Legal Reform and Digital Citizenship: A Comparative Study of Cyberbullying Laws in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan

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The phenomenon of cyberbullying is increasing in these three countries, becoming a serious challenge in the context of mental health and the protection of citizens in the digital age. Methods This research employs a methodological approach that combines juridical normative analysis with analytical and comparative research. It analyzes the laws of each country, starting from the Electronic Information and Transactions Law (ITE Law) in Indonesia, the Network Act in South Korea, and the Japanese Penal Code. Results The results of the study show that South Korea has the most comprehensive regulatory framework, encompassing both penal and non-penal approaches. At the same time, Japan excels in enforcing flexibility and protecting victims, even though it does not yet have a special constitution. On the other hand, Indonesia still faces weaknesses in its legal framework, as there is no explicit definition, and reactive approaches are still emerging. Conclusions Research highlights the importance of adaptive legal reform in dynamic technological environments and recommends integrating digital citizenship into national curricula to prevent cyberbullying. Implementing the nine elements of digital citizenship, according to Ribble, involves being a framework-relevant work in the form of ethical and responsible digital citizens who are aware of the law. 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F1000Research 2026, 15 :264 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.174333.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Research Article Legal Reform and Digital Citizenship: A Comparative Study of Cyberbullying Laws in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] Aprilianata Aprilianata https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2202-0852 1 , Octavia Wulandari https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2057-6004 1 , Mike Meida Diningrum https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2327-9190 1 , [...] Siska Yulia Putri https://orcid.org/0009-0005-9366-0597 1 , Rani Lestari https://orcid.org/0009-0002-8167-7875 2 , Stanislaus Jebarus https://orcid.org/0009-0003-9024-2555 1 , Maria Antoneta Karbeka https://orcid.org/0009-0002-3609-6625 1 , Mukhamad Murdiono 1 Aprilianata Aprilianata https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2202-0852 1 , Octavia Wulandari https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2057-6004 1 , [...] Mike Meida Diningrum https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2327-9190 1 , Siska Yulia Putri https://orcid.org/0009-0005-9366-0597 1 , Rani Lestari https://orcid.org/0009-0002-8167-7875 2 , Stanislaus Jebarus https://orcid.org/0009-0003-9024-2555 1 , Maria Antoneta Karbeka https://orcid.org/0009-0002-3609-6625 1 , Mukhamad Murdiono 1 PUBLISHED 14 Feb 2026 Author details Author details 1 Civic Education, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Special Region of Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia 2 Law, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Special Region of Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia Aprilianata Aprilianata Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Octavia Wulandari Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Mike Meida Diningrum Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology Siska Yulia Putri Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation Rani Lestari Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Stanislaus Jebarus Roles: Conceptualization, Visualization Maria Antoneta Karbeka Roles: Funding Acquisition, Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing Mukhamad Murdiono Roles: Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW DETAILS REVIEWER STATUS Abstract Abstract* Background The purpose of this research is to compare regulations related to cyberbullying in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan, and to explore digital citizenship as a long-term preventive measure. The phenomenon of cyberbullying is increasing in these three countries, becoming a serious challenge in the context of mental health and the protection of citizens in the digital age. Methods This research employs a methodological approach that combines juridical normative analysis with analytical and comparative research. It analyzes the laws of each country, starting from the Electronic Information and Transactions Law (ITE Law) in Indonesia, the Network Act in South Korea, and the Japanese Penal Code. Results The results of the study show that South Korea has the most comprehensive regulatory framework, encompassing both penal and non-penal approaches. At the same time, Japan excels in enforcing flexibility and protecting victims, even though it does not yet have a special constitution. On the other hand, Indonesia still faces weaknesses in its legal framework, as there is no explicit definition, and reactive approaches are still emerging. Conclusions Research highlights the importance of adaptive legal reform in dynamic technological environments and recommends integrating digital citizenship into national curricula to prevent cyberbullying. Implementing the nine elements of digital citizenship, according to Ribble, involves being a framework-relevant work in the form of ethical and responsible digital citizens who are aware of the law. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Cyberbullying, digital citizenship, legal regulations, Indonesia, Japan, ITE Law, preventive measures, South Korea Corresponding Author(s) Aprilianata Aprilianata ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding author: Aprilianata Aprilianata Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: This research was supported by scholarships awarded by the Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) for master's degree (S2) students. The following LPDP grant numbers were awarded to the researchers: 1. NIB 202407111205428 (Aprilianata) 2. NIB 202411111207230 (Octavia Wulandari) 3. NIB: 202407111205441 (Mike Meida Diningrum) 4. NIB: 2025061139802763 (Siska Yulia Putri) 5. NIB: 2025061134002574 (Rani Lestari) 6. NIB: 202407111205537 (Stanislaus Jebarus) 7. NIB: 2025061139803003 (Maria Antoneta Karbeka) The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Copyright: © 2026 Aprilianata A et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Aprilianata A, Wulandari O, Meida Diningrum M et al. Legal Reform and Digital Citizenship: A Comparative Study of Cyberbullying Laws in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :264 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.174333.1 ) First published: 14 Feb 2026, 15 :264 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.174333.1 ) Latest published: 14 Feb 2026, 15 :264 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.174333.1 ) Introduction Asia, as the region experiencing the fastest digital growth in the world, is faced with a serious problem related to cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is defined as deliberate and repeated bullying carried out via mobile phones and the internet, against someone who cannot easily defend themselves ( Zhang et al., 2022 ). Cyberbullying usually occurs on Facebook, Twitter, gaming sites, by phone, through text messages, and via email ( Marinoni et al., 2024 ; Van Hee et al., 2018 ). The results of the 2021 Korean National Cyber Violence Survey showed that 23.6% of Korean teenagers were victims of cyberviolence, much higher than the 13.0% of adults, with a total of 22.9% of victims in junior high school, and 20.1% in high school ( KCC & NIA, 2022 ). Developed countries in the Asian region, such as Japan, have not avoided the problem of cyberbullying. Cyberbullying cases in Japan often affect workers, with 8% of employees experiencing cyberbullying weekly ( Ikeda et al., 2022 ). Meanwhile, in Indonesia, the prevalence of cyberbullying victims reaches 80% ( Hong et al., 2023 ). A study in six regions in Indonesia, namely Aceh, Medan, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Makassar, and Papua, involving 1,452 high school students, showed a prevalence of 69.64% experiencing cyberbullying on social media ( Efianingrum et al., 2021 ). This data indicates that cyberbullying has become a serious mental health and social problem in the Asian region. The increasing number of cyberbullying cases has led various countries to implement legal reforms to protect citizens from the detrimental effects of cybercrime ( Espelage & Hong, 2017 ). The importance of legal reform lies not only in law enforcement, but also in prevention efforts through an educational approach that encourages digital citizenship, defined as the ability of citizens to act responsibly, ethically, and legally in the digital realm ( Marinho & Carneiro, 2018 ; Baidoo et al., 2025 ). Yuniawati et al.'s study (2025) highlights the effectiveness of the digital citizenship approach in reducing cyberbullying behavior in secondary schools through psychoeducation, educational games, and digital campaign materials in Korea and Japan is strengthened through a combination of law and public education through national campaigns, detection technology, and multi-stakeholder collaboration ( Nee et al., 2023 ). Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan have responded differently to the challenges of cyberbullying through existing legal regulations. Cyberbullying regulations in Indonesia are contained in the Electronic Information and Transactions Law ( Sitihastuti & Solikhah, 2024 ). South Korea responded to cyberbullying with the Act on Promotion of Information and Communications Network Utilization and Information Protection, also known as the Network Act ( Lim & Lee, 2025 ). Japan, which initially lacked specific regulations for cyberbullying, subsequently revised its Penal Code ( Takano et al., 2024 ). All three countries have implemented regulations governing cyberbullying, but effective implementation remains a challenge. The ITE Law often sparks controversy due to its multiple interpretations ( Dikrurahman & Putra, 2024 ). Furthermore, legal officials' understanding remains limited, resulting in inconsistent implementation ( Rovida & Sasmini, 2024 ). A comparative study by Silvyana et al. (2024) concluded that, although regulations are more inclusive and implemented more systematically than in Indonesia, South Korea still faces challenges in consistent enforcement and accessibility for general victims under the Network Act. concluded that, although regulations are more inclusive and implemented more systematically than in Indonesia, South Korea still faces challenges in consistent enforcement and accessibility for general victims under the Network Act ( Yamamoto, 2022 ). Given the various cyberbullying phenomena in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan, cross-country comparative studies are important for identifying best practices and weaknesses in their regulatory frameworks. Research conducted by Silvyana et al. (2024) ; Ramadhani (2022) ; Nuha (2024) found that South Korea has more specific and proactive regulations, such as the Network Act and the Act on the Prevention of and Countermeasures Against Violence in School. In contrast, Indonesia is still limited to the ITE Law. There are no specific regulations on cyberbullying in schools ( Putra, 2024 ). A comparative study of Indonesia and Japan shows that the differences in criminal regulations: Japan has a special amendment regarding cyberbullying, while Indonesia uses the ITE Law to regulate cyberbullying ( Coutinho et al., 2025 ). However, in criminal responsibility for perpetrators of cyberbullying, Indonesia provides heavier sanctions ( Anjani, 2025 ). To date, there has been no comprehensive study systematically comparing the legal regulations and approaches to strengthening digital citizenship across three countries. This research offers a comparative, systematic cross-national study encompassing Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan, using a normative legal approach and bridging the gap between regulation and digital education. Therefore, this research aims to compare legal regulations on cyberbullying in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan, and to identify best practices for digital citizenship to help overcome cyberbullying and improve policies in each country. Research method Methods This study uses a normative juridical method with a legislative and comparative approach. This method was chosen to examine and compare legal regulations on cyberbullying across three countries: Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan. The legislative approach examines the positive legal norms applicable in each country, particularly those that regulate the protection of victims of bullying in the digital space. Meanwhile, the comparative approach is used to examine the substance of the law, enforcement mechanisms, and the effectiveness of regulations across countries, to identify best practices that can be adapted to the Indonesian legal context. This study uses legal data in the form of primary and secondary legal materials. Primary legal materials comprise national legislation regulating cyberbullying, including laws, government regulations, and official policies, in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan. Secondary legal materials include academic literature, scientific journals, and legal publications relevant to cyberbullying and legal protection. All legal materials are analyzed qualitatively, using a systematic and grammatical approach, to reveal the structure, substance, and legal implications of each regulation. The analysis was conducted to answer the main research question: How are legal rules on cyberbullying implemented in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan, and to what extent are they effective in providing legal protection for victims? This methodology was chosen because it enables an in-depth examination of various legal systems and provides a solid foundation for recommending legal reforms in Indonesia, drawing on effective practices from other countries. Results Comparison of cyberbullying legal regulations in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan Each country's historical background plays an important role in shaping its current legal system. Indonesia adopted a legal system influenced by colonial experiences and the process of legal modernization. Indonesia inherited the Dutch legal system, which emphasizes codification and legal formalities ( Juwana, 2014 ). Indonesia has undertaken significant legal reforms to modernize its legal framework while preserving its nationality ( Setyowati & Toengkagie, 2009 ). This reform included modifications to laws, regulations, policies, legal institutions, and judicial procedures. At the same time, Japan adopted a unique blend of influences from the European Continental, Anglo-American, and indigenous Japanese traditions. This hybrid structure reflects Japan's historical and cultural evolution, particularly its post-World War II reconstruction. Meanwhile, South Korea's legal system is heavily influenced by European continental law, particularly German law, through Japan, which colonized Korea from 1910 to 1945 ( Youm, 2013 ). South Korea's legal framework is based on the 1987 Constitution, which establishes Korea as a democratic republic with three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. Indonesia and Japan tend to maintain the Criminal Code as the main instrument for enforcing laws against cyberbullying. This is because neither Indonesia nor Japan has specific laws that directly address cyberbullying. However, Indonesia faces challenges because the absence of specific laws targeting cyberbullying poses challenges in enforcement and protection ( Putra, 2024 ; Wahanisa et al., 2021 ; Chun et al., 2023 ). Conversely, South Korea has undergone legal transformation following high internet penetration, which has reached almost the entire population due to the high risk of cyberbullying in South Korea. The Korean War has thus resulted in a more progressive and adaptive approach to contemporary issues, including cyberbullying. The regulations implemented in South Korea reflect the response to post-war social dynamics and rapid industrialization, as well as a commitment to protecting children and adolescents in the digital age. Intense social pressure, especially among teenagers and celebrities, regarding academic achievement and physical appearance, exacerbates the situation of cyberbullying. Cyberbullying in Korea initially focused on verbal and sexual forms, but recent amendments have included issues of exclusion and extortion, reflecting a broader understanding of the impact of cyberbullying ( Chun et al., 2023 ). Legally, there are fundamental differences in the structure of regulations governing cyberbullying in the three countries. Indonesia relies on Law No. 1 of 2024 on Electronic Information and Transactions (ITE) and the Criminal Code as its legal basis. However, it does not yet have an explicit definition of cyberbullying and still relies on complaint-based offenses. Japan uses the Penal Code of Japan to prosecute perpetrators, with a more flexible approach to law enforcement. South Korea has its regulations through the Act on Promotion of Information and Communications Network Utilization and Information Protection and the Act on Prevention of and Countermeasures Against Violence in Schools, which comprehensively cover both penal and non-penal approaches. Harmonization with international law is also more evident in South Korea, which actively adopts principles from global conventions such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime. In contrast, Indonesia and Japan still show limitations in this integration. A comparison of cyberbullying policies in Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea reveals significant differences in legal approaches and socialization strategies. Indonesia uses the Electronic Information and Transaction Law (ITE Law) as the main framework for regulating various aspects of cyberbullying. Its implementation faces challenges and hinders effective handling of cyberbullying cases due to low digital literacy, exacerbating the situation ( Hinduja & Pathin, 2018 ). Japan emphasizes victim protection and prevention, reflecting a restorative, public-welfare-oriented legal philosophy. South Korea emphasizes intensive socialization campaigns in educational institutions and communities to raise awareness about the harmful effects of cyberbullying. Socialization programs in South Korea aim to encourage more responsible online behavior and build moral awareness about the serious consequences of cyberbullying. Combining the values of justice and social responsibility, with a legal approach that balances law enforcement and education. Indonesia, with its focus on prevention and severe criminal penalties, demonstrates a legal orientation that is still predominantly repressive, but does not yet fully accommodate the principles of victim protection and rehabilitation. Table 1 shows that South Korea has the most comprehensive regulatory coverage, covering seven of the eight forms of cyberbullying identified globally, as well as sanctions that reflect the country's seriousness in addressing digital crimes. Although it lacks specific legislation, Japan demonstrates effectiveness through rapid law enforcement and strong victim protection. Meanwhile, Indonesia still faces challenges in terms of legal definitions, regulatory coverage, and implementation effectiveness. This includes the need for more technical regulations to address cybercrimes committed outside Indonesia ( Irawan et al., 2025 ). The reliance on complaint-based violations and the absence of obligations for digital platforms to remove harmful content are significant obstacles in protecting victims. Interpretation of this data shows that the effectiveness of regulations is determined not only by the existence of specific laws but also by the structure of law enforcement, institutional participation, and public awareness. Table 1. Comparison of cyberbullying in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan. Country Regulation Sanctions Excess Lack Indonesia Law Number 1 of 2024 concerning Electronic Information and Transactions and the Criminal Code. Defamation carries a maximum penalty of four years in prison and a fine of 750 million rupiah. Hate speech based on ethnicity, religion, race, and intergroup relations carries the maximum penalty of six years in prison or a fine of 1 billion rupiah. Bringing change by clarifying the definition and sanctions related to actions that can be categorized as cyberbullying, as well as adding a new article that regulates the threat of defamation. 1. There is no specific law that explicitly regulates cyberbullying. 2. Most violations in the ITE Law are complaint-based offenses, which means the victim must report first so that the case can be processed. 3. There are no rules requiring platforms to immediately remove harmful content. 4. There are no rules yet requiring platforms to remove harmful content. 5. The perpetrator's personal data can only be accessed by law enforcement officers, so the victim must go through a longer legal process. 6. Regulations on cyberbullying crimes in Indonesia only contain criminal threats in the form of penalties, non-penal sanctions are not regulated in separate regulations. 7. The lack of definition of cyberbullying. 8. The scope of cyberbullying criteria in Indonesia only includes 3 criteria, namely harassment, denigration, cyberstalking, outing, impersonation. South Korea 1. Act on promotion of information and communications network utilization and information protection. 2. Act on prevention of and countermeasures against violence in schools. The maximum prison term is 10 years and the minimum is 1 year, while the maximum fine is 70 million won and the minimum is 10 million won. 1. Legal regulations in South Korea regarding cyberbullying have been specifically regulated separately in a law. 2. The criminal sanctions given to perpetrators of cyberbullying in South Korea have been regulated in both penal and non-penal forms. 1. There are no sanctions for elements of actions that cause hostility between groups. 2. The scope of the cyberbullying legal regulation criteria in Korea has covered 7 of the 8 cyberbullying criteria, namely flaming, harassment, denigration, impersonation, outing, trickery, cyberstalking. Japan Penal Code of Japan or Japanese Criminal Code (刑法 keihō) Law No. 45 of 1907 One year imprisonment or a fine of 300,000 yen 1. The Japanese legal system makes it easier for victims to get protection and fast handling of cyberbullying cases. 2. Police can act without having to wait for the victim's report, and harmful content can be removed quickly. 3. Japan focuses on prevention and protection of victims. There is no specific law that explicitly regulates cyberbullying, but the Criminal Code is used to prosecute perpetrators. In the current social and political context, South Korea has successfully built a safe digital ecosystem through a collaborative effort among the government, schools, and digital platforms. Japan relies on bureaucratic efficiency and rapid response from law enforcement agencies, while Indonesia still needs more intensive structural reforms and public education. Japan prioritizes victim protection. The police can act without waiting for reports, removing harmful content immediately. This reflects Japan's more restorative and preventive legal philosophy. South Korea combines penal and non-penal approaches in a balanced manner, reflecting a progressive legal philosophy responsive to digital dynamics. This country has developed various preventive measures and interventions for cyberbullying and other internet-related issues, similar to Japan ( Toda & Oh, 2020 ). Meanwhile, Indonesia still focuses on deterrence through heavy criminal sanctions but has not yet developed a systematic preventive approach or adequate victim protection. Discussion Legal regulations in Indonesia The phenomenon of cyberbullying in Indonesia has become an increasingly complex social issue as internet and social media usage continue to rise. Historically, the term cyberbullying began to gain widespread recognition in Indonesia in the early 2010s, coinciding with the increasing use of smartphones and social media among teenagers. As one of the countries with the most significant number of internet users in the world, Indonesia faces serious challenges related to cyberbullying or online harassment. This phenomenon includes actions such as harassment, threats, insults, or the unauthorized dissemination of personal information through digital platforms, which have a detrimental impact on mental health, particularly among teenagers. According to a 2019 UNICEF survey, out of 2,777 Indonesian youth aged 14-24, 45% of respondents had experienced online bullying, with a higher reporting rate among boys (49%) than girls (41%). The most common types of bullying, according to 1,207 respondents, were harassment through chat applications (45%), the dissemination of personal photos or videos without permission (41%), and other forms of harassment (14%). To address and prevent the threat of cyberbullying, Indonesia does not have specific laws regulating potential threats. However, developments in regulations regarding cyberbullying are governed by the Law on Information and Electronic Transactions (ITE Law), which has undergone several amendments. Cyberbullying incidents are often not prosecuted legally due to the lack of clear definitions and boundaries in the regulations, as there are no specific regulations in place. Regulations regarding social media are governed by Law No. 11 of 2008 on Information and Electronic Transactions, which has undergone three amendments: Law No. 11 of 2008 on Information and Electronic Transactions (first amendment), Law No. 19 of 2016 on Information and Electronic Transactions (second amendment), and Law No. 1 of 2024 on Information and Electronic Transactions (third amendment). The Law on Information and Electronic Transactions applies to anyone who engages in legal acts as regulated by this law, whether they are within or outside the legal jurisdiction of Indonesia. Law No. 1 of 2024 on Electronic Information and Transactions regulates cyberbullying in Article 27A, Article 27B paragraph (2), and Article 29. These amendments reflect the evolution of legal understanding of social dynamics in the digital space, as well as the state's response to demands for the protection of individual rights in the technological era. According to Article 27A, a perpetrator of cyberbullying is any person who intentionally attacks the honor or reputation of another person by making an accusation, with the intent for such accusation to be made public in the form of electronic information and/or electronic documents transmitted through an electronic system. Article 29 states that a perpetrator of cyberbullying is any person who intentionally and without authorization sends electronic information and/or electronic documents directly to the victim, where such information and/or documents contain threats of violence and/or intimidation. If we look closely, these three articles can be categorized as formal offenses, which are indeed very different from the criminal acts contained therein, because cyberbullying is a material criminal act. A material offense is an offense that is only considered complete when there are consequences resulting from the criminal act that has been committed. The existence of the 2024 ITE Law brings changes that clarify the definitions and penalties related to actions. The position of the ITE Law is lex spesialis of the Criminal Code as lex generalis, which makes the articles in the 2024 ITE Law inseparable from the basic legal norms contained in Article 310 of the Criminal Code, where cyberbullying is a complaint offense, namely, the victim of cyberbullying must file a complaint/report of the bullying experienced in order for it to be processed legally as a complaint-based offense. Philosophically, the regulation of cyberbullying reflects the state's efforts to uphold human dignity, the right to privacy, and the psychological well-being of citizens in the digital age. From a legal perspective, protection against online bullying is rooted in the principles of social justice and the protection of human rights as enshrined in the 1945 Constitution, particularly Article 28G (1), which states that every person has the right to protection of their self, family, honor, dignity, and property. In the context of social ethics, cyberbullying contradicts the values of cooperation, tolerance, and empathy that are part of Indonesia's cultural identity. The state has a responsibility to create a safe and humane digital ecosystem where every individual can participate without fear or threat. Legal regulations on cyberbullying in Japan Cyberbullying in Japan has begun to receive serious attention with the rise in social media use, especially among teenagers. Japan is one of the countries where cyberbullying is prevalent. Reports on the prevalence of cyberbullying in Japan among 899 high school students, 225 had experienced cyber victimization, while 7.8% admitted to having cyberbullied others. Furthermore, those who engaged in cyberbullying did so for reasons such as: 1) 45% for fun, 2) 38.6% because they hated the victim, 3) 14.3% because they had been bullied before, 4) 10% because they followed their friends, 5) 1.4% because their friends ordered them, and 6) 14.3% for other reasons. In some cases, cyberbullying occurs on social media platforms such as Twitter. Twitter is one of the most widely used social media platforms in Japan. Twitter is used as a medium for casual daily conversations, user interactions, and information sharing (Weller, Bruns, Burgess, Mahrt, and Puschmann, 2014). However, many users exploit Twitter as a platform for engaging in unpleasant activities, including cyberbullying. One tragic case of cyberbullying in Japan involved Hana Kimura, a 22-year-old professional wrestler who took her own life due to psychological pressure stemming from cyberbullying on social media ( Alfaia et al., 2022 ). Under Japanese law, cyberbullying is not explicitly regulated by articles; however, acts such as defamation, libel, or online threats can be prosecuted under the Penal Code of Japan (Keihō). Japan has adopted a three-stage model (Sandankai Kōzō) consisting of unlawful acts, fault, and capacity for responsibility as a theoretical framework for evaluating criminal liability, including in cases of cyberbullying. This approach encourages courts to conduct a holistic analysis that considers the moral, social, and psychological dimensions of the perpetrator ( Salah, 2017 ). Unlawful acts include actions such as disseminating defamatory or unlawful content, including the dissemination of defamatory or slanderous content through digital platforms that explicitly violate the legal norms of the Penal Code of Japan (Keihō). The concept of fault distinguishes between direct intent and conditional intent, as well as ordinary negligence and gross negligence, providing flexibility in assessing the level of intent and awareness of the perpetrator. Meanwhile, the evaluation of capacity for responsibility, particularly through Article 39 of the Keihō, encourages medical and normative assessments of perpetrators and mental disorders (shinsin sōshitsu), with the option of rehabilitation as an alternative to criminal punishment. Unlike the Indonesian criminal law approach, which emphasizes the objective elements of the act through the Information and Electronic Transactions Law (UU ITE), the Sandankai Kōzō model offers a more contextual and substantively just approach. Although Japan does not yet have specific legislation on cyberbullying, the application of articles in the Keihō demonstrates the adaptability of the criminal justice system in dealing with technology-based crimes. Article 222 regulates threats with a maximum penalty of two years' imprisonment or a fine of up to 500,000 yen. Article 230 addresses defamation, with penalties of up to 3 years' imprisonment or a fine of up to 500,000 yen, and Article 231 addresses insult, with fines of up to 10,000 yen or detention for up to 30 days. Furthermore, the 2021 amendment, which imposes harsher penalties for online defamation, including imprisonment of up to 1 year or a fine of up to 300,000 yen, reflects a proactive response to the increasing prevalence of cyberbullying ( Fukurai & Miyazawa, 2018 ). This approach promotes effective law enforcement without requiring special legislation, which is often delayed due to the dynamic nature of digital technology. This contrasts with Indonesia, where the ITE Law regulates similar actions through Article 27(3) on online defamation, but its implementation tends to be rigid and dependent on victim complaints. This can hinder swift responses to cyberbullying cases. Japan's flexibility in utilizing existing legal frameworks demonstrates its advantage in addressing modern crimes without requiring extensive legislative reforms. One aspect that distinguishes the Japanese legal system is its rehabilitative approach, particularly in dealing with juvenile offenders and individuals with mental disorders. According to Shōnen Hō, children under 14 cannot be criminally charged; instead, they are referred to rehabilitation programs focused on guidance and prevention (Tegih, 2010). These programs are designed to address the root causes of behavioral issues through education, counseling, and social support, thereby reducing the risk of recidivism. Additionally, the Act on Medical Care and Treatment (2005) provides specialized care mechanisms for offenders with mental disorders, subject to strict medical evaluations by Article 39 of the Keihō. This approach reflects a legal paradigm that not only aims to impose sanctions but also facilitates the reintegration of offenders into society. In contrast, Indonesia's juvenile justice system, based on Law No. 11 of 2012, tends to be limited to light sanctions or diversion, without adequate rehabilitation infrastructure. The lack of focus on the psychological evaluation of offenders in Indonesia can hinder the effective handling of cyberbullying cases involving children or individuals with mental health conditions. Japan's law enforcement system stands out for its efficiency, particularly through the police's proactive approach, which avoids waiting for victims' reports. Cooperation between legal authorities and digital platform providers facilitates the swift removal of harmful content, thereby minimizing the psychological and social impact on victims ( Fukurai & Miyazawa, 2018 ). This approach differs significantly from Indonesia, where law enforcement is often hindered by the need for formal complaints and lengthy bureaucratic processes, thereby prolonging the victim's suffering. Additionally, Japan's evaluation of perpetrators' capacity for responsibility, which includes medical and normative assessments of their mental condition, offers a more detailed approach compared to the general standards applied in Indonesia. This mechanism ensures that penalties or interventions are commensurate with the perpetrator's level of responsibility, thereby enhancing procedural and substantive justice. The Japanese legal philosophy in addressing cyberbullying is grounded in the principles of substantive justice, social restoration, and the protection of human dignity. The rehabilitative approach is particularly prominent, especially in dealing with child perpetrators and individuals with mental disorders. Under the Juvenile Law, children under 14 are not subject to criminal penalties; instead, they are directed toward rehabilitation programs and counseling. Additionally, the Act on Medical Care and Treatment for Persons with Mental Disorders (2005) provides mechanisms for medical evaluation and treatment for offenders with mental disorders by Article 39 of the Keihō. This approach demonstrates that Japanese law aims not only to punish but also to rehabilitate and reintegrate offenders into society. Proactive and collaborative law enforcement between authorities and digital platforms accelerates the removal of harmful content, minimizes the psychological impact on victims, and reflects a legal philosophy oriented toward social welfare and the protection of human rights. Regulations in South Korea South Korea is one of the leading countries in materials technology. This country, South Korea, has the world's fastest internet connection, with an average speed of 105.62 Mbps. This incredible speed, far exceeding the average in many other countries, makes South Korea a digital world pioneer ( Song & Seo, 2024 ). South Korea's rapid digital development is faced with serious problems related to cyberbullying. South Korea is one of the Asian countries with the highest internet speeds. problem worrying about cyberbullying ( Lee et al., 2021 ). Heavy use of social media, fast internet connection, and pressure from big social media in public become reasons for the rise of cyberbullying, especially among teenagers and celebrities ( Jeong & Park, 2024 ). The discrimination that occurs among South Korean youth is based on various factors. Factors such as gender, academic achievement, appearance, and economic status ( Lee & Yi, 2022 ). In LPA (Latent Profile Analysis), it was proven that factors such as appearance, educational background, and social status often overlap (intersectionality). Lee et al. (2017) In his research on adolescents, he demonstrated a link between appearance (lookism) and discrimination in Korea. Weinstein (2021) emphasized that adolescents who experience discrimination in the form of online and offline bullying experience a loss. The negative impact of bullying is also a risk factor for suicidal ideation, which is common in South Korea ( Assari et al., 2017 ; Kim & Ko, 2021 ). According to 2020 South Korean Statistics data, the number of adolescent deaths caused by discrimination and bullying reached 41.1%. This means that suicide risk factors are positively associated with cyberbullying ( Lee et al., 2021 ). The tragedy of cyberbullying cases in South Korea that led to suicide can be seen in the death of Sulli, a K-Pop idol who hanged herself in her home. Sulli was found by her manager on Monday, October 14, 2019, at 3:21 PM local time. Sulli experienced stress due to insults from the public and netizens. Many negative comments flooded Sulli's social media, which had an impact on psychological stress and ended in suicide ( Khasanah, 2019 ; Park & Kim, 2021 ). This problem was also emphasized by Park (2025) that bullying victimization influences suicidal ideation indirectly, through the mediation of anxiety or depression. Not long after Sulli's case, the extraordinary impact of cyberbullying was also experienced by Korean artist Goo Hara who was found dead by suicide on Sunday, November 24, 2019, at her home in the Gangnam area, Seoul ( Kang et al., 2022 ). Goo Hara suffered from depression and had survived a suicide attempt in May 2019. Previously, Goo Hara was involved in problems with her ex-boyfriend, Choi Jong Bum, who threatened to spread an intimate video that happened to Hara. As a result of this case, Hara was attacked by negative and malicious comments on social media ( Kurnia, 2021 ). Handling cyberbullying in South Korea is based on the Act on Promotion of Information and Communications Network Utilization and Information Protection or known as the Network Act. Lee, Song and Park (2021) explained, this legal umbrella was created in 2001 with the aim of contributing to improving the lives of citizens and increasing public welfare by facilitating the use of information and communication networks, protecting the personal information of users of information and communication services, and developing an environment where users can utilize information and communication networks in a healthier and safer way (Article 1). This law is managed by the Korea Communications Commission (KCC) and the Ministry of Science and ICT and has been amended to adapt to technological developments and social needs. In the Network Act, cyberbullying is explained in Article 44 paragraph (1): 1-3, Article 44 paragraph (2): 1-4, Article 44 paragraph (3), Article 44 paragraph (6) and Article 44 paragraph (7): 1-9. The criminal provisions resulting from cyberbullying are explained in Article 70 paragraph (1-3), Article 70-2, Article 71 paragraph (11), Article 72 paragraph (1): 2, Article 73 paragraph (7), and Article 74 paragraph (1): 2-3. Article 44 paragraph (1) explains that every user is prohibited from disseminating information that violates the human rights of others, including violations of privacy and defamation through information and communication networks. If inappropriate information is disseminated, a request for deletion of the information can be submitted to the information service provider as explained in Article 44 paragraph 2. “Where information provided through an information and communications network purports to be made public intrudes on other persons' privacy, defames other persons, or violates other persons' rights otherwise, the victim of such violation may request the provider of information and communications services who manages the information to delete the information or publish a rebuttable statement (hereinafter referred to as “deletion or rebuttal”), presenting explanatory materials supporting the alleged violation.” Further procedures regarding the technical application for deletion of information are explained in detail in Article 44 paragraph (2): 2-6 and Article 44 paragraph (3). Then, if any person suspects that there is information published or distributed by a particular user that has disturbed his privacy, defamed him, or violated his rights, he can file a lawsuit with the Defamation Dispute Conciliation Division as explained in Article 44 paragraph (6) regarding the technical application for filing a lawsuit regarding the provision of user information. Forms of information that are prohibited from being disseminated are explained in Article 44 paragraph (7) which consist of (1) Information containing child pornography in the form of codes, words, sounds, images, or moving images; (2) Information whose content can defame another person by spreading a fact, false news, or committing an unlawful act openly and intentionally to lower someone's reputation; (3) Information whose content can cause fear or worry because it can reach other people repeatedly in the form of codes, words, sounds, images, or films; (4) Information that has content that can damage, destroy, change, or falsify an information and communication system, data, program, or the like or that disrupts the running of a system, data, program, or the like without justifiable reason; (5) Information that contains content that is considered unhealthy media for children based on the Child Protection Law and that is provided to gain profit without fulfilling obligations and responsibilities in accordance with statutory regulations, including the obligation to verify the age of the other party and the obligation to include a label; (6) Information whose content includes speculative activities prohibited by statutory regulations; (7) Information whose content reveals secrets stipulated by laws or regulations of other countries; (8) Information whose content involves carrying out acts prohibited by the National Security Law; and (9) Other information whose content includes attempting, assisting, or encouraging the commission of a crime. According to the Act on Promotion of Information and Communications Network Utilization and Information Protection, the primary penalty for cyberbullying is imprisonment with labor or a fine. South Korea imposes a maximum prison sentence of 10 years and a minimum of 1 year, while the maximum fine is 70 million won and a minimum of 10 million won. These criminal penalties are a form of legal or penal sanction. In addition to the implementation of criminal or penal law, the handling of cyberbullying acts in South Korea also has special regulations related to bullying in schools, namely through the Act on the Prevention of and Countermeasures Against Violence in Schools (Act on Prevention and Countermeasures Against Violence in Schools). In this regulation, the South Korean government pays great attention to the victims, the majority of whom are school students, so the regulation includes an understanding of bullying behavior both directly and in cyberspace. Article 2 of the Act on the Prevention of and Countermeasures Against Violence in School explicitly explains that cyberbullying is any form of constant or repeated action in which students cause emotional harm to other students by using the internet, mobile phones, or other information and communication devices to reveal personal information about certain students or to spread lies or rumors about certain students, and then cause suffering there. The prevention of cyberbullying in the legal regulation is more preventive in nature in the form of the formation of a regional committee to address violence in schools and actions for victims and perpetrators using a non-penal approach. Article 17 of the Act on the Prevention of and Countermeasures Against Violence in School explains the administrative sanctions for perpetrators of cyberbullying crimes in the form of: 1. Order to provide a written apology to the victim student; 2. Prohibition on contacting, threatening, or retaliating against student victims and students who have reported, or informed on, violence at school; 3. Services to schools; 4. Service to the community; 5. Completing special education courses or receiving psychological treatment from internal or external experts; 6. Suspension of attendance; 7. Class changes; 8. Move to another school; 9. Expulsion from school. Referring to the two legal instruments used by South Korea to address cyberbullying, namely the Act on Promotion of Information and Communications Network Utilization and Information Protection and the Act on the Prevention of and Countermeasures Against Violence in Schools, it appears that the country has adopted two approaches to addressing and preventing cyberbullying. These two regulations complement each other in responding to various forms of digital violence, both in online public spaces and in educational settings. The Network Act provides a legal basis for addressing content containing slander, insults, and privacy violations online, and empowers authorities and digital platforms to remove harmful content. Meanwhile, the Act on the Prevention of and Countermeasures Against Violence in Schools specifically regulates the prevention, handling, and rehabilitation of victims of bullying in educational settings, including in the form of cyberbullying. Digital citizenship education as a solution to prevent cyberbullying Preventive measures undertaken by Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan constitute digital citizenship education. Frau-Meigs et al. (2017) state that the idea of digital citizenship is a set of transversal characteristics that combine the values, skills, attitudes, knowledge, and critical understanding needed by citizens in the digital age. Digital citizenship education supports affective, behavioral, and cognitive outcomes ( Webster, 2025 ). Webster (2025) explains that examples of affective digital citizenship education include beliefs about interactions with digital technology; behavioral refers to the use of social media and technology integration by teachers; and cognitive digital citizenship education is based on pre/post test scores, measured on a citizenship scale. In this context, digital citizenship education is seen as an effective long-term solution in preventing cyberbullying, because it focuses on the formation of positive digital character from an early age. Digital citizenship education encompasses the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values related to digital technology that people need to act as citizens ( Dumbrava, 2017 ; Frau-Meigs et al., 2017 ). Ribble (2015) explains that digital citizenship is a concept that helps teachers, technology leaders, and parents understand how to use technology appropriately. Teachers need to be equipped with an understanding of the implications of digital technology on democracy, as well as the ability to integrate digital citizenship into meaningful learning activities ( Örtegren & Olofsson, 2024 ). Ribble (2015) divides digital citizenship into nine main elements: digital access, digital commerce, digital communication, digital literacy, digital etiquette, digital law, digital rights and responsibilities, digital health and wellness, and digital security. The widespread implementation of digital citizenship education is expected to reduce and prevent cyberbullying behavior among internet users, especially teenagers. Strengthening digital citizenship education is an urgent need in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan, as all three countries continue to face a surge in cyberbullying cases, particularly among adolescent social media users. Although all three countries have launched various digital literacy initiatives, the main obstacles remain uneven implementation, limited teacher training, and a lack of a holistic approach involving families, schools, and digital platforms. Research by Choi and Park (2023) in South Korea showed that students who received digital citizenship training had significantly lower levels of involvement in cyberbullying. A study by Ishii, Okabe, and Itou (2020) in Japan found that low awareness of digital ethics is a contributing factor to the high rate of bullying on social media among teenagers. Similarly, in Indonesia, digital citizenship education faces major challenges, including the digital divide between regions and the lack of contextual and sustainable digital citizenship learning modules ( Isabella et al., 2024 ). Therefore, the implementation of digital citizenship education must continue to be developed and sustained, as crimes in the digital era are increasingly diverse. Referring to Ribble's theory (2015) in his book, “Nine Elements of Digital Citizenship in School: Nine Elements You Should Know,” a framework can be created for implementing digital citizenship in schools. Schools and classrooms are crucial places in developing digital citizens who are not only technically competent but also ethical, responsible, and legally aware ( Fernández-Prados et al., 2021 ; Tadlaoui-Brahmi et al., 2022 ; Milenkova & Lendzhova, 2020 ). The following framework is designed to support the structured implementation of digital citizenship education in classrooms and school environments. Based on Table 2 , digital access is the full involvement and equality in using digital technology. Inequality of access remains a major barrier to digital education, especially in remote areas. Schools must ensure all students have access to devices and the internet to prevent the digital divide ( Alam & Forhad, 2023 ; Norman et al., 2022 ). Digital commerce refers to students' ability to understand and engage in online transactions safely and ethically. This education is essential to prevent students from becoming victims of fraud or bullying in e-commerce ( Jantzer et al., 2025 ; Barragán Martín et al., 2021 ). Digital communication teaches students how to communicate effectively, politely, and responsibly in the digital space. Ethical online communication is crucial for building a healthy culture of dialogue on social media, preventing cyberbullying ( Aydınlar et al., 2024 ). Digital literacy is the ability to search for, evaluate, and use digital information critically. This is crucial in the era of abundant information so that students do not fall prey to hoaxes or misinformation ( Buchan et al., 2024 ). Digital etiquette refers to polite and ethical behavior when interacting online. This includes how students speak in class groups, comment on social media, and respect differences of opinion. Digital law refers to awareness of regulations, copyright, privacy, and other laws that apply in the digital space ( Soler-Costa et al., 2021 ). This understanding prevents violations such as cyberbullying, plagiarism, and the spread of hoaxes. In the digital rights and responsibilities element, students need to understand that in addition to having digital rights (privacy, freedom of expression), they also have a responsibility not to spread hatred or harm others ( Soler-Costa et al., 2021 ). Digital health and wellness encompass the balance between device use and physical and mental health. Excessive technology use can lead to sleep disorders, stress, and screen addiction ( Maurya et al., 2022 ; Mohd Saat et al., 2024 ). The digital security element teaches students to protect personal data, use strong passwords, and avoid phishing traps. This is crucial to protect students from cybercrime ( Venter et al., 2019 ; Alzubaidi, 2021 ). Table 2. Framework digital citizenship in classroom and school environments. No. Element Short description Implementation strategy in school/classroom 1 Digital Access Equality of access to digital technology and the internet Providing devices and internet access equally Identify students with limited access Collaboration with parents for infrastructure support 2 Digital Commerce Ability to understand digital transactions safely and ethically Education about safe online shopping Discussion on digital fraud and fake advertising Case studies on e-commerce and marketplace 3 Digital Communication Ethics and responsibility in communicating digitally Simulation of polite and effective online discussions Learning about netiquette (internet etiquette) Online communication rules in class groups 4 Digital Literacy The ability to search, evaluate, and use digital information Media and information literacy learning Valid information retrieval project Practice differentiating between hoaxes and facts 5 Digital Etiquette Ethical and polite behavior when doing online activities Roleplay or ethical drama on social media Code of ethics for using gadgets in class Discussion of the impact of negative comments on the internet 6 Digital Law Understanding of the laws that apply in the digital space Socialization of the law regulating cyberbullying Cyberbullying legal case study Discussion “what is legal and illegal on the internet” 7 Digital Rights & Responsibilities Rights and obligations of digital users Reflection on the right to personal data and expression Assignment of content sharing responsibilities Class forum to develop “Digital Class Charter” 8 Digital Health & Wellness Balance of technology use on physical and mental health Discussion of the impact of screens on sleep and emotions Screen time journal practice for 1 week Anti-cyberbullying campaign 9 Digital Security (Self-Protection) Protect yourself from digital threats (viruses, phishing, data theft) Practice creating strong passwords Simulation of recognizing fake emails/phishing Educate on the importance of security software As a long-term solution, digital citizenship education needs to be mainstreamed into the national education system. This includes integration into the formal curriculum from elementary school, teacher training on digital ethics and safety, cross-sector collaboration (education, technology, and families), and program adjustments based on the cultural dynamics of each country. These measures have proven more effective than relying solely on law enforcement, as education-based prevention fosters deeper awareness and competency in the younger generation. Conclusions This study reveals significant disparities in legal regulations related to cyberbullying in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan. Indonesia still faces serious challenges in the effectiveness of its regulations, marked by the absence of an explicit legal definition of cyberbullying, a predominantly penal approach, and a reliance on complaint-based offenses. This situation results in weak protection for victims, particularly children and adolescents. In contrast, South Korea has developed a comprehensive regulatory framework that combines penal and non-penal approaches and broadly covers various forms of cyberbullying. Although Japan does not have specific legislation, it demonstrates effectiveness through flexible law enforcement and a focus on victim protection, enabling it to adapt to complex cases. This research contributes to identifying different regulatory patterns as a comparative basis for national policy development, enriching the theoretical framework of digital criminal law, and highlighting the urgency of regional policy harmonization in East Asia to strengthen the protection of children and adolescents in an increasingly integrated digital ecosystem. The implications of this study open up opportunities for broader secondary data-based research, including jurisprudence analysis and evaluation of policy implementation effectiveness. Future empirical studies on the experiences of victims and law enforcement officials in handling cyberbullying cases in Indonesia are urgently needed. Additionally, the integration of digital citizenship education into the national curriculum should be explored as a sustainable preventive strategy. Adaptive legal reforms in line with technological developments, along with collaborative cross-sectoral approaches, are key to building a healthy, safe, and inclusive digital ecosystem for the younger generation. Ethical considerations This study did not involve human participants or animals, and therefore, ethical approval was not required. However, the research adhered to ethical guidelines concerning data privacy and integrity. Data availability statement No new data were generated for this study. The research is based on publicly available legal sources, including laws, regulations, court decisions, and official policy documents related to cyberbullying and digital citizenship in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan. Extended data All referenced legal materials and comparative data are provided in Appendix A and are openly available on Zenodo at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18497760 ( Aprilianata et al., 2026 ). The data are available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank LPDP (Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan), which is part of the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia for assisting the authors in financing the master’s program and writing this article to be published. References Alam GM, Forhad MAR: The Impact of Accessing Education via Smartphone Technology on Education Disparity—A Sustainable Education Perspective. Sustainability (Switzerland). 2023; 15 (14): 1–14. 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PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 14 Feb 2026 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Civic Education, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Special Region of Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia 2 Law, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Special Region of Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia Aprilianata Aprilianata Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Octavia Wulandari Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Mike Meida Diningrum Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology Siska Yulia Putri Roles: Conceptualization, Data Curation Rani Lestari Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Stanislaus Jebarus Roles: Conceptualization, Visualization Maria Antoneta Karbeka Roles: Funding Acquisition, Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing Mukhamad Murdiono Roles: Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information This research was supported by scholarships awarded by the Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) for master's degree (S2) students. The following LPDP grant numbers were awarded to the researchers: 1. NIB 202407111205428 (Aprilianata) 2. NIB 202411111207230 (Octavia Wulandari) 3. NIB: 202407111205441 (Mike Meida Diningrum) 4. NIB: 2025061139802763 (Siska Yulia Putri) 5. NIB: 2025061134002574 (Rani Lestari) 6. NIB: 202407111205537 (Stanislaus Jebarus) 7. NIB: 2025061139803003 (Maria Antoneta Karbeka) The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 14 Feb 2026, 15:264 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.174333.1 Copyright © 2026 Aprilianata A et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. Manager (RIS) Sente metrics Views Downloads F1000Research - - PubMed Central info_outline Data from PMC are received and updated monthly. - - Citations open_in_new 0 open_in_new 0 open_in_new SEE MORE DETAILS CITE how to cite this article Aprilianata A, Wulandari O, Meida Diningrum M et al. Legal Reform and Digital Citizenship: A Comparative Study of Cyberbullying Laws in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :264 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.174333.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS track receive updates on this article Track an article to receive email alerts on any updates to this article. TRACK THIS ARTICLE Share Open Peer Review Current Reviewer Status: ? Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW HIDE Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 14 Feb 2026 Views 0 Cite How to cite this report: Serritella E. Reviewer Report For: Legal Reform and Digital Citizenship: A Comparative Study of Cyberbullying Laws in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :264 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192223.r466580 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-264/v1#referee-response-466580 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. Close Copy Citation Details Reviewer Report 17 Mar 2026 Elena Serritella , University of Florence, Florence, Italy Approved with Reservations VIEWS 0 https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192223.r466580 Dear Authors, First of all, I would like to thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript. I found the topic interesting and highly relevant, and the paper is generally well written. However, I believe that several revisions ... Continue reading READ ALL Dear Authors, First of all, I would like to thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript. I found the topic interesting and highly relevant, and the paper is generally well written. However, I believe that several revisions and clarifications are necessary to enhance the transparency, rigor, and overall clarity of the study. Please find my detailed comments below. In the introduction section , it is not entirely clear why Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan were selected as case studies. The text highlights the presence of cyberbullying in these countries; however, this justification does not appear sufficient, as cyberbullying is a widespread phenomenon globally. I suggest clarifying more explicitly the criteria used for selecting these three countries for your comparative study. The methodological section currently appears somewhat generic for a scientific study. A qualitative or normative approach is mentioned, but several aspects are not described in sufficient detail, such as: what type of qualitative analysis was conducted, which analytical criteria or categories were developed and adopted to compare the three countries, and how the comparative analysis was carried out. Providing a more detailed description of the method would make the approach more transparent and methodologically robust. To improve the clarity and readability of the article, I also suggest considering the inclusion of a comparative table summarizing the main regulatory characteristics of the three countries analyzed. This would make the comparison more immediate for the reader and would likely increase the overall impact of the article. In my opinion, the discussion section needs to be reorganized because, as it is now, I find it somewhat confusing. It contains very long descriptions of the legal systems for each country, with information that is mainly descriptive and informative (perhaps this part would be better placed in the results section?). A real comparative logic and synthesis is missing, which instead should be the core of the discussion. Moreover, the transition to digital citizenship appears a bit disconnected from the previous part. A linking sentence or paragraph is needed, and this section should be more clearly connected to the three countries analyzed, and less theoretical (some information could be moved to the introduction, where it could explain why this is a relevant construct for the article). The same principle applies to Table 2. How was it constructed? Why is it relevant for the article? Why is it in the discussion section? Providing a clearer explanation would help readers better understand its contribution to the study. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise: Bullying and Cyberbullying, Social Psychology, Virtual Environments Psychology. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. Close READ LESS CITE CITE HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT Serritella E. Reviewer Report For: Legal Reform and Digital Citizenship: A Comparative Study of Cyberbullying Laws in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :264 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192223.r466580 ) The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-264/v1#referee-response-466580 NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. COPY CITATION DETAILS Report a concern Respond or Comment COMMENT ON THIS REPORT Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 14 Feb 2026 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment keyboard_arrow_left keyboard_arrow_right Open Peer Review Reviewer Status info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Reviewer Reports Invited Reviewers 1 Version 1 14 Feb 26 read Elena Serritella , University of Florence, Florence, Italy Comments on this article All Comments (0) Add a comment Sign up for content alerts Sign Up You are now signed up to receive this alert Browse by related subjects keyboard_arrow_left Back to all reports Reviewer Report 0 Views copyright © 2026 Serritella E. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 17 Mar 2026 | for Version 1 Elena Serritella , University of Florence, Florence, Italy 0 Views copyright © 2026 Serritella E. This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. format_quote Cite this report speaker_notes Responses (0) Approved With Reservations info_outline Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved The paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. Not approved Fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions Dear Authors, First of all, I would like to thank you for the opportunity to review this manuscript. I found the topic interesting and highly relevant, and the paper is generally well written. However, I believe that several revisions and clarifications are necessary to enhance the transparency, rigor, and overall clarity of the study. Please find my detailed comments below. In the introduction section , it is not entirely clear why Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan were selected as case studies. The text highlights the presence of cyberbullying in these countries; however, this justification does not appear sufficient, as cyberbullying is a widespread phenomenon globally. I suggest clarifying more explicitly the criteria used for selecting these three countries for your comparative study. The methodological section currently appears somewhat generic for a scientific study. A qualitative or normative approach is mentioned, but several aspects are not described in sufficient detail, such as: what type of qualitative analysis was conducted, which analytical criteria or categories were developed and adopted to compare the three countries, and how the comparative analysis was carried out. Providing a more detailed description of the method would make the approach more transparent and methodologically robust. To improve the clarity and readability of the article, I also suggest considering the inclusion of a comparative table summarizing the main regulatory characteristics of the three countries analyzed. This would make the comparison more immediate for the reader and would likely increase the overall impact of the article. In my opinion, the discussion section needs to be reorganized because, as it is now, I find it somewhat confusing. It contains very long descriptions of the legal systems for each country, with information that is mainly descriptive and informative (perhaps this part would be better placed in the results section?). A real comparative logic and synthesis is missing, which instead should be the core of the discussion. Moreover, the transition to digital citizenship appears a bit disconnected from the previous part. A linking sentence or paragraph is needed, and this section should be more clearly connected to the three countries analyzed, and less theoretical (some information could be moved to the introduction, where it could explain why this is a relevant construct for the article). The same principle applies to Table 2. How was it constructed? Why is it relevant for the article? Why is it in the discussion section? Providing a clearer explanation would help readers better understand its contribution to the study. Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature? Partly Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound? Yes Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others? Partly If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate? Not applicable Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility? Yes Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results? Yes Competing Interests No competing interests were disclosed. Reviewer Expertise Bullying and Cyberbullying, Social Psychology, Virtual Environments Psychology. I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above. reply Respond to this report Responses (0) Serritella E. Peer Review Report For: Legal Reform and Digital Citizenship: A Comparative Study of Cyberbullying Laws in Indonesia, South Korea, and Japan [version 1; peer review: 1 approved with reservations] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :264 ( https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.192223.r466580) NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in this citation. The direct URL for this report is: https://f1000research.com/articles/15-264/v1#referee-response-466580 Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article: Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit. 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