering effective work behaviors, though its impact on teacher outcomes is still evolving (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Contreras et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Traditional PD methods often fail to integrate technology into pedagogy (Fernández-Batanero et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Mishra \u0026amp; Koehler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), and teachers adopt new approaches only after proven success (Vescio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Practical application in PD is critical for its effectiveness, as emphasized by Wilson and Xue (2013), highlighting gradual integration and skill development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUniversity management should incorporate PD into job descriptions and performance appraisals to enhance effectiveness (Guskey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Zhao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR106\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), with resources allocated through credible communication to inspire staff and students (Jaworski, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Structured HRM support in education enhances teacher PD through integrated recruitment, training, and appraisals, improving motivation and outcomes (Runhaar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). PD that fosters cultural awareness enables teachers to meet diverse needs, boosting academic achievement and engagement (Parkhouse et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and promoting equitable education for all.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations and future research\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations that suggest future research directions. First, using data from a single source (teachers) may introduce common method variance (CMV); future studies should include multiple data sources, such as leader evaluations. Second, data from two public universities may limit generalizability, necessitating replication with larger and more diverse samples. Third, the cross-sectional design restricts the ability to draw cause-and-effect conclusions, necessitating longitudinal studies. Lastly, the study focused on a single mediator (teacher engagement); future research should explore additional mediators and moderators, such as achievement motivation and inclusive leadership (Daumiller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research examined the impact of PD on teacher work behaviors\u0026mdash;task-related, proactive, and innovative\u0026mdash;and the mediating role of TE. It explored how TE mediates the relationship between PD and work behaviors, a focus not commonly addressed in other sectors. Additionally, the study analyzed cross-cultural differences (Bahrain and Malaysia), highlighting how cultural factors influence PD effectiveness. It emphasized fostering innovative and proactive behaviors, integrating technology into PD, and understanding the role of organizational support. These findings offer insights into enhancing faculty engagement and work behaviours in higher education. Future research should explore the mechanisms linking PD, its antecedents, and outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUniversities must address the efficiency gap between inputs, such as government spending, and outputs, including graduate employment and high-quality research (Al Issa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The paradigm shift requires balancing corporate and academic interests (Bolden et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), which is complicated by the impact of globalization on talent dispersion. Attracting and retaining academic talent, while meeting global expectations such as university rankings, is challenging. Thus, academic staff's PD is crucial for universities in Malaysia, Bahrain, and globally.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDeclaration: This research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAgarwal UA, Datta S, Blake-Beard S, Bhargava S (2012) Linking LMX, innovative work behavior, and turnover intentions: The mediating role of work engagement. Career Dev Int 17(3):208\u0026ndash;230. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431211241063\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Husseini S, Elbeltagi I (2016) Transformational leadership and innovation: A comparison study between Iraq\u0026apos;s public and private higher education. Stud High Educ 41(1):159\u0026ndash;181. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.927848\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl Issa H (2019) Organizational culture in public universities: Empirical evidence. 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Teach Teach Educ 109:103565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103565\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang Y, Yang F (2021) How and when spiritual leadership enhances employee innovative behavior. Personnel Review 50(2):596\u0026ndash;609. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-02-2019-0067\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao J (2010) School knowledge management framework and strategies: The new perspective on teacher professional development. Computer Human Behavior 26(2):168\u0026ndash;175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.11.007\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Teachers' professional development, work engagement, higher education, task-related behaviour, proactive behaviour, innovative behaviour","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7101093/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7101093/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines how professional development (PD) influences faculty engagement and work behaviors across cultural contexts in higher education. Drawing on Hofstede's cultural dimensions framework, it compares academic staff from Bahrain and Malaysia\u0026mdash;two collectivist, high power distance societies with contrasting levels of uncertainty avoidance and indulgence. Using a cross-sectional survey of 312 faculty members and structural equation modeling, the study investigates how PD participation relates to teacher engagement and task-related, proactive, and innovative behaviors. Results show that PD positively predicts engagement, which in turn mediates its effect on work behaviors. Notably, cultural differences shaped the strength and nature of these relationships, with Malaysian faculty showing higher proactivity and innovation, while Bahraini faculty exhibited stronger compliance and structure. The findings underscore the need for culturally responsive PD design and suggest that effective faculty development must align with local cultural norms and institutional priorities. This research advances decolonizing PD scholarship by highlighting Global South perspectives and offering context-specific models of faculty engagement. It is among the first to empirically compare faculty development in Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian contexts, and its focus on faculty as a cultural subgroup challenges Western-centric assumptions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"How Professional Development Influences Faculty Engagement in Higher Education","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-03 12:43:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7101093/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c08edbba-d245-451a-8678-b42d9e649725","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":55298290,"name":"Humanities/Cultural and media studies"},{"id":55298291,"name":"Social science/Cultural and media studies"},{"id":55298292,"name":"Social science/Education"},{"id":55298293,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":55298294,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-15T12:55:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-03 12:43:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7101093","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7101093","identity":"rs-7101093","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}