The co-evolution of the genome and epigenome in colorectal cancer

Colorectal malignancies are a leading cause of cancer death. Despite large-scale genomic efforts, DNA mutations do not fully explain malignant evolution. Here we study the co-evolution of the genome and epigenome of colorectal tumours at single-clone resolution using spatial multi-omic profiling of individual glands. We collected 1,373 samples from 30 primary cancers and 9 concomitant adenomas and generated 1,212 chromatin accessibility profiles, 527 whole-genomes and 297 whole-transcriptomes. We found positive selection for DNA mutations in chromatin modifier genes and recurrent chromatin changes in regulatory regions of cancer drivers with otherwise no mutation. Genome-wide alterations in transcription factor binding accessibility involved CTCF , downregulation of interferon, and increased accessibility for SOX and HOX , indicating developmental genes reactivation. Epigenetic aberrations were heritable, distinguishing adenomas from cancers. Mutational signature analysis showed the epigenome influencing DNA mutation accumulation. This study provides a map of (epi)genetic tumour heterogeneity, with fundamental implications for understanding colorectal cancer biology.