Archaeological Evidence from the Naval Battle of the Oinousses Islands: 17th-Century Venetian Shipwrecks

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Following short-term excavations and archival research uncovered that these remains were from ships sunk during the naval battle between the Ottoman and Venetian forces at Oinousses island (Koyun Adaları in Turkish) in 1695. High-resolution documentation and excavation provided the first concrete evidence on this little-known naval battle. By examining the remains in both archaeological and historical perspectives, this paper offers insights into the technology, strategy, and political dynamics during the 17th century AD. Oinousses naval battlefield is one of the rare underwater cultural heritage sites that has remained untouched. Therefore, it has significant archeological value as it contains the only surviving remains of a 17th-century warship within the Turkish territorial waters. This site holds considerable importance not only for its historical and archaeological relevance but also as a grave of war. Oinousses Naval Battle Koyun Adaları Ottoman-Venetian Wars 17th-Century shipwreck Naval Battlefield Archaeology Historical Archaeology Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Introduction The advent of ship technology and the accompanying increase in trade and migration movements have rendered the seas a battlefield for several conflicts throughout ages. The expansion of maritime trade routes intensified the struggle for sea power, resulting in the improvements of naval warfare strategies and maritime technologies. The early development of naval warfare backs to ancient civilisations, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Phoenicians. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, maritime powers like Venice, Genoa, and the Ottomans established dominance in trade routes (Chrissanthos 2008 ). The Aegean coast of Anatolia, particularly İzmir, has also been the scene of several significant naval engagements throughout history. In 1090, the fleet of Çaka Beyliği, defeated the Byzantine fleet near the Oinousses, marking the first victory for Turkish naval forces (Bostan and Özbaran 2009 ; İşipek 2013 ). The Battle of Focchies (1649), part of the Ottoman-Venetian Wars, resulted in a Venetian victory and the loss of ten Ottoman ships (Anderson 1952 ). The Ottoman-Venetian War also involved the Battle of the Oinousses islands in 1695, where the Ottoman Navy defeated the Venetian Navy, resulting in the recapture of Chios Island (Anderson 1952 ; Sevinç, 2010 ; Soucek, 2011 ; Candiani 2012a ; 2018 ; Bostan, 2022a ). The Battle of Chesma (1770) was another significant naval engagement of the Russo-Turkish War, in which Russia defeated the Ottoman fleet, decreasing Ottoman naval power but encouraging naval reforms within the Empire (İşipek and Aydemir 2010 ; Tredrea and Sozaev 2010 ). At last, shortly before the Çanakkale naval campaign during World War I, İzmir and its vicinity were subjected to multiple bombardments by the Allied forces, resulting in the sinking of numerous vessels in the İzmir Gulf. Although these naval battles are well known from archival sources and historical documents ( Dell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV ; Raşid, 1865 ; Saffet Bey, 1910; Danişmend 1972 ), fieldworks to uncover the remains of the battles are very limited (Özdaş and Kızıldağ 2020 ). The discovery of shipwrecks and uncovering the concrete data along with scientific documenting of the remains and examination of naval battle history, provides significant insights into the warship technology, daily life of sailors, naval strategies and terefore maritime history. Research in this field refers to the emerging discipline known as "Naval Battlefield Archaeology." This field offers a more comprehensive understanding of maritime history by providing tangible evidence of past naval wars. Through the application of advanced technologies and interdisciplinary approaches, archaeologists and historians can gain a deeper understanding of the complex interactions that shaped the course of history. Through comprehensive analysis of these conflicts, researchers could clarify the complex dynamics of past events and their consequences, assessing the interactions of military strategy, technological innovations, and political struggles that generated certain outcomes. Nevertheless, this specialized field faces numerous challenges associated with underwater research, including the salvage operations and related inadequate preservation of materials, adverse oceanographic conditions, varying water depths, difficulties in locating sites, and the expansive size of the battlefield (Kimura et al. 2014 ). As part of the SHIPT project, the first scientific underwater archaeological survey was conducted at Oinousses naval battlefield, located on Eğri Liman in İzmir, off the western coast of Türkiye (Fig. 1 ). Two shipwrecks were documented during the remote sensing survey in 2018. The following effort has been made to cross-reference the archaeological records with historical documents that would aid the identification of the remains. In 2019, a short-term rescue excavation was conducted to provide data for identification (Özdaş and Kızıldağ 2022 ). This paper focuses on the documentation of two shipwrecks discovered at the Oinousses naval battlefield, combining the archaeological material and the historical documents. We discussed the approach of naval battlefield archaeology, summarizing pre-war, time of war, and post-war developments, tactics, technologies, and sociopolitical contexts through engravings of battlefields and archival documents. Historical Background Between 1650 and 1718, the Ottoman Navy developed a new fleet of sailing warships in response to contemporary advancements in European maritime practices. In particular, the Crete campain between 1645 and 1699 marked a significant turning point in Ottoman maritime history. During that period, ideas regarding rowing ships (galleys), the basis of the navy, began to transition to sailing ships (galleons), which emerged in the Mediterranean (Bostan, 2022b ). By continually updating its technology, the Ottoman navy aimed to maintain its strong position in the Levant (Candiani 2018 ). As the Ottoman sailing fleet gradually increased, it posed a covert but constant threat to Venetian sea routes. This situation forced the Venetian sailing fleet to conduct continuous naval lines, creating a major conflict sea battle between these two naval powers. After the unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683, European states formed the Holy League and launched a series of wars against the Ottoman Empire. These conflicts resulted in the loss of Hungary to the Ottomans. Emboldened by their successes during these wars, the Republic of Venice, with support from the naval fleets of Malta, Florence, and the Papal States, occupied Chios Island (in Turkish Sakız Adası ) in the Aegean Sea on September 21, 1694 (Anderson 1952 ; Arıkan 2009 ; Russell 2021 ). Chios Island, strategically located across the Anatolian mainland, has been a hub for maritime activity since antiquity, particularly during the Ottoman period. While the Chios Strait connected Istanbul to Alexandria and other Mediterranean ports, the Chios Harbor served as a convenient anchoring for ships using this route. On the other hand, the Oinousses provided support and logistics, serving as naval bases for controlling the Aegean (Soucek 2011 ). The Ottoman Empire and the Venetian Kingdom engaged in several naval battles along Anatolia's Aegean coast, including those at Candia, Foça, Midilli, and Oinousses. In September 1694, the Serenissima conducted an attack on Chios Island, capturing the strategically important naval and commerce stronghold. This event triggered four years of intensive naval warfare and resulted in eleven significant battles between the two fleets. During this time, the Aegean Sea saw the peak of these new naval activities. One notable engagement took place near Oinousses in 1695, at the height of their 17th-century conflict (Saffet Bey 1910; Candiani 2018 ). The Battle of the Oinousses islands consisted of two distinct engagements on 9 and 19 February 1695, near the Oinousses islands in the Chios Strait. In early February 1695, the Ottoman navy, under the command of Serasker Mısırlızade İbrahim Pasha, Kaptanpaşa Amcazade Hüseyin Pasha, and Kapudane Mezemorta Hüseyin Pasha, gathered in Izmir. Mezemorta Hüseyin Pasha pioneered the technologically development of sailing ships and also implemented the innovative battle tactics (Saffet Bey 1911 ). On February 8, 1695, the Ottoman fleet, comprising 26 galleons, 24 galleys, and fırkates , reached the Oinousses (Bostan 2022a ). The fleet anchored in Eğri Liman, a natural bay situated on the western coast of Anatolia, across from Oinousses (Sevinç 2010 : 75). Venetian Capitan straordinario Girolamo Priuli informed Admiral Antonio Zeno of the presence of the Ottoman navy. Zeno responded quickly, dispatching a force consisting of 21 ships of the line, 5 galleasses, and 21 galleys to the region (Soucek 2011 ). At the beginning of the first engagement, Consulta convinced themselves that the Ottomans would not undertake any action during the winter (Candiani 2012a ). However, the Ottomans proceeded with their actions and emerged victorious in the battle. On February 9, the Ottoman navy formed a crescent arrangement approaching Karaburun, resembling its land position on the eastern side of the Oinousses islands. Mezemorta Hüseyin Pasha decided to launch a concentrated attack on selected enemy units with several ships rather than constructing a regular battle line in which ships fired their cannons simultaneously. According to Ottoman historian Raşid ( 1865 , Hijri: 1282), "...facing 20 Venetian battleships, the Turks positioned 16; against 6 Venetian galleasses, 4 Ottoman battleships were deployed; and against 24 Venetian galleys, an equal number of Turkish galleys were present. The Turkish fleet advanced towards the enemy against the wind direction, and Mezemorta Hüseyin Pasha's artillery fire caused Commander Priuli to suffer the loss of 150 soldiers. Meanwhile, a cannonball from the Ottoman ship Riyale, commanded by Fettah Kapudan, ignited a fire on a Venetian vessel. Despite efforts by a sixty-gun battleship to extinguish the flames, its topsails caught fire, leading to the eventual burning and sinking of these large ships along with their crews, except for some who managed to escape by jumping into the sea and surviving …” (Soucek 2011 ) (Fig. 2 ). An anonymous book “ Dell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV ” was published by a navy officer shortly after occupation of the island of Chios in 1694. According to his narrative and the accompanying maps, which depict the positions and maneuvers of the ships, the battle began with cannon and rifle fire from four Ottoman galleons towards Contarini and Marcello's galleys (Fig. 2 ). During the two-hour exchange of fire, both fleets made little progress. However, the Ottomans' four galleons caused significant damage to Venice's first two galleys. Taking advantage of the favorable tailwind, the Ottoman ships kept their sails positioned and started closing in on the Venetian fleet. During the engagement, Girolamo Priuli's flagship, Stella Maris , caught fire as a result of the firing (Soucek 2011 ). When the neighboring Leon Coronato , commanded by Gaspare Bragadino, approached to aid, the fire spread to this ship as well, and both of the Venetian fleet's main vessels exploded and sank within a few minutes ( Dell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV , map 12) (Fig. 2 ). As a result, Girolamo Priuli and Gaspare Bragadino died, along with their crews. The third ship, Vittorio , was irreparably damaged. In the following engagement, two Ottoman galleys capsized due to continuous Venetian cannon fire and close attacks by Foscarini and Orio. Drago Volante sank shortly afterward because of a fire. As a result, Venice lost three ships, together with their sailors, supplies, and armaments. The conflict ended when the Ottomans withdrew towards the shore. As darkness fell, the two fleets parted ways. The Venetian fleet, under the leadership of Serenissima, sailed southwestward, passing through the Oinousses islands and anchoring at Chiote, where Terfii (Delfino) docked. Meanwhile, the Ottomans retreated to Eğri Liman. The Ottomans emerged victorious in this battle, with the galleon fleet, especially its captain Mezemorta Hüseyin Paşa, likely playing a crucial role in securing the triumph (Soucek 2011 ) (Fig. 3 ). Ten days later, on February 19, 1695, the second stage of the battle occurred on the southern side of the Oinousses islands, which determined the outcome of the Venetian endeavour. Rashid (1282) narrates the story: “… the defeated Venetians reached the Chios and stayed there two nights. As they left the island on February 21, they observed one of their kalyons run aground with its military supplies. This ship, Abbondanza e Richezza, was armed with 16 bronze cannons, each capable of firing 24-okkas cannon balls, 6 mortars, over 5.000 muskets, and additional weaponry, along with 280 captured soldiers. Furthermore, the Ottomans also captured four galleys and four firkates, together with their cargo ...” (Soucek 2011 ). The Ottoman fleet also defeated the Venetians in a second battle ultimately ending their invasion of Chios. Venetian records confirm that three Venetian ships ( Stella Maris, Leon Coronato , and Drago Volante ) sank, resulting in around 1,100 fatalities among soldiers and sailors, over 600 injuries aboard these ships, while 400 casualties among the galleys ( Dell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV : 98, 99). On the Ottoman side, two galleys sank, and the total number of dead and injured reached 4,000. Anderson ( 1952 ) stated that the Venetian galleons suffered 142 fatalities and 300 injuries, while other ships incurred 323 casualties and 303 injuries. Venice reacted strongly to the Battle of the Oinousses islands and the subsequent loss of Chios Island. Venice faced its first defeat since the Battle of Preveza in 1538 (Danişmend 1972 ). Numerous commanders, including Admiral Antonio Zeno and two Proveditors, Querini and Pisan, were put on trial. The trial concentrated on the corruption that occurred during Chios' occupation in addition to the battle's defeat. Before the trial's conclusion, Zeno and Querini passed away in prison (Anderson 1952 ). Fieldworks The initial marine inspection was conducted at the Oinousses naval battlefield in 2018. The investigation focused on determining the accurate locations of the shipwrecks. During the survey, high-resolution acoustic images of the shipwreck sites were obtained using side-scan sonar by R/V K. Piri Reis , Dokuz Eylül University’s research vessel. The acoustic survey employed the Klein 3000H model high-resolution dual frequency side-scan sonar. Further inspection was conducted using a remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROV). The Hoytek 1000m model ROV was deployed for this operation, which was specifically designed for underwater archaeological surveys, equipping with BlueView Imaging Sonar, Applied Acoustics Easytrak Alpha model positioning system (USBL), manipulator, autopilot, HD and still cameras, and lighting systems. DGPS and USBL allow an accurate position to generate photogrammetric models by using ROV, providing the site plan. Following the initial inspection of the wreck sites, an effort was made to recover some artifacts to provide reliable dating and information about the identity of the ships. Within the framework of a protocol, the Turkish Naval Forces Command undertook a diver assessment of the shipwrecks. With permission from Türkiye’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism, a short-term rescue excavation was carried out in 2019 under the directorate of the Bodrum Underwater Archaeology Museum. Surface supply mixed-gas diving techniques were employed onboard TCG Alemdar of the Turkish Naval Forces Command. During the fieldwork, five cannons and some utensils were recovered from the wreck sites. The artifacts have been transported to the Bodrum Underwater Archaeology Museum, where conservation efforts are currently underway. In 2019 and 2020, further high-resolution acoustic surveys were conducted to map the naval battlefield and its surrounding area. During this survey, the area of 40 km2 was imaged by side-scan sonar onboard STS Bodrum. After completing the marine surveys, a comprehensive review of historical records has been undertaken to determine the identities of the shipwrecks and assess the original positions of the ships during the battle. This review study was carried out under the auspices of the Research Centre for Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime History (SUDEMER) of Dokuz Eylül University. The Site During the acoustic and visual inspection of the battlefield, two shipwreck sites were located at a depth of 65 m. The sites are situated two kilometers west of the nearest town of Eğri Liman in İzmir and five kilometers east of the Oinousses islands (in Turkish Koyun Adaları ; in Italian Spalmadori ) (Fig. 4 ). Strong sonar reflections were obtained from the sites, which correspond to the cannons and anchors. Both remains, located 50 meters apart, lie on sandy seabed. The acoustic survey revealed that the seafloor morphology surrounding the shipwrecks are predominantly flat. The site is exposed to strong winds and waves. Prevailing northwesterly winds influence the region. Although visibility is high underwater, light transmission is limited due to the depth of the site. The locations of the shipwrecks are well-known among fishermen. Nevertheless, the remains of the wrecks sustained no damage. Modern fish farms are actively functioning in the vicinity of the wrecks. Several pools are located between the wreck sites and the shoreline. These areas could not be explored during the survey. Shipwreck 1 The main assemblage of Shipwreck 1 covers an area of 48 m long and 33 m wide, lying oriented NNE-SSW. ROV inspection confirmed that at least 31 cannons were visible on the site, which appeared to be mostly made by bronze material (Fig. 5 ). Additionally, eight cannons were reported scattered around the site. The site plan illustrated that the cannons lie over the entire wreck site (Fig. 6 ). The overal lengths of the cannons vary between 2.50 m and 3.64 m. Over 100 stone balls with diameters ranging from 26 cm to 40 cm were found in the central section of the shipwreck. Additionally, 11 metal wheels for cannon field carriage were observed, which scattered around the site. All wheels have the same diameter of 1.4 m. Three iron anchors were clearly distinguished on the site. The position of the anchors verifies that the south-southwestern section of the wreck corresponds to the ship's bow. Several metallic fragments, most likely from the anchors or their chains, are evident surrounding the anchor sites. Two large wooden masses are also visible near the port-side cannons. In addition to artillery, several items including a bell-shaped copper cauldron and some metal kitchen vessels were recorded in the site. More than 20 bricks were found with these vessels, which represent the ship’s galley. The Cannons During the excavation, three cannons were recovered from the Shipwreck 1 site, which appear to be primarily made by bronze material. Removing their concretions allowed us to determine identification. With a calibre of 120 mm, the first cannon that raised from Shipwreck 1 (CN1, Inv. No. KKVB1-19-002) has a conventional length of 329 cm and a total length of 351 cm (Fig. 7 ). A relief of a coat of arm, a winged lion of St. Mark, is located at the bottom of the chase. The lion is walking to the left and its front legs on the land with a fortified city, while its back legs on the water. It holds a gospel with two paws, which is signed with “PA TI MA”, which may correspond to “PAX TIBI MARCE”. The space between the legs is signed with the number of “210”. A number of “1690” is stamped at the top of the reinforce, below the trunnion ring, which corresponds to casting date (Ridella 2014 ). The letter of “A” is engraved below the casting date, which indicates the initial letter of the founder’s name. “21^OT^” symbol appears between the date and the founder. “T” letter has been engraved at the bottom of the reinforcement, on the touch-hole. The breech ring has been marked with the number of 3504, which indicates the weight in Venetian pounds (Ridella 2014 ). The initial “A” and the date allow attributing the weapon to Alberghetti family of Venetian founders (Morin 1983 ). This founder has also been attributed to a piece from the Military Museum in Istanbul, which features a lion and a date very similar to CN1’s (Beltrame and Morin 2014 ). The second 90 mm calibre bronze cannon (CN2, Inv. No. KKVB1-19-003) has a conventional length of 345 cm (total length is 364 cm) (Fig. 8 ). This cannon has a single reinforce with an elongated cascabel and four circular perforations. The muzzle is partially damaged. Date 1658 is presented at the center of the chase portion. Similar to CN1, a winged lion of St. Mark holding the Gospel is depicted at the bottom of the chase. The initials “S” and “A”, which corresponds to the founder, appear at the top of the reinforce. The number 3124 is engraved on the base ring, indicating the weight in Venetian pounds. The initials “S A” and the date allow us to attribute its casting to Sigismondo V Alberghetti, who was active until 1702 (Morin 1983 ). A cannon from a shipwreck found in Vis in Croatia, includes “S A” initials (Beltrame and Scordato 2016 ). In 1696, Sigismondo was fully engaged in experimenting with newly invented cannons of 120 and 200-pound. A cannon from 1667 in the Istanbul Askeri Museum has also been attributed to this founder (Beltrame and Morin 2014 ). The third cannon (CN3, Inv. No. KKVB1-19-004) has a conventional length of 273 cm and a total length of 294 cm (Fig. 9 ). This bronze cannon has 120 mm caliber and marked piece weight as 2612. A St. Mark lion appears at the bottom of chase, which holding the Gospel with the letters “PA” and “T”. “18^GE^” characters are placed on the trunnion ring. Blow this symbol, the date “1690” is engraved at the top of the reinforce. The letter "A" below indicates the initial of founder’s name. “T” letter appears above the touch hole. Similar to CN1, the initial “A” and the date are attributed the guns from Venetian family of Alberghetti (Morin, 1983 ). CN3 shares same characteristics as a cannon exhibited at the Askeri Museum in Istanbul (Beltrame and Morin 2014 : no.87). The Kitchenware: Vessels for Storage and Cooking A bell-shaped copper cauldron (Inv. No. 2018-KKOB-01) was recovered from the central section of the Shipwreck 1 site (Fig. 10 ). The cauldron is made up of two pieces connected by rivets. The well-preserved vessel has a maximum diameter of 115 cm and height of 90 cm, and curves outward at the mouth. It is made up of three copper sheets of 2 mm thick that are riveted together. The bottom of the cauldron is rounded by hammering into a bell form. Two horizontal lines of 25–30 rivets with diameters ranging from 10–20 mm connect to sections. It has two handles along the upper edge, which are also attached by rivets. It has a capacity of 10 liters up to the bearing's height. Evident from the rough hammer marks on all surfaces, this cauldron was hammered into shape. The parallel form was found on the 16th-century Venetian merchant shipwreck at Gnalić (Filep et al. 2013 : 102. No.6). With a height of 71.5 cm, a bottom diameter of 49 cm, an opening diameter of 99.2 cm, and a weight of 61 kg, this large copper cauldron was also made of two parts connected by rivets. Radić Rossi et al. ( 2021 ) suggested that it was used for melting resin or tar for utilizing ship repairs on the ship. Another copper cauldron (KKVB1-19-005) and its lid (KKVB1-19-006) were recovered from an area close to bell-shaped cauldron (Fig. 10 b). This vessel was found in poor-condition. It measures 49,5 cm in diameter at its rim; 58,5 cm in diameter at the base; and 30 cm in height. The rim is slightly curved outside. Two rectengular handles are attached below the rim on the opposite sides. A similar cauldron has been recovered from the remains of 17th-century Dutch ship in the Norman’s Bay (Beattie-Edwards, 2017: 171, Fig. 13 ). This copper-alloy vessel measures 48.5 cm in diameter at the rim, 37 cm in diameter at its base, and 23 cm in height. A copper barrel of cylindrical shape was recovered from Shipwreck 1 (Inv. No. KKVB1-19-001) (Fig. 10 c). This well-preserved vessel has a hight of 63 cm and a mouth diameter of 57 cm. It is made of four plates of copper sheet of 1.5 mm thick, which are joined by rivets. The upper part with the mouth is formed by joining the sides of the one plate with several rivets, and the bottom part by hammering the other plate into a flat shape. All parts are riveted together by a horizontal line of 28–40 rivets of 15 mm diameter. Below the mouth, on the opposing sides, there are four copper pins visible, extending outward. These pins were utilized to fasten the attachments for the handles. The barrel has an estimated capacity of 17 liters. A similar riveted copper cauldron was found in the Sv. Pavao shipwreck, 16th century Venetian merchantman in Croatia (Bezak 2014 ). The tapered cauldron, which is made of two plates of copper sheet joined by rivets, has a slightly spherical bottom. This 20-litre capacity vessel was used for preparing food. A wide range of Italian kitchenware, similar to rivetted barrel raised from Shipwreck 1, were depicted in Bartolomeo’s book published in 1570 (Scappi 1570 ). These cooking vessels helped us to determine the function of the barrel. On the other hand, the absence of a bell-shaped copper cauldron raises questions about its intended function, particularly due to its unusual design. Additionally, two nested metal cauldrons and a single individual cauldron are clearly visible on the surface, having been recorded from various sections of the main assemblages. A brazier, possibly composed of three separate fragments, is located behind the rearmost cannon on the starboard side. Kitchen utensils recovered from the shipwreck, as the majority of the ship's cookware, was made of copper and other alloys. Copper was generally chosen for its corrosion resistance and ability to withstand long-term exposure to saltwater. The crew's cooking and cuisine were critical in facilitating long-term sailing. Therefore, each warship had a specific number of cooking vessels made of various copper alloys, based on the size of its crew. The Anchors Three iron anchors were clearly visible on the Shipwreck 1 site (Fig. 11 ). The alignment of anchors suggests that the ship's bow is located the south-southwestern section of the site. Two anchors were reported in the southwestern section of the site, corresponding to the starboard bow of the ship, where anchors are typically stored. Their position in a linear alignment orientated in the north-south direction is quite remarkable. All iron parts of each anchor are well-preserved but covered with concretions. Each anchor displays very similar characteristics in terms of having an oval head and nuts, a ring, two symmetric curved arms, and triangular flukes. Each measure 4.8 meters in length. Their arms, reaching 2,0 meters in length, display flat sides and triangular flukes, connecting to the shank at a slightly curved angle. Similar to others, the crown of the third anchor is oriented northward. Compared to the others, this anchor was observed partially buried in the sand. The location of the anchor in the southeastern section of the site corresponds to the port bow of the ship. It has a length of 4.6 m, with arms extending 1.7 m. The dimensions, proportions, and structural characteristics of two-armed fluked anchors are parallel to the anchors of the Mortella II wreck, which sunk in 1527 (Cazenave de la Roche and Ciacchella 2023). Shipwreck 2 Shipwreck 2 reflects a different distribution pattern, characterized by more scattered objects compared to the first site (Fig. 12 ). The main assemblage is scattered an area of 42 m x 30 m and is oriented NE–SW. The most distinguished feature of this wreck is that the cannons are piled on one side and the stone balls on the other side. 25 bronze cannons were piled in the northeastern part of the assemblage together with four iron anchors. The length of the cannons varies between 2.8 m and 4.0 m. A large concentration of stone balls, comprising more than 100 individual pieces, is located approximately 13 meters to the southwest (Fig. 13 ). The diameter of the visible balls varies between 35–40 cm. The area between the cannons and the balls is covered with sand, forming a mound with a height of 1 m. Four iron anchors were recorded on the northern side of the assemblage, which indicates the bow of the ship. In contrast to Shipwreck 1, this wreck does not contain any cannon carriage wheels. The Cannons Two bronze cannons were recovered from Shipwreck 2 site. The first cannon has a conventional length of 278 cm and a total length of 297 cm (CN4, Inv. No. KKVB2-19-001) (Fig. 14 ). This 120 mm calibre bronze cannon has a single reinforce with an elongated cascabel and four circular perforations. The muzzle measures 12 cm in length, and the trunnion has a diameter of 11 cm. On the chase, immediately above the reinforce ring, a relief of a coat of arm with a winged lion of St. Mark, holding the Gospel, which has no visible letter. The lion’s two paws are on the water and the other two on the ground, with a fortified city, symbolizing the Land State and the Sea State. This cannon can be distinguished from the others by a decoration at the top of the reinforce, containing the date and the founder. At the level of the trunnions, there is a plate engraved with the date 1676 and a banner with the inscription “FN. co MAZZAROLI F.”, which represent the founders. This can be interpreted as the initials of Francesco Mazzaroli Fecit, a family of Venetian founders, which were active in the second half of the 17th century. The weight of the casting of 2865 pounds is stamped on the breech ring, which indicates the weight in Venetian pounds. Various guns, signed by the founder Francesco Mazzaroli, were found in different locations. Two cannons, dated to 1668, are found in the Askeri Museum in Istanbul. A cannon with the date 1669 in the Naval Historical Museum of Venice; three trabucchi, dated to 1670 and 1696, are found in Nauplia, Greece; a culverin, with the date 1667, and a trebuchet, with the date 1679, were recorded by Gasperoni ( 1779 ). Two cannons are reported in Stockholm and St. Petersburg, which indicates that Mazzaroli was operational from at least 1667 until at least 1696 (Beltrame and Scordato 2016 ). The second cannon, with a caliber of 120 mm (CN5, Inv. No. KKVB2-19-003), has a conventional length of 274 cm and a total length of 295 cm (Fig. 15 ). A winged lion with the Gospel appears on the base of the chase. The letters "C” and “A" are engraved on the upper part of the reinforce, between the trunnions. Below the initials, the date “1667” is located. Base ring is engraved the number “2889” indicating the weight in Venetian pounds. The initials "C A" are attributed to Carlo II Alberghetti, who was appointed founder in 1629 and died in 1698 (Morin 1983 ). The closest form to CN5 is documented in a calatogue of Beltrame and Scordato ( 2016 ), which has the same date and coat of arms, preserved at the National Artillery Museum in Turin. A cannon from Chios Island has also "C A" initials, which its casting date is 1687 and decorated with Arabic characters (Beltrame and Morin 2014 ). Another "C A" marked cannon with Arabic characters and the Hijri date is exhibited in the Askeri Museum in İstanbul, which has a different coat of arms with a lion walking to the left resting on four relief squares (Beltrame and Morin 2014 ). Two more cannons with Arabic characters and a lion walking to the right, dated to 1668 are also exhibited in Askeri Museum (Beltrame and Morin 2014 ). The Kitchenware: Vessels for Storage and Cooking A bell-shaped copper cauldron, a cylindrical copper cauldron, and a copper barrel were identified in the southeastern section of the Shipwreck 2. Over 100 stove bricks were accumulated in this section, underlying three cannons and a copper barrel (Fig. 16 a). The average dimensions of the individual bricks, which may belong to the ship's cooking stove, were measured as 24 cm long and 13 cm wide (Fig. 16 b). The findings clearly indicate that this section is most likely the ship's galley, locating on the starboard of the ship. The bell-shaped riveted copper cauldron (Inv. No. KKVB2-19-002) was recovered from the wreck. Its shape is similar to the cauldron from Shipwreck 1, but it was discovered in damaged condition (Fig. 16 c, d). It is 105 cm in diameter and curves outward at the mouth. Due to its poor condition, its height and capacity could not be determined. This cauldron is also made up of three copper sheets of 2 mm thick, which are riveted together. The bottom is rounded by hammering into a bell form. Two horizontal lines of 25–30 rivets with diameters ranging from 10–20 mm connect to sections. Below the mouth, on opposite sides, there are two handles that protrude outward. The harsh hammer marks on all surfaces indicate that this cauldron was pounded into shape like the other. The distinctive style of this Venetian copper cauldron raises questions regarding its intended function. The absence of comparable examples of Venetian kitchen utensils in Bartolomeo’s book (1570: pl.5–7,14) is particularly remarkable. Nevertheless, the Gnalić shipwreck provides a comparable form to these vessels (Filep et al. 2013 ; Radić Rossi et al. 2021 ). The authors propose that it may have been used for storing resin intended for ship repairs. This form closely resembles the cauldron recovered from the Shipwreck 2 in terms of shape and size, as well as in the presence of two handles affixed to the upper rim with rivets. Several stone bricks were observed at the central part of the main assemblage. According to Nicolaes Witsen’s descriptions about shipbuilding in the Dutch Golden Age, published in 1671, the galley was placed in the hold in men-of-war so as not to stand in the way of the guns. It was placed amidships, usually on the port side, with the hearth facing the bulkhead (Hoving 2012 ). The galley was well covered with copper plates. Subsequently, the hearth was laid inside using fireproof bricks and reinforced with wrought iron strips. Approximately 1,000 Leiden bricks cover an area of 7 square feet, and for every 3,000 bricks, a hoet of mortar—probably corresponding to a cubic measure—must have been required. The Anchors Four iron anchors were distinguished on the northern side of the shipwreck. The first anchor was totally visible, which measured 4.2 meters in length. The arms, each 2.0 m long, are characterised by flat sides and triangular flukes measuring 1.1 m in length. The ring has a diameter of 80 cm. This anchor underlies another anchor that is partially buried (Fig. 17 ). Its flukes and shank are visible. The third anchor is situated six meters to the east, with its arm section buried in the sand. The fourth one could only be distinguished in the sonar image, which is located once again six meters to the east. No significant material was observed surrounding the anchors. Three anchors are remarkable for their northeast-southwest orientation. The location of anchors indicates that the bow of the ship lies on the northeastern side of the main assemblage, where anchors are typically stored. They were likely stowed on the deck or in a forward hold at the time the ship sank. Similar to anchors recovered from Shipwreck 1, these anchors exhibit similar characteristics to the anchors of the Mortella II shipwreck (Cazenave de la Roche and Ciacchella 2023). Discussion This paper presents the preliminary results of investigations of the newly discovered shipwrecks near the Eğri Liman, where the Oinousses naval battle took place in 1695. Two shipwrecks and their artefacts at the depths of 65 m were precisely located thanks to high-resolution acoustic imaging and photogrammetric mapping over robotic systems. Following underwater excavation effort was made to recover archaeological materials to obtain information about the identity of the ships. By correlating the recovered artifacts and historical documents, concrete data were obtained that confirmed the definitive identification of the wrecks. The most accurate information was provided by cannons. Five cannons recovered from different sections of two wrecks are very similar in their characteristics. Although different Venetian families manufactured them in different years, they all have a single reinforce; a St. Marko coat of arms holding a Gospel on the base of chase; initials of founder, and a date. However, further excavations may reveal different cannons. The cannons that were recovered have dates ranging from 1658 to 1690. The absence of further dating confirms that the ships sank during Oinousses battle in 1695. In addition, the cannon with the date 1658 indicates that it was utilised for 37 years, demonstrating the long lifespan of bronze cannons. In Venetian artillery, there was no differentiation between field usage and naval application; instead, the differences were primarily evident in the design of the carriage (Beltrame, Morin 2016:12). With the introduction of ships of the line in the 17th century, the number of artillery pieces on board increased. As a result, the size of the carriages changed, transitioning from two wheels to four on a smaller carriage (Beltrame and Morin 2016). Venetian weapons were distinguishable from others by the frequent absence of dolphins, i.e. handles, on huge bronze pieces. Pieces cast for the army and navy always feature a lion in various positions. Additionally, these weapons often display the founder's initials or full name, and sometimes even the casting date (Beltrame and Morin 2016). The weapons preserved in Italy, Malta, Israel, and Spain contribute to enriching the knowledge of bronze weapons production in the foundries of Venice that had already been outlined during the study of pieces from Turkey, Greece, and Croatia. All cannons recovered from the Oinousses battlefield stand out the lion mark, indicating that they were produced for the Venetian Republic. The foundries from which these weapons are presumed to have originated were all situated around the Arsenal. Cannons marked with the lion symbol should have been cast in the foundries located inside Arsenal, from 1526 onwards, the only authorized space for this purpose (Beltrame and Morin 2016). Beltrame and Scordato ( 2016 : 68–69, no.20) documented a total of five cannons attributed to the Mazzaroli family (Giovanni and Francesco). Therefore, CN4 holds significance considering the family's limited period of activity. It was only from the 1660s onwards that they began to replace and continue the work of the Conti family. Despite being relatively understudied, the Mazzaroli family produced high-quality weapons with artistic value and became known for casting bronze trebuchets. Their foundries were situated alongside those of the Alberghetti family, as evidenced by a 1754 map from the State Archives of Venice (Beltrame and Morin, 2016: 20). During the 16th and 17th centuries in Venice, only three families were involved in manufacturing: the Alberghetti, functioning from at least 1491 until the Republic’s collapse; the di Conti from 1460 to roughly 1650; and their 17th-century relatives, the Mazzaroli from 1620 to 1797, The initials of family members working in the same foundry include “A” (family Alberghetti), “S A” (Sigismondo Alberghetti), “ Z A” (Zuanne Alberghetti), “N C” (Nicolò di Conti), “T C” (Tomaso di Conti), and more (Morin 2011 ). The battle of the Oinousses islands has been examined from both Ottoman (Raşid 1865 ) and Venetian ( Dell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV) archives sources and historical documents. All sources indicate that three Venetian ships ( Stella Maris, Leon Coronato , and Drago Volante ) and two Ottoman galleys sank during the conflict. The correlation of the coat of arms, manufacturing details, and dates on the recovered cannons with the literature and archival research precisely confirms that both shipwrecks are attributed to the Venetian flagship Stella Maris and Leon Coronato , which were sunk by the Ottoman fleet under the command of Mezemorta Hüseyin Paşa during the Battle of Oinousses islands in 1695. Stella Maris , 39 meters in length, launched in 1693, was armed with 70–80 cannons, which were located on each side of the two main decks (Candiani, 2012b ) (Fig. 18 ). Leon Coronato , armed with 66 cannons, was launched in 1691 (Candiani 2009 ). Measuring 112 feet in length at the keel and 34 feet in width (38.9 x 11.8 m), it was one of the largest ships built up to that time. The ship's lengths are compatible with the dimensions of both wrecks in the sonar records. While Stella Maris and Leon Coronato were originally equipped with 70–80 and 66 cannons respectively, the assemblage of Shipwreck 1 comprises only 39 cannons. The absence of additional artefacts may be explained by the possibility that the remaining cannons are buried in the sand or concealed beneath other overlying materials. Despite historical knowledge of salvage operations conducted on shipwrecks during the 17th century or subsequent periods, no evidence of such activities has been identified at either of the shipwreck sites. Furthermore, the ships' upper decks and rigging appear to have sustained substantial damage, presumably as a result of explosions during the engagement. Based on having Arabic characters, the cannons found on the Chios Island, signed by Carlo II Alberghetti, can be attributed to the battle of Oinousses islands. In February 1695, Commander Zeno decided to retreat to Morea with the fleet and therefore to immediately abandon the island. On that occasion 80 guns, including three mortars, defending the walls were left behind. The Ottomans then reoccupied the island. Beltrame and Morin ( 2014 ) suggest that the cannons were brought to Chios by Zeno's fleet, who subsequently chose to abandon them. The wheels for artillery field carriage documented in Shipwreck 1 may indicate that they were used for landing, most likely during land sieges. The presence of six guns stacked at the stern, surrounded by eight cannon field carriage wheels and a substantial stock of cannonballs, may also suggest preparations for land-based siege operations. However, it raises the question of why the cannon was not left on land on Chios Island, which had been captured by the Venetians long before the Oinousses battle. Furthermore, it is uncommon to come across land artillery positioned on a loaded ship during a naval battle. The high number of stone balls may also indicate that the Venetian fleet has prepared for long-period voyage, with the intention of using these armaments. Among the most interesting findings are the bell-shaped copper cauldrons, which were recovered from both wrecks. Considering that a similar form was recovered from Gnalić wreck, it can be inferred that this represents standard Venetian ship carpenter's equipment utilised for prolonged repairs or both caulking and restoration purposes. Given the potential for damage during battle and the further need for repairs, the presence of such equipment is considered essential for warships. A further benefit of accurately identifying the shipwrecks is that it provides us with crucial information for the identification of other artefacts recovered from the shipwrecks. Therefore, we can attribute the Venetian origin to all other findings. This may also facilitate future studies. This study also highlights the significant material losses experienced during the battle. With the sinking of all three ships, all their ammunition was lost in the deep waters. Apparently, no salvage operation was carried out and approximately 200 cannons and other ammunition were lost with these ships. Additionally, this dramatic event resulted in several casualties or injuries. The Oinousses battle is of great importance in terms of its naval tactics and their consequences for both sides. Based on Venetian sources, Candiani ( 2018 ) stated that the Ottoman navy developed a new sailing battle fleet in the 1650s, following by shifting from oared ships to sailing vessels, reflecting a modern approach to warfare. Following Sultan II. Süleyman’s and Mezemorta’s naval reforms, Ottomans re-emerged as a significant maritime power. It is evident that the use of ships of the line, which constituted the foundation of the Ottoman navy during this period, resulted in success. As for Venice, the Ottoman recapture of the recently occupied Chios Island significantly lowered Republic's prestige and marked the end of fifty years of naval dominance. With this defeat, the superiority of oared ships was questioned, and the line tactics of sailing ships were adopted in the Levant (Candiani 2012a ). The adoption of ships of the line influenced the galleys, which remained less visible but useful for other important tasks at least until the first decades of the 19th century. Most Venetian sources regard Zeno's mediocre leadership as a factor that prevented a potentially decisive victory against the Ottomans. According to Soucek ( 2011 ), if the Venetians capitalised the opportunity and attacked the Ottomans, they could have achieved a significant victory, potentially eliminating Mezemorta and subsequently keeping control of Chios for a long period. When we consider all of these aspects, it becomes evident how crucial the strategies of commanders and operations are in the victory of a battle, in addition to factors such as fleet modernisation, numerical superiority, ammunition abundance, and discipline. The Oinousses battle is not the only conflict that occurred on Chios Island from which we might derive insights. Throughout history, Chios Strait has witnessed numerous naval wars. In addition to several conflicts between Venetian and Ottoman fleets, the Battle of Çeşme (1770), where the Russians defeated the Ottomans and the Ottoman navy suffered significant losses, also occurred in this vicinity. Consequently, due to its strategic importance, the Chios Strait emerged as the most challenging location in Mediterranean naval history. When considered together with concrete field data and archive documents, this makes the region a hub for naval battlefield archaeology, which deserves particular attention. Future Efforts The locations of two wrecks have been identified, and the visible artefacts have been documented. However, it is acknowledged that one additional Venetian ship and two Ottoman ships also sank during the Battle of Oinousses islands. Several potential sites were located during the side-scan sonar mapping effort. Further survey will focus on ensuring the locations of these lost wrecks by conducting a visual inppection and a very high-resolution sonar survey. Simultaneously, an effort will be made to access additional archival documents from Venetian and Ottoman resources. Then, the locations of the lost shipwrecks may be determined, and the ship’s designs may be revealed. The SHIPT team is also currently working on these two shipwrecks to recover the artifacts. Removed artifacts then will be transported to the museum and exhibited in a special section. While these studies are ongoing, a connection was established with Türkiye’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism was informed for the protection of the wreck sites and then monitoring was provided with the Coast Guard. The preservation of this unique underwater cultural heritage site, which has never undergone a salvage operation and has therefore remained well-preserved, was thus ensured. Conclusion This study has provided concrete evidence regarding the Battle of Oinousses islands for the first time, which was previously only known from archival sources. High-resolution documentation and underwater rescue excavation produced substantial data on the identity of newly discovered shipwrecks. The precise matching of archival sources and material-based data uncovered missing details of this 17th-century naval battle, which has led to revolutionised military strategies and warships. This research is distinguished by a significant difference from prior underwater archaeological studies: the newly discovered shipwrecks were clearly dated and identified as they were well-recorded in archival documents. While dating and identification are generally the subject of extensive arguments, this article provides concrete evidence for the warships of the time through artefacts recovered from shipwrecks, whose identities are well established. Furthermore, the rescue excavations at the wreck sites have been characterized as the deepest and most comprehensive scientific archaeological underwater excavation ever conducted within Turkish territorial waters. Some major naval battles in the Mediterranean were discussed concerning naval engagements, tactics, and the political context of these conflicts. This study uncovered the historical significance of this battlefield, encompassing its cultural heritage and role in enhancing our comprehension of warships from the 17th century. This vulnerable battlefield requires proper attention in term of underwater cultural heritage, necessitating a careful approach to its protection. Declarations Author Contribution Both authors contributed equally to the fieldwork, prepared all figures, and wrote the main manuscript text. Acknowledgement This study was carried out as a part of the SHIPT project, which was supported by the Republic of Türkiye’s Presidency of Strategy and Budget (Project no. 2014H040080). Permission for the survey and rescue excavation was granted by the Republic of Türkiye’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The author would like to give special thanks to Türkiye’s Ministry of National Defence-Turkish Naval Forces Command, especially Admiral Adnan Özbal, Commander of Turkish Naval Forces, and 1st class divers from Underwater Search and Rescue Group Command for their support during the excavation. The author also would like to express gratitude to Directory of Bodrum Underwater Archaeology Museum for supporting, to Selçuk Kolay for reporting the location of the shipwrecks; to Savaş Karakaş to produce the documentary of the fieldwork, to the SHIPT team members who helped with data collection; and, to the crew of TCG Alemdar, R/V K. Piri Reis and STS Bodrum for their contributions during fieldwork. References Anderson RC (1952) Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853. Princeton University Press, Princeton Arıkan Z (2009) Navarin Olayı (1927). In: Arıkan Z, Sancar L (eds) XVIII. tüzyıl başından XX. yüzyıla kadar Türk denizcilik tarihi 2. Deniz Basımevi, İstanbul, pp 91–106 Danişmend İH (1972) Izahli Osmanli tarihi kronolojisi Cilt 4. Türkiye Yayınevi, İstanbul Beltrame C, Morin M (2014) I Cannoni di Venezia. Artiglierie della Serenissima da fortezze e relitti. Università Ca'Foscari di Venezia, Venice Beltrame C, Scordato R (2016) I cannoni di Venezia. 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 05 Feb, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Maritime Archaeology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 21 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 19 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 12 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 01 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 29 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Sep, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 25 Sep, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 22 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 22 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 22 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Kızıldağ)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/5f7fd011176973713d289a71.jpeg"},{"id":93169153,"identity":"622c7de1-18f7-4643-9bdb-2fc9684949e7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:39:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":341478,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe plan of Shipwreck 1 (drawing by H. Özdaş)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/f4c838731361746641b5887f.jpeg"},{"id":93170085,"identity":"b53ad3e2-cb00-4f15-bad7-db12aee1e33e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:55:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":413975,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe cannon CN1 recovered from Shipwreck 1 (Inv. KKVB1-19-002) (drawings by H. Özdaş and N. Kızıldağ)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/3ee1becc10ae325a2d229375.jpeg"},{"id":93170087,"identity":"d4131dc8-7bc4-4eb1-a081-dbba1e88843d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:55:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":331481,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe cannon CN2 recovered from Shipwreck 1 (KKVB1-19-003) (drawings by H. Özdaş and N. Kızıldağ)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/b7f9dc3e867b6c1098fc69fe.jpeg"},{"id":93169156,"identity":"10cbd26e-4cc5-4bc6-9167-639d5784c4cc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:39:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":386197,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe cannon CN3 recovered from Shipwreck 1 (KKVB1-19-004) (drawings by H. Özdaş and N. Kızıldağ)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/93e575c8baed3d078b12b4fd.jpeg"},{"id":93168564,"identity":"9db66d0f-5810-48e3-825e-9e0bd596196f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:31:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":366888,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe kitchenware recovered from Shipwreck 1: (a) the bell-shaped copper cauldron; (b) the copper cauldron and its rim; and (c) the copper barrel. (drawings by İ. Ayvaz)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/1c8f8a08c5915eed4bd389e3.jpeg"},{"id":93168575,"identity":"c0769d22-ae00-4c13-9f1d-30d2aa50edd7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:31:19","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":863453,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe anchor identified in Shipwreck 1\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/321c41b368b2b6a8e52fd140.png"},{"id":93168582,"identity":"205be241-fdf9-4bef-b016-8bec68ac85bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:31:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":279566,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe plan of Shipwreck 2 (drawing by H. Özdaş)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/59ced42340af3d25e0f8eed1.jpeg"},{"id":93169174,"identity":"fff23880-5a03-4ebc-81b9-0772f1790439","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:39:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":147066,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe stone balls recorded in Shipwreck 2 (Rov image by İ. Yıldız)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage13.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/958da4812fc362e7edc7ffee.jpeg"},{"id":93168587,"identity":"ce14dd95-1942-463c-b577-0e46b1e47bf4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:31:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":445191,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe cannon CN4 recovered from Shipwreck 2 (KKVB2-19-001) (drawings by H. Özdaş and N. Kızıldağ)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage14.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/133747c36735cb1ebcb7a60d.jpeg"},{"id":93169170,"identity":"4412568b-775d-4aa9-a711-7b5e4d41e136","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:39:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":430496,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe cannon CN5 recovered from Shipwreck 2 (KKVB2-19-003) (drawings by H. Özdaş and N. Kızıldağ)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage15.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/139f1b1292a593d0afa67ce3.jpeg"},{"id":93170354,"identity":"29b25da2-2f7a-4687-85db-4b794bb43e83","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 19:03:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":16,"title":"Figure 16","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":625751,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe brick pile recorded in the Shipwreck 2 site (a)and recovered a brick (b); the bell-shaped copper cauldron (c) and its handle (d) recovered from Shipwreck 2\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage16.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/9f296b82d7c268a4bfc30da6.jpeg"},{"id":93168586,"identity":"d7227645-21df-425b-bd9d-b8e296c865e2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:31:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":17,"title":"Figure 17","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65150,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe anchor recorded in the Shipwreck 2 site\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage17.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/4539bf18802f013128002b6d.jpeg"},{"id":93169432,"identity":"811bcc92-d927-4968-a1e5-1f5f92992441","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-09 18:47:19","extension":"jpeg","order_by":18,"title":"Figure 18","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29448,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDrawing of \u003cem\u003eStella Maris\u003c/em\u003e from Biblioteca Communale in Trévise (Candiani, 2012b)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage18.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/eb4d03a20f07cc990aa97f11.jpeg"},{"id":102234189,"identity":"22d8f653-9fcc-409c-a6c8-3fe5e735c4c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-09 16:07:23","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7252862,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7672051/v1/f71fcd69-6c17-4639-bdc0-16b4223538d0.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Archaeological Evidence from the Naval Battle of the Oinousses Islands: 17th-Century Venetian Shipwrecks","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe advent of ship technology and the accompanying increase in trade and migration movements have rendered the seas a battlefield for several conflicts throughout ages. The expansion of maritime trade routes intensified the struggle for sea power, resulting in the improvements of naval warfare strategies and maritime technologies. The early development of naval warfare backs to ancient civilisations, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Phoenicians. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, maritime powers like Venice, Genoa, and the Ottomans established dominance in trade routes (Chrissanthos \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Aegean coast of Anatolia, particularly İzmir, has also been the scene of several significant naval engagements throughout history. In 1090, the fleet of \u0026Ccedil;aka Beyliği, defeated the Byzantine fleet near the Oinousses, marking the first victory for Turkish naval forces (Bostan and \u0026Ouml;zbaran \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; İşipek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The Battle of Focchies (1649), part of the Ottoman-Venetian Wars, resulted in a Venetian victory and the loss of ten Ottoman ships (Anderson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e). The Ottoman-Venetian War also involved the Battle of the Oinousses islands in 1695, where the Ottoman Navy defeated the Venetian Navy, resulting in the recapture of Chios Island (Anderson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e; Sevin\u0026ccedil;, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Soucek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Candiani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012a\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Bostan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022a\u003c/span\u003e). The Battle of Chesma (1770) was another significant naval engagement of the Russo-Turkish War, in which Russia defeated the Ottoman fleet, decreasing Ottoman naval power but encouraging naval reforms within the Empire (İşipek and Aydemir \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Tredrea and Sozaev \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). At last, shortly before the \u0026Ccedil;anakkale naval campaign during World War I, İzmir and its vicinity were subjected to multiple bombardments by the Allied forces, resulting in the sinking of numerous vessels in the İzmir Gulf.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough these naval battles are well known from archival sources and historical documents (\u003cem\u003eDell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV\u003c/em\u003e; Raşid, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1865\u003c/span\u003e; Saffet Bey, 1910; Danişmend \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e), fieldworks to uncover the remains of the battles are very limited (\u0026Ouml;zdaş and Kızıldağ \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The discovery of shipwrecks and uncovering the concrete data along with scientific documenting of the remains and examination of naval battle history, provides significant insights into the warship technology, daily life of sailors, naval strategies and terefore maritime history. Research in this field refers to the emerging discipline known as \"Naval Battlefield Archaeology.\" This field offers a more comprehensive understanding of maritime history by providing tangible evidence of past naval wars. Through the application of advanced technologies and interdisciplinary approaches, archaeologists and historians can gain a deeper understanding of the complex interactions that shaped the course of history. Through comprehensive analysis of these conflicts, researchers could clarify the complex dynamics of past events and their consequences, assessing the interactions of military strategy, technological innovations, and political struggles that generated certain outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, this specialized field faces numerous challenges associated with underwater research, including the salvage operations and related inadequate preservation of materials, adverse oceanographic conditions, varying water depths, difficulties in locating sites, and the expansive size of the battlefield (Kimura et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). As part of the SHIPT project, the first scientific underwater archaeological survey was conducted at Oinousses naval battlefield, located on Eğri Liman in İzmir, off the western coast of T\u0026uuml;rkiye (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Two shipwrecks were documented during the remote sensing survey in 2018. The following effort has been made to cross-reference the archaeological records with historical documents that would aid the identification of the remains. In 2019, a short-term rescue excavation was conducted to provide data for identification (\u0026Ouml;zdaş and Kızıldağ \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis paper focuses on the documentation of two shipwrecks discovered at the Oinousses naval battlefield, combining the archaeological material and the historical documents. We discussed the approach of naval battlefield archaeology, summarizing pre-war, time of war, and post-war developments, tactics, technologies, and sociopolitical contexts through engravings of battlefields and archival documents.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Historical Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eBetween 1650 and 1718, the Ottoman Navy developed a new fleet of sailing warships in response to contemporary advancements in European maritime practices. In particular, the Crete campain between 1645 and 1699 marked a significant turning point in Ottoman maritime history. During that period, ideas regarding rowing ships (galleys), the basis of the navy, began to transition to sailing ships (galleons), which emerged in the Mediterranean (Bostan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022b\u003c/span\u003e). By continually updating its technology, the Ottoman navy aimed to maintain its strong position in the Levant (Candiani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). As the Ottoman sailing fleet gradually increased, it posed a covert but constant threat to Venetian sea routes. This situation forced the Venetian sailing fleet to conduct continuous naval lines, creating a major conflict sea battle between these two naval powers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter the unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683, European states formed the Holy League and launched a series of wars against the Ottoman Empire. These conflicts resulted in the loss of Hungary to the Ottomans. Emboldened by their successes during these wars, the Republic of Venice, with support from the naval fleets of Malta, Florence, and the Papal States, occupied Chios Island (in Turkish \u003cem\u003eSakız Adası\u003c/em\u003e) in the Aegean Sea on September 21, 1694 (Anderson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e; Arıkan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Russell \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChios Island, strategically located across the Anatolian mainland, has been a hub for maritime activity since antiquity, particularly during the Ottoman period. While the Chios Strait connected Istanbul to Alexandria and other Mediterranean ports, the Chios Harbor served as a convenient anchoring for ships using this route. On the other hand, the Oinousses provided support and logistics, serving as naval bases for controlling the Aegean (Soucek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Ottoman Empire and the Venetian Kingdom engaged in several naval battles along Anatolia's Aegean coast, including those at Candia, Fo\u0026ccedil;a, Midilli, and Oinousses. In September 1694, the Serenissima conducted an attack on Chios Island, capturing the strategically important naval and commerce stronghold. This event triggered four years of intensive naval warfare and resulted in eleven significant battles between the two fleets. During this time, the Aegean Sea saw the peak of these new naval activities. One notable engagement took place near Oinousses in 1695, at the height of their 17th-century conflict (Saffet Bey 1910; Candiani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Battle of the Oinousses islands consisted of two distinct engagements on 9 and 19 February 1695, near the Oinousses islands in the Chios Strait. In early February 1695, the Ottoman navy, under the command of \u003cem\u003eSerasker Mısırlızade\u003c/em\u003e İbrahim Pasha, \u003cem\u003eKaptanpaşa Amcazade\u003c/em\u003e H\u0026uuml;seyin Pasha, and \u003cem\u003eKapudane Mezemorta\u003c/em\u003e H\u0026uuml;seyin Pasha, gathered in Izmir. \u003cem\u003eMezemorta\u003c/em\u003e H\u0026uuml;seyin Pasha pioneered the technologically development of sailing ships and also implemented the innovative battle tactics (Saffet Bey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1911\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn February 8, 1695, the Ottoman fleet, comprising 26 galleons, 24 galleys, and \u003cem\u003efırkates\u003c/em\u003e, reached the Oinousses (Bostan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022a\u003c/span\u003e). The fleet anchored in Eğri Liman, a natural bay situated on the western coast of Anatolia, across from Oinousses (Sevin\u0026ccedil; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e: 75). Venetian \u003cem\u003eCapitan straordinario\u003c/em\u003e Girolamo Priuli informed Admiral Antonio Zeno of the presence of the Ottoman navy. Zeno responded quickly, dispatching a force consisting of 21 ships of the line, 5 galleasses, and 21 galleys to the region (Soucek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the beginning of the first engagement, \u003cem\u003eConsulta\u003c/em\u003e convinced themselves that the Ottomans would not undertake any action during the winter (Candiani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012a\u003c/span\u003e). However, the Ottomans proceeded with their actions and emerged victorious in the battle. On February 9, the Ottoman navy formed a crescent arrangement approaching Karaburun, resembling its land position on the eastern side of the Oinousses islands. \u003cem\u003eMezemorta\u003c/em\u003e H\u0026uuml;seyin Pasha decided to launch a concentrated attack on selected enemy units with several ships rather than constructing a regular battle line in which ships fired their cannons simultaneously.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Ottoman historian Raşid (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1865\u003c/span\u003e, Hijri: 1282), \u003cem\u003e\"...facing 20 Venetian battleships, the Turks positioned 16; against 6 Venetian galleasses, 4 Ottoman battleships were deployed; and against 24 Venetian galleys, an equal number of Turkish galleys were present. The Turkish fleet advanced towards the enemy against the wind direction, and Mezemorta H\u0026uuml;seyin Pasha's artillery fire caused Commander Priuli to suffer the loss of 150 soldiers. Meanwhile, a cannonball from the Ottoman ship Riyale, commanded by Fettah Kapudan, ignited a fire on a Venetian vessel. Despite efforts by a sixty-gun battleship to extinguish the flames, its topsails caught fire, leading to the eventual burning and sinking of these large ships along with their crews, except for some who managed to escape by jumping into the sea and surviving\u003c/em\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo; (Soucek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn anonymous book \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eDell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; was published by a navy officer shortly after occupation of the island of Chios in 1694. According to his narrative and the accompanying maps, which depict the positions and maneuvers of the ships, the battle began with cannon and rifle fire from four Ottoman galleons towards Contarini and Marcello's galleys (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). During the two-hour exchange of fire, both fleets made little progress. However, the Ottomans' four galleons caused significant damage to Venice's first two galleys. Taking advantage of the favorable tailwind, the Ottoman ships kept their sails positioned and started closing in on the Venetian fleet. During the engagement, Girolamo Priuli's flagship, \u003cem\u003eStella Maris\u003c/em\u003e, caught fire as a result of the firing (Soucek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen the neighboring \u003cem\u003eLeon Coronato\u003c/em\u003e, commanded by Gaspare Bragadino, approached to aid, the fire spread to this ship as well, and both of the Venetian fleet's main vessels exploded and sank within a few minutes (\u003cem\u003eDell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV\u003c/em\u003e, map 12) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, Girolamo Priuli and Gaspare Bragadino died, along with their crews. The third ship, \u003cem\u003eVittorio\u003c/em\u003e, was irreparably damaged. In the following engagement, two Ottoman galleys capsized due to continuous Venetian cannon fire and close attacks by Foscarini and Orio. \u003cem\u003eDrago Volante\u003c/em\u003e sank shortly afterward because of a fire. As a result, Venice lost three ships, together with their sailors, supplies, and armaments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe conflict ended when the Ottomans withdrew towards the shore. As darkness fell, the two fleets parted ways. The Venetian fleet, under the leadership of Serenissima, sailed southwestward, passing through the Oinousses islands and anchoring at Chiote, where Terfii (Delfino) docked. Meanwhile, the Ottomans retreated to Eğri Liman. The Ottomans emerged victorious in this battle, with the galleon fleet, especially its captain \u003cem\u003eMezemorta\u003c/em\u003e H\u0026uuml;seyin Paşa, likely playing a crucial role in securing the triumph (Soucek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTen days later, on February 19, 1695, the second stage of the battle occurred on the southern side of the Oinousses islands, which determined the outcome of the Venetian endeavour. Rashid (1282) narrates the story: \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;\u003cem\u003ethe defeated Venetians reached the Chios and stayed there two nights. As they left the island on February 21, they observed one of their kalyons run aground with its military supplies. This ship, Abbondanza e Richezza, was armed with 16 bronze cannons, each capable of firing 24-okkas cannon balls, 6 mortars, over 5.000 muskets, and additional weaponry, along with 280 captured soldiers. Furthermore, the Ottomans also captured four galleys and four firkates, together with their cargo\u003c/em\u003e...\u0026rdquo; (Soucek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The Ottoman fleet also defeated the Venetians in a second battle ultimately ending their invasion of Chios.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVenetian records confirm that three Venetian ships (\u003cem\u003eStella Maris, Leon Coronato\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eDrago Volante\u003c/em\u003e) sank, resulting in around 1,100 fatalities among soldiers and sailors, over 600 injuries aboard these ships, while 400 casualties among the galleys (\u003cem\u003eDell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV\u003c/em\u003e: 98, 99). On the Ottoman side, two galleys sank, and the total number of dead and injured reached 4,000. Anderson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e) stated that the Venetian galleons suffered 142 fatalities and 300 injuries, while other ships incurred 323 casualties and 303 injuries.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVenice reacted strongly to the Battle of the Oinousses islands and the subsequent loss of Chios Island. Venice faced its first defeat since the Battle of Preveza in 1538 (Danişmend \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous commanders, including Admiral Antonio Zeno and two Proveditors, Querini and Pisan, were put on trial. The trial concentrated on the corruption that occurred during Chios' occupation in addition to the battle's defeat. Before the trial's conclusion, Zeno and Querini passed away in prison (Anderson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFieldworks\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe initial marine inspection was conducted at the Oinousses naval battlefield in 2018. The investigation focused on determining the accurate locations of the shipwrecks. During the survey, high-resolution acoustic images of the shipwreck sites were obtained using side-scan sonar by \u003cem\u003eR/V K. Piri Reis\u003c/em\u003e, Dokuz Eyl\u0026uuml;l University\u0026rsquo;s research vessel. The acoustic survey employed the Klein 3000H model high-resolution dual frequency side-scan sonar. Further inspection was conducted using a remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROV). The Hoytek 1000m model ROV was deployed for this operation, which was specifically designed for underwater archaeological surveys, equipping with BlueView Imaging Sonar, Applied Acoustics Easytrak Alpha model positioning system (USBL), manipulator, autopilot, HD and still cameras, and lighting systems. DGPS and USBL allow an accurate position to generate photogrammetric models by using ROV, providing the site plan.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFollowing the initial inspection of the wreck sites, an effort was made to recover some artifacts to provide reliable dating and information about the identity of the ships. Within the framework of a protocol, the Turkish Naval Forces Command undertook a diver assessment of the shipwrecks. With permission from T\u0026uuml;rkiye\u0026rsquo;s Ministry of Culture and Tourism, a short-term rescue excavation was carried out in 2019 under the directorate of the Bodrum Underwater Archaeology Museum. Surface supply mixed-gas diving techniques were employed onboard \u003cem\u003eTCG Alemdar\u003c/em\u003e of the Turkish Naval Forces Command. During the fieldwork, five cannons and some utensils were recovered from the wreck sites. The artifacts have been transported to the Bodrum Underwater Archaeology Museum, where conservation efforts are currently underway.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2019 and 2020, further high-resolution acoustic surveys were conducted to map the naval battlefield and its surrounding area. During this survey, the area of 40 km2 was imaged by side-scan sonar onboard \u003cem\u003eSTS Bodrum.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter completing the marine surveys, a comprehensive review of historical records has been undertaken to determine the identities of the shipwrecks and assess the original positions of the ships during the battle. This review study was carried out under the auspices of the Research Centre for Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime History (SUDEMER) of Dokuz Eyl\u0026uuml;l University.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Site\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the acoustic and visual inspection of the battlefield, two shipwreck sites were located at a depth of 65 m. The sites are situated two kilometers west of the nearest town of Eğri Liman in İzmir and five kilometers east of the Oinousses islands (in Turkish \u003cem\u003eKoyun Adaları\u003c/em\u003e; in Italian \u003cem\u003eSpalmadori\u003c/em\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Strong sonar reflections were obtained from the sites, which correspond to the cannons and anchors. Both remains, located 50 meters apart, lie on sandy seabed. The acoustic survey revealed that the seafloor morphology surrounding the shipwrecks are predominantly flat.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe site is exposed to strong winds and waves. Prevailing northwesterly winds influence the region. Although visibility is high underwater, light transmission is limited due to the depth of the site. The locations of the shipwrecks are well-known among fishermen. Nevertheless, the remains of the wrecks sustained no damage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eModern fish farms are actively functioning in the vicinity of the wrecks. Several pools are located between the wreck sites and the shoreline. These areas could not be explored during the survey.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eShipwreck 1\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main assemblage of Shipwreck 1 covers an area of 48 m long and 33 m wide, lying oriented NNE-SSW. ROV inspection confirmed that at least 31 cannons were visible on the site, which appeared to be mostly made by bronze material (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, eight cannons were reported scattered around the site. The site plan illustrated that the cannons lie over the entire wreck site (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The overal lengths of the cannons vary between 2.50 m and 3.64 m. Over 100 stone balls with diameters ranging from 26 cm to 40 cm were found in the central section of the shipwreck. Additionally, 11 metal wheels for cannon field carriage were observed, which scattered around the site. All wheels have the same diameter of 1.4 m.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree iron anchors were clearly distinguished on the site. The position of the anchors verifies that the south-southwestern section of the wreck corresponds to the ship's bow. Several metallic fragments, most likely from the anchors or their chains, are evident surrounding the anchor sites. Two large wooden masses are also visible near the port-side cannons.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to artillery, several items including a bell-shaped copper cauldron and some metal kitchen vessels were recorded in the site. More than 20 bricks were found with these vessels, which represent the ship\u0026rsquo;s galley.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Cannons \u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the excavation, three cannons were recovered from the Shipwreck 1 site, which appear to be primarily made by bronze material. Removing their concretions allowed us to determine identification.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith a calibre of 120 mm, the first cannon that raised from Shipwreck 1 (CN1, Inv. No. KKVB1-19-002) has a conventional length of 329 cm and a total length of 351 cm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). A relief of a coat of arm, a winged lion of St. Mark, is located at the bottom of the chase. The lion is walking to the left and its front legs on the land with a fortified city, while its back legs on the water. It holds a gospel with two paws, which is signed with \u0026ldquo;PA TI MA\u0026rdquo;, which may correspond to \u0026ldquo;PAX TIBI MARCE\u0026rdquo;. The space between the legs is signed with the number of \u0026ldquo;210\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA number of \u0026ldquo;1690\u0026rdquo; is stamped at the top of the reinforce, below the trunnion ring, which corresponds to casting date (Ridella \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The letter of \u0026ldquo;A\u0026rdquo; is engraved below the casting date, which indicates the initial letter of the founder\u0026rsquo;s name. \u0026ldquo;21^OT^\u0026rdquo; symbol appears between the date and the founder. \u0026ldquo;T\u0026rdquo; letter has been engraved at the bottom of the reinforcement, on the touch-hole. The breech ring has been marked with the number of 3504, which indicates the weight in Venetian pounds (Ridella \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe initial \u0026ldquo;A\u0026rdquo; and the date allow attributing the weapon to Alberghetti family of Venetian founders (Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). This founder has also been attributed to a piece from the Military Museum in Istanbul, which features a lion and a date very similar to CN1\u0026rsquo;s (Beltrame and Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second 90 mm calibre bronze cannon (CN2, Inv. No. KKVB1-19-003) has a conventional length of 345 cm (total length is 364 cm) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). This cannon has a single reinforce with an elongated cascabel and four circular perforations. The muzzle is partially damaged.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDate 1658 is presented at the center of the chase portion. Similar to CN1, a winged lion of St. Mark holding the Gospel is depicted at the bottom of the chase. The initials \u0026ldquo;S\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;A\u0026rdquo;, which corresponds to the founder, appear at the top of the reinforce. The number 3124 is engraved on the base ring, indicating the weight in Venetian pounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe initials \u0026ldquo;S A\u0026rdquo; and the date allow us to attribute its casting to Sigismondo V Alberghetti, who was active until 1702 (Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). A cannon from a shipwreck found in Vis in Croatia, includes \u0026ldquo;S A\u0026rdquo; initials (Beltrame and Scordato \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In 1696, Sigismondo was fully engaged in experimenting with newly invented cannons of 120 and 200-pound. A cannon from 1667 in the Istanbul Askeri Museum has also been attributed to this founder (Beltrame and Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe third cannon (CN3, Inv. No. KKVB1-19-004) has a conventional length of 273 cm and a total length of 294 cm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). This bronze cannon has 120 mm caliber and marked piece weight as 2612. A St. Mark lion appears at the bottom of chase, which holding the Gospel with the letters \u0026ldquo;PA\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;T\u0026rdquo;. \u0026ldquo;18^GE^\u0026rdquo; characters are placed on the trunnion ring. Blow this symbol, the date \u0026ldquo;1690\u0026rdquo; is engraved at the top of the reinforce. The letter \"A\" below indicates the initial of founder\u0026rsquo;s name. \u0026ldquo;T\u0026rdquo; letter appears above the touch hole.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar to CN1, the initial \u0026ldquo;A\u0026rdquo; and the date are attributed the guns from Venetian family of Alberghetti (Morin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). CN3 shares same characteristics as a cannon exhibited at the Askeri Museum in Istanbul (Beltrame and Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e: no.87).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Kitchenware: Vessels for Storage and Cooking\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA bell-shaped copper cauldron (Inv. No. 2018-KKOB-01) was recovered from the central section of the Shipwreck 1 site (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). The cauldron is made up of two pieces connected by rivets. The well-preserved vessel has a maximum diameter of 115 cm and height of 90 cm, and curves outward at the mouth. It is made up of three copper sheets of 2 mm thick that are riveted together. The bottom of the cauldron is rounded by hammering into a bell form. Two horizontal lines of 25\u0026ndash;30 rivets with diameters ranging from 10\u0026ndash;20 mm connect to sections. It has two handles along the upper edge, which are also attached by rivets. It has a capacity of 10 liters up to the bearing's height. Evident from the rough hammer marks on all surfaces, this cauldron was hammered into shape.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe parallel form was found on the 16th-century Venetian merchant shipwreck at Gnalić (Filep et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e: 102. No.6). With a height of 71.5 cm, a bottom diameter of 49 cm, an opening diameter of 99.2 cm, and a weight of 61 kg, this large copper cauldron was also made of two parts connected by rivets. Radić Rossi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) suggested that it was used for melting resin or tar for utilizing ship repairs on the ship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother copper cauldron (KKVB1-19-005) and its lid (KKVB1-19-006) were recovered from an area close to bell-shaped cauldron (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eb). This vessel was found in poor-condition. It measures 49,5 cm in diameter at its rim; 58,5 cm in diameter at the base; and 30 cm in height. The rim is slightly curved outside. Two rectengular handles are attached below the rim on the opposite sides. A similar cauldron has been recovered from the remains of 17th-century Dutch ship in the Norman\u0026rsquo;s Bay (Beattie-Edwards, 2017: 171, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). This copper-alloy vessel measures 48.5 cm in diameter at the rim, 37 cm in diameter at its base, and 23 cm in height.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA copper barrel of cylindrical shape was recovered from Shipwreck 1 (Inv. No. KKVB1-19-001) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003ec). This well-preserved vessel has a hight of 63 cm and a mouth diameter of 57 cm. It is made of four plates of copper sheet of 1.5 mm thick, which are joined by rivets. The upper part with the mouth is formed by joining the sides of the one plate with several rivets, and the bottom part by hammering the other plate into a flat shape. All parts are riveted together by a horizontal line of 28\u0026ndash;40 rivets of 15 mm diameter. Below the mouth, on the opposing sides, there are four copper pins visible, extending outward. These pins were utilized to fasten the attachments for the handles. The barrel has an estimated capacity of 17 liters.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA similar riveted copper cauldron was found in the \u003cem\u003eSv. Pavao\u003c/em\u003e shipwreck, 16th century Venetian merchantman in Croatia (Bezak \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The tapered cauldron, which is made of two plates of copper sheet joined by rivets, has a slightly spherical bottom. This 20-litre capacity vessel was used for preparing food.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA wide range of Italian kitchenware, similar to rivetted barrel raised from Shipwreck 1, were depicted in Bartolomeo\u0026rsquo;s book published in 1570 (Scappi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1570\u003c/span\u003e). These cooking vessels helped us to determine the function of the barrel. On the other hand, the absence of a bell-shaped copper cauldron raises questions about its intended function, particularly due to its unusual design.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, two nested metal cauldrons and a single individual cauldron are clearly visible on the surface, having been recorded from various sections of the main assemblages. A brazier, possibly composed of three separate fragments, is located behind the rearmost cannon on the starboard side.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eKitchen utensils recovered from the shipwreck, as the majority of the ship's cookware, was made of copper and other alloys. Copper was generally chosen for its corrosion resistance and ability to withstand long-term exposure to saltwater. The crew's cooking and cuisine were critical in facilitating long-term sailing. Therefore, each warship had a specific number of cooking vessels made of various copper alloys, based on the size of its crew.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe Anchors\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree iron anchors were clearly visible on the Shipwreck 1 site (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). The alignment of anchors suggests that the ship's bow is located the south-southwestern section of the site. Two anchors were reported in the southwestern section of the site, corresponding to the starboard bow of the ship, where anchors are typically stored. Their position in a linear alignment orientated in the north-south direction is quite remarkable. All iron parts of each anchor are well-preserved but covered with concretions. Each anchor displays very similar characteristics in terms of having an oval head and nuts, a ring, two symmetric curved arms, and triangular flukes. Each measure 4.8 meters in length. Their arms, reaching 2,0 meters in length, display flat sides and triangular flukes, connecting to the shank at a slightly curved angle.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar to others, the crown of the third anchor is oriented northward. Compared to the others, this anchor was observed partially buried in the sand. The location of the anchor in the southeastern section of the site corresponds to the port bow of the ship. It has a length of 4.6 m, with arms extending 1.7 m. The dimensions, proportions, and structural characteristics of two-armed fluked anchors are parallel to the anchors of the Mortella II wreck, which sunk in 1527 (Cazenave de la Roche and Ciacchella 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eShipwreck 2\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShipwreck 2 reflects a different distribution pattern, characterized by more scattered objects compared to the first site (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). The main assemblage is scattered an area of 42 m x 30 m and is oriented NE\u0026ndash;SW. The most distinguished feature of this wreck is that the cannons are piled on one side and the stone balls on the other side. 25 bronze cannons were piled in the northeastern part of the assemblage together with four iron anchors. The length of the cannons varies between 2.8 m and 4.0 m. A large concentration of stone balls, comprising more than 100 individual pieces, is located approximately 13 meters to the southwest (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). The diameter of the visible balls varies between 35\u0026ndash;40 cm. The area between the cannons and the balls is covered with sand, forming a mound with a height of 1 m. Four iron anchors were recorded on the northern side of the assemblage, which indicates the bow of the ship. In contrast to Shipwreck 1, this wreck does not contain any cannon carriage wheels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Cannons\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo bronze cannons were recovered from Shipwreck 2 site. The first cannon has a conventional length of 278 cm and a total length of 297 cm (CN4, Inv. No. KKVB2-19-001) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). This 120 mm calibre bronze cannon has a single reinforce with an elongated cascabel and four circular perforations. The muzzle measures 12 cm in length, and the trunnion has a diameter of 11 cm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn the chase, immediately above the reinforce ring, a relief of a coat of arm with a winged lion of St. Mark, holding the Gospel, which has no visible letter. The lion\u0026rsquo;s two paws are on the water and the other two on the ground, with a fortified city, symbolizing the Land State and the Sea State.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis cannon can be distinguished from the others by a decoration at the top of the reinforce, containing the date and the founder. At the level of the trunnions, there is a plate engraved with the date 1676 and a banner with the inscription \u0026ldquo;FN.\u003csup\u003eco\u003c/sup\u003e MAZZAROLI F.\u0026rdquo;, which represent the founders. This can be interpreted as the initials of Francesco Mazzaroli Fecit, a family of Venetian founders, which were active in the second half of the 17th century. The weight of the casting of 2865 pounds is stamped on the breech ring, which indicates the weight in Venetian pounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVarious guns, signed by the founder Francesco Mazzaroli, were found in different locations. Two cannons, dated to 1668, are found in the Askeri Museum in Istanbul. A cannon with the date 1669 in the Naval Historical Museum of Venice; three trabucchi, dated to 1670 and 1696, are found in Nauplia, Greece; a culverin, with the date 1667, and a trebuchet, with the date 1679, were recorded by Gasperoni (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1779\u003c/span\u003e). Two cannons are reported in Stockholm and St. Petersburg, which indicates that Mazzaroli was operational from at least 1667 until at least 1696 (Beltrame and Scordato \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second cannon, with a caliber of 120 mm (CN5, Inv. No. KKVB2-19-003), has a conventional length of 274 cm and a total length of 295 cm (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). A winged lion with the Gospel appears on the base of the chase. The letters \"C\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;A\" are engraved on the upper part of the reinforce, between the trunnions. Below the initials, the date \u0026ldquo;1667\u0026rdquo; is located. Base ring is engraved the number \u0026ldquo;2889\u0026rdquo; indicating the weight in Venetian pounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe initials \"C A\" are attributed to Carlo II Alberghetti, who was appointed founder in 1629 and died in 1698 (Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e). The closest form to CN5 is documented in a calatogue of Beltrame and Scordato (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), which has the same date and coat of arms, preserved at the National Artillery Museum in Turin. A cannon from Chios Island has also \"C A\" initials, which its casting date is 1687 and decorated with Arabic characters (Beltrame and Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Another \"C A\" marked cannon with Arabic characters and the Hijri date is exhibited in the Askeri Museum in İstanbul, which has a different coat of arms with a lion walking to the left resting on four relief squares (Beltrame and Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Two more cannons with Arabic characters and a lion walking to the right, dated to 1668 are also exhibited in Askeri Museum (Beltrame and Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe Kitchenware: Vessels for Storage and Cooking\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA bell-shaped copper cauldron, a cylindrical copper cauldron, and a copper barrel were identified in the southeastern section of the Shipwreck 2. Over 100 stove bricks were accumulated in this section, underlying three cannons and a copper barrel (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig16\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003ea). The average dimensions of the individual bricks, which may belong to the ship's cooking stove, were measured as 24 cm long and 13 cm wide (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig16\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003eb). The findings clearly indicate that this section is most likely the ship's galley, locating on the starboard of the ship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe bell-shaped riveted copper cauldron (Inv. No. KKVB2-19-002) was recovered from the wreck. Its shape is similar to the cauldron from Shipwreck 1, but it was discovered in damaged condition (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig16\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003ec, d). It is 105 cm in diameter and curves outward at the mouth. Due to its poor condition, its height and capacity could not be determined. This cauldron is also made up of three copper sheets of 2 mm thick, which are riveted together. The bottom is rounded by hammering into a bell form. Two horizontal lines of 25\u0026ndash;30 rivets with diameters ranging from 10\u0026ndash;20 mm connect to sections. Below the mouth, on opposite sides, there are two handles that protrude outward. The harsh hammer marks on all surfaces indicate that this cauldron was pounded into shape like the other.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe distinctive style of this Venetian copper cauldron raises questions regarding its intended function. The absence of comparable examples of Venetian kitchen utensils in Bartolomeo\u0026rsquo;s book (1570: pl.5\u0026ndash;7,14) is particularly remarkable. Nevertheless, the \u003cem\u003eGnalić\u003c/em\u003e shipwreck provides a comparable form to these vessels (Filep et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Radić Rossi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The authors propose that it may have been used for storing resin intended for ship repairs. This form closely resembles the cauldron recovered from the Shipwreck 2 in terms of shape and size, as well as in the presence of two handles affixed to the upper rim with rivets.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral stone bricks were observed at the central part of the main assemblage. According to Nicolaes Witsen\u0026rsquo;s descriptions about shipbuilding in the Dutch Golden Age, published in 1671, the galley was placed in the hold in men-of-war so as not to stand in the way of the guns. It was placed amidships, usually on the port side, with the hearth facing the bulkhead (Hoving \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The galley was well covered with copper plates. Subsequently, the hearth was laid inside using fireproof bricks and reinforced with wrought iron strips. Approximately 1,000 Leiden bricks cover an area of 7 square feet, and for every 3,000 bricks, a hoet of mortar\u0026mdash;probably corresponding to a cubic measure\u0026mdash;must have been required.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe Anchors\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFour iron anchors were distinguished on the northern side of the shipwreck. The first anchor was totally visible, which measured 4.2 meters in length. The arms, each 2.0 m long, are characterised by flat sides and triangular flukes measuring 1.1 m in length. The ring has a diameter of 80 cm. This anchor underlies another anchor that is partially buried (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig17\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). Its flukes and shank are visible. The third anchor is situated six meters to the east, with its arm section buried in the sand. The fourth one could only be distinguished in the sonar image, which is located once again six meters to the east. No significant material was observed surrounding the anchors. Three anchors are remarkable for their northeast-southwest orientation. The location of anchors indicates that the bow of the ship lies on the northeastern side of the main assemblage, where anchors are typically stored. They were likely stowed on the deck or in a forward hold at the time the ship sank. Similar to anchors recovered from Shipwreck 1, these anchors exhibit similar characteristics to the anchors of the \u003cem\u003eMortella II\u003c/em\u003e shipwreck (Cazenave de la Roche and Ciacchella 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis paper presents the preliminary results of investigations of the newly discovered shipwrecks near the Eğri Liman, where the Oinousses naval battle took place in 1695. Two shipwrecks and their artefacts at the depths of 65 m were precisely located thanks to high-resolution acoustic imaging and photogrammetric mapping over robotic systems. Following underwater excavation effort was made to recover archaeological materials to obtain information about the identity of the ships. By correlating the recovered artifacts and historical documents, concrete data were obtained that confirmed the definitive identification of the wrecks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe most accurate information was provided by cannons. Five cannons recovered from different sections of two wrecks are very similar in their characteristics. Although different Venetian families manufactured them in different years, they all have a single reinforce; a St. Marko coat of arms holding a Gospel on the base of chase; initials of founder, and a date. However, further excavations may reveal different cannons. The cannons that were recovered have dates ranging from 1658 to 1690. The absence of further dating confirms that the ships sank during Oinousses battle in 1695. In addition, the cannon with the date 1658 indicates that it was utilised for 37 years, demonstrating the long lifespan of bronze cannons.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Venetian artillery, there was no differentiation between field usage and naval application; instead, the differences were primarily evident in the design of the carriage (Beltrame, Morin 2016:12). With the introduction of ships of the line in the 17th century, the number of artillery pieces on board increased. As a result, the size of the carriages changed, transitioning from two wheels to four on a smaller carriage (Beltrame and Morin 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVenetian weapons were distinguishable from others by the frequent absence of dolphins, i.e. handles, on huge bronze pieces. Pieces cast for the army and navy always feature a lion in various positions. Additionally, these weapons often display the founder's initials or full name, and sometimes even the casting date (Beltrame and Morin 2016). The weapons preserved in Italy, Malta, Israel, and Spain contribute to enriching the knowledge of bronze weapons production in the foundries of Venice that had already been outlined during the study of pieces from Turkey, Greece, and Croatia.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll cannons recovered from the Oinousses battlefield stand out the lion mark, indicating that they were produced for the Venetian Republic. The foundries from which these weapons are presumed to have originated were all situated around the Arsenal. Cannons marked with the lion symbol should have been cast in the foundries located inside Arsenal, from 1526 onwards, the only authorized space for this purpose (Beltrame and Morin 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeltrame and Scordato (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e: 68\u0026ndash;69, no.20) documented a total of five cannons attributed to the Mazzaroli family (Giovanni and Francesco). Therefore, CN4 holds significance considering the family's limited period of activity. It was only from the 1660s onwards that they began to replace and continue the work of the Conti family. Despite being relatively understudied, the Mazzaroli family produced high-quality weapons with artistic value and became known for casting bronze trebuchets. Their foundries were situated alongside those of the Alberghetti family, as evidenced by a 1754 map from the State Archives of Venice (Beltrame and Morin, 2016: 20). During the 16th and 17th centuries in Venice, only three families were involved in manufacturing: the Alberghetti, functioning from at least 1491 until the Republic\u0026rsquo;s collapse; the di Conti from 1460 to roughly 1650; and their 17th-century relatives, the Mazzaroli from 1620 to 1797, The initials of family members working in the same foundry include \u0026ldquo;A\u0026rdquo; (family Alberghetti), \u0026ldquo;S A\u0026rdquo; (Sigismondo Alberghetti), \u0026ldquo; Z A\u0026rdquo; (Zuanne Alberghetti), \u0026ldquo;N C\u0026rdquo; (Nicol\u0026ograve; di Conti), \u0026ldquo;T C\u0026rdquo; (Tomaso di Conti), and more (Morin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe battle of the Oinousses islands has been examined from both Ottoman (Raşid \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1865\u003c/span\u003e) and Venetian (\u003cem\u003eDell'acquisto e del ritiro dei Veneti dall'isola di Scio nell'anno MDCXCIV)\u003c/em\u003e archives sources and historical documents. All sources indicate that three Venetian ships (\u003cem\u003eStella Maris, Leon Coronato\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eDrago Volante\u003c/em\u003e) and two Ottoman galleys sank during the conflict. The correlation of the coat of arms, manufacturing details, and dates on the recovered cannons with the literature and archival research precisely confirms that both shipwrecks are attributed to the Venetian flagship \u003cem\u003eStella Maris\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLeon Coronato\u003c/em\u003e, which were sunk by the Ottoman fleet under the command of \u003cem\u003eMezemorta\u003c/em\u003e H\u0026uuml;seyin Paşa during the Battle of Oinousses islands in 1695. \u003cem\u003eStella Maris\u003c/em\u003e, 39 meters in length, launched in 1693, was armed with 70\u0026ndash;80 cannons, which were located on each side of the two main decks (Candiani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012b\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig18\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eLeon Coronato\u003c/em\u003e, armed with 66 cannons, was launched in 1691 (Candiani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Measuring 112 feet in length at the keel and 34 feet in width (38.9 x 11.8 m), it was one of the largest ships built up to that time. The ship's lengths are compatible with the dimensions of both wrecks in the sonar records.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile \u003cem\u003eStella Maris\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLeon Coronato\u003c/em\u003e were originally equipped with 70\u0026ndash;80 and 66 cannons respectively, the assemblage of Shipwreck 1 comprises only 39 cannons. The absence of additional artefacts may be explained by the possibility that the remaining cannons are buried in the sand or concealed beneath other overlying materials. Despite historical knowledge of salvage operations conducted on shipwrecks during the 17th century or subsequent periods, no evidence of such activities has been identified at either of the shipwreck sites. Furthermore, the ships' upper decks and rigging appear to have sustained substantial damage, presumably as a result of explosions during the engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on having Arabic characters, the cannons found on the Chios Island, signed by Carlo II Alberghetti, can be attributed to the battle of Oinousses islands. In February 1695, Commander Zeno decided to retreat to Morea with the fleet and therefore to immediately abandon the island. On that occasion 80 guns, including three mortars, defending the walls were left behind. The Ottomans then reoccupied the island. Beltrame and Morin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) suggest that the cannons were brought to Chios by Zeno's fleet, who subsequently chose to abandon them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe wheels for artillery field carriage documented in Shipwreck 1 may indicate that they were used for landing, most likely during land sieges. The presence of six guns stacked at the stern, surrounded by eight cannon field carriage wheels and a substantial stock of cannonballs, may also suggest preparations for land-based siege operations. However, it raises the question of why the cannon was not left on land on Chios Island, which had been captured by the Venetians long before the Oinousses battle. Furthermore, it is uncommon to come across land artillery positioned on a loaded ship during a naval battle. The high number of stone balls may also indicate that the Venetian fleet has prepared for long-period voyage, with the intention of using these armaments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong the most interesting findings are the bell-shaped copper cauldrons, which were recovered from both wrecks. Considering that a similar form was recovered from \u003cem\u003eGnalić\u003c/em\u003e wreck, it can be inferred that this represents standard Venetian ship carpenter's equipment utilised for prolonged repairs or both caulking and restoration purposes. Given the potential for damage during battle and the further need for repairs, the presence of such equipment is considered essential for warships. A further benefit of accurately identifying the shipwrecks is that it provides us with crucial information for the identification of other artefacts recovered from the shipwrecks. Therefore, we can attribute the Venetian origin to all other findings. This may also facilitate future studies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study also highlights the significant material losses experienced during the battle. With the sinking of all three ships, all their ammunition was lost in the deep waters. Apparently, no salvage operation was carried out and approximately 200 cannons and other ammunition were lost with these ships. Additionally, this dramatic event resulted in several casualties or injuries.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Oinousses battle is of great importance in terms of its naval tactics and their consequences for both sides. Based on Venetian sources, Candiani (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) stated that the Ottoman navy developed a new sailing battle fleet in the 1650s, following by shifting from oared ships to sailing vessels, reflecting a modern approach to warfare. Following Sultan II. S\u0026uuml;leyman\u0026rsquo;s and \u003cem\u003eMezemorta\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/em\u003e naval reforms, Ottomans re-emerged as a significant maritime power.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is evident that the use of ships of the line, which constituted the foundation of the Ottoman navy during this period, resulted in success. As for Venice, the Ottoman recapture of the recently occupied Chios Island significantly lowered Republic's prestige and marked the end of fifty years of naval dominance. With this defeat, the superiority of oared ships was questioned, and the line tactics of sailing ships were adopted in the Levant (Candiani \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012a\u003c/span\u003e). The adoption of ships of the line influenced the galleys, which remained less visible but useful for other important tasks at least until the first decades of the 19th century.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost Venetian sources regard Zeno's mediocre leadership as a factor that prevented a potentially decisive victory against the Ottomans. According to Soucek (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), if the Venetians capitalised the opportunity and attacked the Ottomans, they could have achieved a significant victory, potentially eliminating \u003cem\u003eMezemorta\u003c/em\u003e and subsequently keeping control of Chios for a long period. When we consider all of these aspects, it becomes evident how crucial the strategies of commanders and operations are in the victory of a battle, in addition to factors such as fleet modernisation, numerical superiority, ammunition abundance, and discipline.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Oinousses battle is not the only conflict that occurred on Chios Island from which we might derive insights. Throughout history, Chios Strait has witnessed numerous naval wars. In addition to several conflicts between Venetian and Ottoman fleets, the Battle of \u0026Ccedil;eşme (1770), where the Russians defeated the Ottomans and the Ottoman navy suffered significant losses, also occurred in this vicinity. Consequently, due to its strategic importance, the Chios Strait emerged as the most challenging location in Mediterranean naval history. When considered together with concrete field data and archive documents, this makes the region a hub for naval battlefield archaeology, which deserves particular attention.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFuture Efforts\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe locations of two wrecks have been identified, and the visible artefacts have been documented. However, it is acknowledged that one additional Venetian ship and two Ottoman ships also sank during the Battle of Oinousses islands. Several potential sites were located during the side-scan sonar mapping effort. Further survey will focus on ensuring the locations of these lost wrecks by conducting a visual inppection and a very high-resolution sonar survey. Simultaneously, an effort will be made to access additional archival documents from Venetian and Ottoman resources. Then, the locations of the lost shipwrecks may be determined, and the ship\u0026rsquo;s designs may be revealed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe SHIPT team is also currently working on these two shipwrecks to recover the artifacts. Removed artifacts then will be transported to the museum and exhibited in a special section.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile these studies are ongoing, a connection was established with T\u0026uuml;rkiye\u0026rsquo;s Ministry of Culture and Tourism was informed for the protection of the wreck sites and then monitoring was provided with the Coast Guard. The preservation of this unique underwater cultural heritage site, which has never undergone a salvage operation and has therefore remained well-preserved, was thus ensured.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has provided concrete evidence regarding the Battle of Oinousses islands for the first time, which was previously only known from archival sources. High-resolution documentation and underwater rescue excavation produced substantial data on the identity of newly discovered shipwrecks. The precise matching of archival sources and material-based data uncovered missing details of this 17th-century naval battle, which has led to revolutionised military strategies and warships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research is distinguished by a significant difference from prior underwater archaeological studies: the newly discovered shipwrecks were clearly dated and identified as they were well-recorded in archival documents. While dating and identification are generally the subject of extensive arguments, this article provides concrete evidence for the warships of the time through artefacts recovered from shipwrecks, whose identities are well established. Furthermore, the rescue excavations at the wreck sites have been characterized as the deepest and most comprehensive scientific archaeological underwater excavation ever conducted within Turkish territorial waters.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSome major naval battles in the Mediterranean were discussed concerning naval engagements, tactics, and the political context of these conflicts. This study uncovered the historical significance of this battlefield, encompassing its cultural heritage and role in enhancing our comprehension of warships from the 17th century. This vulnerable battlefield requires proper attention in term of underwater cultural heritage, necessitating a careful approach to its protection.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth authors contributed equally to the fieldwork, prepared all figures, and wrote the main manuscript text.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was carried out as a part of the SHIPT project, which was supported by the Republic of T\u0026uuml;rkiye\u0026rsquo;s Presidency of Strategy and Budget (Project no. 2014H040080). Permission for the survey and rescue excavation was granted by the Republic of T\u0026uuml;rkiye\u0026rsquo;s Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The author would like to give special thanks to T\u0026uuml;rkiye\u0026rsquo;s Ministry of National Defence-Turkish Naval Forces Command, especially Admiral Adnan \u0026Ouml;zbal, Commander of Turkish Naval Forces, and 1st class divers from Underwater Search and Rescue Group Command for their support during the excavation. The author also would like to express gratitude to Directory of Bodrum Underwater Archaeology Museum for supporting, to Sel\u0026ccedil;uk Kolay for reporting the location of the shipwrecks; to Savaş Karakaş to produce the documentary of the fieldwork, to the SHIPT team members who helped with data collection; and, to the crew of TCG Alemdar, R/V K. Piri Reis and STS Bodrum for their contributions during fieldwork.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnderson RC (1952) Naval Wars in the Levant 1559\u0026ndash;1853. 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Seafort Publishing, Barnsley\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ewww.daten.\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003edigitale-sammlungen.de\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://digitale-sammlungen.de\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-maritime-archaeology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jmar","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Maritime Archaeology](http://link.springer.com/journal/11457)","snPcode":"11457","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11457/3","title":"Journal of Maritime Archaeology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Oinousses Naval Battle, Koyun Adaları, Ottoman-Venetian Wars, 17th-Century shipwreck, Naval Battlefield Archaeology, Historical Archaeology","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7672051/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7672051/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDuring the underwater archaeological survey as a part of the SHIPT Project, two shipwreck sites were discovered off the western coast of Turkey in 2019. Following short-term excavations and archival research uncovered that these remains were from ships sunk during the naval battle between the Ottoman and Venetian forces at Oinousses island (Koyun Adaları in Turkish) in 1695. High-resolution documentation and excavation provided the first concrete evidence on this little-known naval battle. By examining the remains in both archaeological and historical perspectives, this paper offers insights into the technology, strategy, and political dynamics during the 17th century AD. Oinousses naval battlefield is one of the rare underwater cultural heritage sites that has remained untouched. Therefore, it has significant archeological value as it contains the only surviving remains of a 17th-century warship within the Turkish territorial waters. This site holds considerable importance not only for its historical and archaeological relevance but also as a grave of war.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Archaeological Evidence from the Naval Battle of the Oinousses Islands: 17th-Century Venetian Shipwrecks","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-09 18:31:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7672051/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-21T12:59:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-19T12:26:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-12T15:38:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"118730667880320522538527317408363811882","date":"2025-10-01T12:57:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-29T05:50:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"221447088010323785942428483162956784038","date":"2025-09-26T06:40:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"132198966011385101810921820965465080841","date":"2025-09-25T23:03:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-25T14:41:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-22T13:51:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-22T13:51:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Maritime Archaeology","date":"2025-09-22T09:25:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-maritime-archaeology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jmar","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Maritime Archaeology](http://link.springer.com/journal/11457)","snPcode":"11457","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11457/3","title":"Journal of Maritime Archaeology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f9dbf625-2987-407f-95fd-9aa07d64a923","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-09T16:03:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7672051","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-026-09496-4","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-maritime-archaeology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Maritime Archaeology"},"publishedOn":"2026-02-05 15:57:23","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 5th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-09 18:31:14","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11457-026-09496-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-026-09496-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7672051","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7672051","identity":"rs-7672051","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}