Overview of haematophagous flies involved in the transmission of vector-borne diseases in cattle

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This work took place in the department of Kounahiri (Côte d'Ivoire), 520 km from the city of Abidjan in December 2022. It took place over 08 days. Tabanidae and Stomoxyinae were caught using Vavoua traps. The insects collected were then placed in a freezer for twenty minutes to kill any insects that were still alive before being stored in a vial containing 70° ethanol. The identification of the different Stomoxyinae species was then developed using the determination keys of Zumpt and the additional morphological character to better separate S. calcitrans and S. niger niger. The Tabanidae were identified using the identification keys published by Oldroyd. The Tabanidae were divided into two genera: three (03) Philipotabanus elviae and thirty-one (31) Tabanus taeniola. On the other hand, among the Stomoxyinae, we identified 18 Stomoxys indicus and 25 Stomoxys calcitrans. The apparent density (AD) was 3.208 flies per day. As for the assessment of specific densities as a function of species composition, Tabanus taeniola had a higher specific density, at 40.26%, with 31 individuals out of a total of 77 flies. In addition, the diversity of haematophagous flies in relation to the biotope gave Margalef’s diversity indices of 0.612 for Stomoxes and 0.652 for Tabanidae. We can conclude from this research that, the inclusion of mechanical vectors in vector control strategies should help to minimise the impact of biting flies on livestock. Tabanus taeniola diversity Stomoxys calcitrans Philipotabanus elviae Flies Côte d’Ivoire Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Meat is the most valuable livestock product and, for many people, serves as a prime source of animal protein. It is either consumed as a component of kitchen-style food preparations or as processed meat products (Godfray et al. 2018). It constitutes a very favorable ground for parasitic diseases, such as fasciolosis and hydatidosis, infections, such as tuberculosis and abscesses, and physical issues, such as traumatic meats, which are zoonotic or non-zoonotic pathological findings with the mode of transmission either direct or indirect and causing serious economic losses (Mimoune et al. 2022). Muscoid flies are among the most important pests in livestock and poultry production. Stable flies ( Stomoxys spp.) recently surpassed horn flies ( Haematobia spp.) as the most important arthropod pest of cattle production (Baldacchino et al. 2013; Lendzele et al. 2023). Indeed, they are involved in many processes and mechanisms essential for the functioning of ecosystems (Basset et al. 2004; Prisca et al. 2021). However, there are also insect species, particularly haematophagous diptera such as the Tabanidae, which play a role in the transmission of several pathogens responsible for numerous diseases (Krinsky 1976). In fact, tabanids are known to be mechanical vectors of trypanosomes, notably Trypanosoma vivax, responsible for African animal trypanosomiasis (Acapovi-Yao et al. 2016). Apart from the direct effects caused by Stomoxys on livestock such as nuisance and blood sucking behaviours, Stomoxys can indirectly serve as mechanical vectors of several pathogens (Baldacchino et al. 2013; Lendzele et al. 2023). An investigation regarding the preferred breeding substrates for S. calcitrans showed a high propensity for egg-laying in vertebrate-herbivore dung, caused by signature odours emanating from the dung (Baleba et al. 2019). However, Stomoxys have a broad range of habitats and are continuously adapting to exploit new breeding substrates in forest, livestock, and human settlement areas (Lendzele et al. 2019). The aim of this study is to identify the hematophagous flies that contribute to disease transmission in cattle, in order to develop vector control and disease management strategies for cattle herds. Materials and Methods Study site This work took place from December 2022 in the department of Kounahiri in the Béré region. The chief town of the Béré region is 520 Km from the city of Abidjan. It is located in the North Center of Côte d'Ivoire and this department lies precisely between latitudes 7°30' and 8°10' N then longitudes 5°40' and 6°20'W and covers an area of 2110 km², its population is estimated at 101111 in habitants (National Institute of Statistics 2021). Its population is predominantly rural and agricultural. The department lies between the medium and low forest agro-climatic zones (Fig. 1 ). The medium forest zone has an equatorial climate with two rainy and two dry seasons. The climate has only two seasons (wet and dry). Average rainfall is 899.6 mm. The area available for development is 50,000 hectares. There are two types of vegetation: sub-Sudanese savannah in the northern part of the region, and Sudanese savannah in the extreme south. Livestock farming is one of the region's most important activities. Processes Tabanidae and Stomoxyinae were caught using Vavoua traps (Laveissière et al. 1990). The insects collected were first stored in labelled bottles and then in a refrigerator. They were then preserved in 70° ethanol and identified using a binocular magnifying glass. Capture of Stomoxes and Tabanidae For the capture of insects, the traps were set up taking into account the two sample collection areas. This was done in order to assess the specific diversity of haematophagous fly species depending on the biotope. The Vavoua trap was chosen because of its effectiveness, which has been approved in several countries for capturing horseflies and stomoxes, and also because of cost constraints. A total of three ( 3 ) traps were placed in the previously identified areas. That is, 01 in farms located near watercourses and 2 in farms near forest areas. The traps were at least 300 metres apart in the forest zone. The various captures took place between November and December 2022. The traps were set at 7 a.m. and retrieved at 6 p.m. for 08 days. While the traps were being retrieved, the capture cages were labelled with the trap number and brought back to the laboratory. Conservation and identification of Tabanidae and Stomoxes The insects collected were then placed in a freezer for twenty minutes to kill any insects that were still alive before being stored in a vial containing 70° ethanol. They were then sorted in the laboratory under a binocular magnifying glass to separate the Stomoxes from the tabanids. The identification of the different Stomoxyinae species was then developed using the determination keys of Zumpt (1973) and the additional morphological character described by Garros et al. (2004) to better separate S. calcitrans (Linnaeus, 1758) and S. niger niger (Macquart, 1851). The Tabanidae were identified using the identification keys published by Oldroyd (1973). Data analysis ➣ Margalef's diversity Margalef's diversity index was calculated to assess the diversity of tabanids in the biosphere reserve. This is calculated using the following formula: the ratio of the number of species (S) minus one ( 1 ) to the log of the total number of individuals collected (N). $$\:\:\varvec{D}=\frac{(\mathbf{S}-1)}{\mathbf{l}\mathbf{n}\:\left(\mathbf{N}\right)\:}$$ ➣ Density This corresponds to the abundance of the different species of tabanids caught and is expressed by calculating their apparent density per trap per day. ➣ Apparent density $$\:\varvec{D}\varvec{A}=\frac{\:\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{s}\text{e}\text{c}\text{t}\text{s}\:\text{c}\text{a}\text{u}\text{g}\text{h}\text{t}\:(\text{m}\text{a}\text{l}\text{e}+\text{f}\text{e}\text{m}\text{a}\text{l}\text{e})}{\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{t}\text{r}\text{a}\text{p}\text{s}\:\text{x}\:\text{n}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{t}\text{r}\text{a}\text{p}\:\text{d}\text{a}\text{y}\text{s}}$$ 1 ➣ Specific density $$\:\:\varvec{D}\varvec{S}=\left[\frac{\:\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{d}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{d}\text{u}\text{a}\text{l}\text{s}\:\text{b}\text{e}\text{l}\text{o}\text{n}\text{g}\text{i}\text{n}\text{g}\:\text{t}\text{o}\:\text{a}\:\text{g}\text{i}\text{v}\text{e}\text{n}\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}}{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{n}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{d}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{d}\text{u}\text{a}\text{l}\text{s}\:\text{o}\text{f}\:\text{a}\text{l}\text{l}\:\text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s}\:\text{c}\text{a}\text{u}\text{g}\text{h}\text{t}}\right]100$$ 2 Results Inventory of species and calculation of overall prevalence Over a period of eight days, seventy-seven specimens were captured using three Vavoua traps. These vectors were classified into two distinct families, namely the Tabanidae and the Stomoxyinae. With regard to the Tabanidae, we recorded a total of 34 flies, divided between two genera: three Philipotabanus elviae and thirty-one Tabanus taeniola. In the Stomoxyinae family, we identified 18 Stomoxys indicus and 25 Stomoxys calcitrans ( Fig. 2 ). Identification of horseflies and Stomoxys Calculation of apparent density All 77 haematophagous flies were collected over a period of eight days, which is equivalent to an apparent density (AD) of 3.208 flies per day. Of these flies, 37.66% or 29 individuals were caught in zone 1, characterised by the proximity of farms to watercourses, with an apparent density per trap and per day of 3.625 flies per trap per day. In zone 2, where the farms are close to forested areas, 48 specimens (62.34% of the total) were collected, with an apparent density of 3 flies per trap per day (Table 1 ). Table 1 Apparent density of biting flies Areas Numbers of Traps Numbers of Flies Apparent density (Flies/trap/day) Area 1 01 29 3.625 Area 2 02 48 3 Total 03 77 3.208 Distribution of genera by biotope In the two environments used to place the traps, three genera of flies were identified. In the area close to the watercourses (Area 1), the apparent density of Stomoxys was 1.125 flies per trap per day, which is equivalent to a total of 9 flies caught per trap in eight days. For the genus Tabanus, the apparent density was estimated at 2.125 flies per trap per day, either a total of 17 flies caught over the same period. For the Philipotabanus genus, the apparent density was lower, with 0.375 flies per trap per day, representing a total of 03 flies caught. No Philipotabanus specimens were caught during the entire sampling period in traps placed on farms close to forested areas (Area 2). The apparent density for the genus Stomoxys in this same biotope was 2.125 flies per trap per day, iether a total of 34 flies caught. For the genus Tabanus, the apparent density was 0.875 flies per trap per day, equivalent to a total of 14 flies per trap per day (Fig. 3 ). Assessment of specific densities according to species composition The composition of the haematophagous flies caught during this study enabled them to be classified into four distinct species: Stomoxys calcitrans, Stomoxys indicus, Tabanus taeniola and Philipotabanus elviae. The Stomoxys calcitrans species accounted for 32.46% of the total, iether a total of 25 flies out of the 77 caught. For the species Stomoxys indicus, the specific density was 23.37%, equivalent to 18 flies. Next, the species Tabanus taeniola had a higher specific density, at 40.26%, with 31 individuals out of a total of 77 flies. Finally, Philipotabanus elviae was less represented, with only 3 individuals out of 77, corresponding to a specific density of 3.90% (Fig. 4 ). Diversity of haematophagous flies in relation to the biotope Index, which reflects the variety of tabanids and Stomoxes, revealed that the majority of flies were caught in the forest zone (48 specimens) using the Vavoua trap, compared with 29 caught in the area near watercourses. The biodiversity observed was not dominated by tabanids or Stomoxes, and only two tabanid species (Philipotabanus elviae and Tabanus taeniola) and two Stomoxes species (Stomoxys indicus and Stomoxys calcitrans) were collected. Margalef's diversity indices were 0,265 for Stomoxes and 0,283 for Tabanidae (Fig. 5 ). Discussion The data collected from this study revealed the presence of four (04) species of biting flies: Philipotabanus elviae, Tabanus taeniola, Stomoxys indicus and Stomoxys calcitrans, all belonging to two families: Stomoxyinae and Tabanidae. The size of the samples obtained during the capture would seem to be linked to the period (November) of capture and above all to the use of certain repellents against these biting insects. Furthermore, the low captures during this study could be explained by the use of a single type of trap (Ange et al. 2016). Entomological findings in this study revealed 43 (55.84%) Stomoxys, 03 (3.89%) Philipotabanus and 31 (23.87%) Tabnus were captured during this work. This variability of species could be linked to the presence of the watercourses that drain this department and, above all, the edges and forests that constitute a favourable habitat for their development. Other findings revealed the presence of 18%.58 (704/3085) of Tabanus and Stomoxys (Seyoun et al. 2022). The overall apparent density of biting flies (Tabanus and Stomoxys) was 3.208 flies/day. This low apparent density is probably due to the period (early dry season) of capture (November-December). Similar results of a low apparent density (2.93 flies/trap/day) of biting flies have been obtained (Seyoun et al. 2022). Moreover, these low apparent densities of Tabanus and Stomoxys have already been revealed by several authors (Eyasu et al. 2022). The apparent densities of haematophagous flies in relation to the type of biotope revealed that in farms located near watercourses (Zone 1) the apparent density was 3.625 compared with 3 farms near forested areas. These high numbers of biting flies in the two habitats could be due to the increased humidity in these areas during the drought, which would be conducive to their activity. The variation observed is in agreement with that of Desta et al. (2013) and Seyoun et al. (2022) who showed a high apparent density of tsetse flies in the riverine vegetation type followed by savannah, forest, bush and cultivated areas. In addition, the density according to the genus of flies recorded an identical apparent density of 2.125 for Tabanus and Stomoxys. The diversity of hosts available would appear to contribute to their distribution in this locality. Our results are at odds with other studies that confirm the predominance of the Tabanus genus in Côte d'Ivoire (Acapovi et al. 2013) and Cameroon (Eteme et al. 2023). Finally, Tabnus taeniola was the fly represented (40.26%) in the specific distribution of haematophagous flies. This zone being the ecological transition zone, it would be better suited to this species. The species T. par and T. taeniola were observed in all biotopes with a high abundance in forest galleries (Eteme et al. 2023). Acapovi (2005) showed that T. taeniola and T. par are abundant in all biotopes and collections of swampy water, which represent breeding sites for the latter. This study reports that only four species of haematophagous flies were captured, including Philipotabanus elviae, Tabanus taeniola, Stomoxys indicus and Stomoxys calcitrans. This low diversity could be explained by the capture period and, above all, by the duration of the study. These opposite results were reported in studies conducted by researchers in Makokou, Gabon, which revealed the presence of seven Stomoxys species (Mavoungou et al. 2013). On the other hand, another study in Gabon, focusing on the inventory of haematophagous flies, revealed that the stomox family was the only group of haematophagous flies captured during our study (Kutomy et al. 2014). Conclusion This study provided an overview of the diversity of vectors of bovine anaplasmosis in the department of Kounahiri. It revealed the presence of Stomoxyinae and Tabanidae in the different sites studied. Consequently, the distribution of the diversity of species of haematophagous flies (Stomoxys, Philipotabanus and Tabanus) captured was almost balanced. We caught a total of 03 Philipotabanus elviae and thirty-one Tabanus taeniola, 18 Stomoxys indicus and 25 Stomoxys calcitrans. In addition, a high specific density (40.26%) was obtained for the Tabanus taeniola species, either 31 out of 77 flies. Appropriate control and monitoring methods will need to be implemented in each case. The inclusion of mechanical vectors in vector control strategies should help to minimise the impact of biting flies on livestock. Declarations Ethical approval The experiment was non-invasive and complied with Ivorian legislation. At the end of the study, the specimens were deposited in the entomological collection of the Korhogo Regional Laboratory (LRK), Côte d'Ivoire. Conflicts of Interest Competing interests on behalf of all the authors, I hereby state that there is no conflict of interest, including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations, which could inappropriately influence this work. The participating authors grant their authorization for the publication of this study in International Journal of Tropical Insect Science . This work has not been published previously, and it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere. Acknowledgment: Our thanks go to the head and senior research technicians of the Regional Laboratory of Korhogo (LRK) of the National Laboratory for Agricultural Development Support (LANADA) in the parasitology department. Data Availability The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on request. 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Afrique Sci 10(2):373–381 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 31 May, 2025 Read the published version in International Journal of Tropical Insect Science → Version 1 posted Reviewers invited by journal 01 Aug, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 31 Jul, 2024 First submitted to journal 30 Jul, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4831525","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":334655879,"identity":"40477428-63ec-453a-899a-ed01da04daa5","order_by":0,"name":"Aristide TIBA","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACxgYGBgNmBgZmHgaGD0A+GzsxWg4AtfAAtTDOAGlhJsaiAwxALUAIsghoHQHV/LMPN3/+UGAtZ8/Oe/Czza9t8nzMDIwfPubg1iJxLrFN4oBBujEPM1+ydG7fbcM2ZgZmyZnb8FhzhrEN6JfDiT3MPAbSuT23GYFa2Jh58WiRP8PY/AGopR6oxfi3Zc9te4JaDM4wNgAddjgBGGJm0gw/bicS1GIIdJjEGYN0w57DfGmWvQ23k9uYGZvx+kXuDPvjDxV/rOXZ+88evvHjz23b+e3NBz98xOd9FAAMCgZIeiAe/CFF8SgYBaNgFIwUAADlB0wgLoC58AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-1341-3077","institution":"Université d'Abobo-Adjamé: Universite Nangui Abrogoua","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aristide","middleName":"","lastName":"TIBA","suffix":""},{"id":334655880,"identity":"a4d9b737-a68b-43dc-92ec-15dabba00737","order_by":1,"name":"Nawolo Yeo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université Péléforo Gon Coulibaly: Universite Peleforo Gon Coulibaly","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nawolo","middleName":"","lastName":"Yeo","suffix":""},{"id":334655881,"identity":"021baccd-1fb8-492f-b998-1af4a27d8388","order_by":2,"name":"Ouation Souleymane SORO","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université Péléforo Gon Coulibaly: Universite Peleforo Gon Coulibaly","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ouation","middleName":"Souleymane","lastName":"SORO","suffix":""},{"id":334655882,"identity":"5dbff7ac-757a-40c5-bbb3-3c1ce73c18ee","order_by":3,"name":"Koan Alexi OUSSOU","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université d'Abobo-Adjamé: Universite Nangui Abrogoua","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Koan","middleName":"Alexi","lastName":"OUSSOU","suffix":""},{"id":334655883,"identity":"84904a1e-9b10-4f21-8284-c889ac891fcb","order_by":4,"name":"Fréderic Kan N’DRI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université d'Abobo-Adjamé: Universite Nangui Abrogoua","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fréderic","middleName":"Kan","lastName":"N’DRI","suffix":""},{"id":334655884,"identity":"f6d7243e-c024-43d9-b89c-de4c7913968a","order_by":5,"name":"Zahouli Faustin ZOUH BI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université d'Abobo-Adjamé: Universite Nangui Abrogoua","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zahouli","middleName":"Faustin ZOUH","lastName":"BI","suffix":""},{"id":334655885,"identity":"b009c5d5-0e7c-422e-a2ce-5bca2f9998c9","order_by":6,"name":"Soumaïla Koné","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université d'Abobo-Adjamé: Universite Nangui Abrogoua","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Soumaïla","middleName":"","lastName":"Koné","suffix":""},{"id":334655886,"identity":"f7b074e8-ffac-4377-9dab-41a68ef8a651","order_by":7,"name":"Yahaya Karamoko","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université d'Abobo-Adjamé: Universite Nangui Abrogoua","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yahaya","middleName":"","lastName":"Karamoko","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-07-31 00:49:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4831525/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4831525/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-025-01540-5","type":"published","date":"2025-05-31T15:57:19+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":63455042,"identity":"d1973aa4-e21f-4e64-96a2-2fe5a7edd97d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 10:14:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":420277,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Kounahiri department\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4831525/v1/72c1b7d590067572284571bc.png"},{"id":63454557,"identity":"fbd8dd3f-58e7-48ab-a305-86946b4f6118","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 10:06:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":575794,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTabanus and Stomoxys species diversity\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4831525/v1/bae57c17e8dcaaa8d49c6c1b.png"},{"id":63454556,"identity":"50a75610-46fd-4161-aad8-17aa363a0c9b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 10:06:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25432,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eApparent density by genus\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4831525/v1/0aa2b9607187436393a223cc.png"},{"id":63454553,"identity":"a807b86a-71e6-4329-88c1-df71df350076","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 10:06:05","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":48322,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of haematophagous flies by species\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4831525/v1/b547684d4645e530a5bd4a9e.png"},{"id":63454554,"identity":"8ae17fd0-6358-473b-a318-920e0953494d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 10:06:05","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59580,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation in Margalef's diversity index for flies caught\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4831525/v1/48b9a15f36c01459cb161a9b.png"},{"id":83782851,"identity":"08a19617-3d4b-4d0e-8806-2cd6317fa653","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-02 16:07:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1814943,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4831525/v1/a8b07f18-119e-4901-8c81-eeb1b85925e0.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Overview of haematophagous flies involved in the transmission of vector-borne diseases in cattle","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMeat is the most valuable livestock product and, for many people, serves as a prime source of animal protein. It is either consumed as a component of kitchen-style food preparations or as processed meat products (Godfray et al. 2018). It constitutes a very favorable ground for parasitic diseases, such as fasciolosis and hydatidosis, infections, such as tuberculosis and abscesses, and physical issues, such as traumatic meats, which are zoonotic or non-zoonotic pathological findings with the mode of transmission either direct or indirect and causing serious economic losses (Mimoune et al. 2022). Muscoid flies are among the most important pests in livestock and poultry production. Stable flies (\u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e spp.) recently surpassed horn flies (\u003cem\u003eHaematobia\u003c/em\u003e spp.) as the most important arthropod pest of cattle production (Baldacchino et al. 2013; Lendzele et al. 2023). Indeed, they are involved in many processes and mechanisms essential for the functioning of ecosystems (Basset et al. 2004; Prisca et al. 2021). However, there are also insect species, particularly haematophagous diptera such as the Tabanidae, which play a role in the transmission of several pathogens responsible for numerous diseases (Krinsky 1976). In fact, tabanids are known to be mechanical vectors of trypanosomes, notably Trypanosoma vivax, responsible for African animal trypanosomiasis (Acapovi-Yao et al. 2016). Apart from the direct effects caused by \u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e on livestock such as nuisance and blood sucking behaviours, \u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e can indirectly serve as mechanical vectors of several pathogens (Baldacchino et al. 2013; Lendzele et al. 2023). An investigation regarding the preferred breeding substrates for \u003cem\u003eS. calcitrans\u003c/em\u003e showed a high propensity for egg-laying in vertebrate-herbivore dung, caused by signature odours emanating from the dung (Baleba et al. 2019). However, \u003cem\u003eStomoxys\u003c/em\u003e have a broad range of habitats and are continuously adapting to exploit new breeding substrates in forest, livestock, and human settlement areas (Lendzele et al. 2019). The aim of this study is to identify the hematophagous flies that contribute to disease transmission in cattle, in order to develop vector control and disease management strategies for cattle herds.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eStudy site\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work took place from December 2022 in the department of Kounahiri in the B\u0026eacute;r\u0026eacute; region. The chief town of the B\u0026eacute;r\u0026eacute; region is 520 Km from the city of Abidjan. It is located in the North Center of C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire and this department lies precisely between latitudes 7\u0026deg;30' and 8\u0026deg;10' N then longitudes 5\u0026deg;40' and 6\u0026deg;20'W and covers an area of 2110 km\u0026sup2;, its population is estimated at 101111 in habitants (National Institute of Statistics 2021). Its population is predominantly rural and agricultural. The department lies between the medium and low forest agro-climatic zones (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The medium forest zone has an equatorial climate with two rainy and two dry seasons. The climate has only two seasons (wet and dry). Average rainfall is 899.6 mm. The area available for development is 50,000 hectares. There are two types of vegetation: sub-Sudanese savannah in the northern part of the region, and Sudanese savannah in the extreme south. Livestock farming is one of the region's most important activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eProcesses\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTabanidae and Stomoxyinae were caught using Vavoua traps (Laveissi\u0026egrave;re et al. 1990). The insects collected were first stored in labelled bottles and then in a refrigerator. They were then preserved in 70\u0026deg; ethanol and identified using a binocular magnifying glass.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCapture of Stomoxes and Tabanidae\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor the capture of insects, the traps were set up taking into account the two sample collection areas. This was done in order to assess the specific diversity of haematophagous fly species depending on the biotope. The Vavoua trap was chosen because of its effectiveness, which has been approved in several countries for capturing horseflies and stomoxes, and also because of cost constraints. A total of three (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) traps were placed in the previously identified areas. That is, 01 in farms located near watercourses and 2 in farms near forest areas. The traps were at least 300 metres apart in the forest zone. The various captures took place between November and December 2022. The traps were set at 7 a.m. and retrieved at 6 p.m. for 08 days. While the traps were being retrieved, the capture cages were labelled with the trap number and brought back to the laboratory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConservation and identification of Tabanidae and Stomoxes\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe insects collected were then placed in a freezer for twenty minutes to kill any insects that were still alive before being stored in a vial containing 70\u0026deg; ethanol. They were then sorted in the laboratory under a binocular magnifying glass to separate the Stomoxes from the tabanids. The identification of the different Stomoxyinae species was then developed using the determination keys of Zumpt (1973) and the additional morphological character described by Garros et al. (2004) to better separate \u003cem\u003eS. calcitrans\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus, 1758) and \u003cem\u003eS. niger niger\u003c/em\u003e (Macquart, 1851). The Tabanidae were identified using the identification keys published by Oldroyd (1973).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e➣ Margalef's diversity\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp class=\"Section3\"\u003eMargalef's diversity index was calculated to assess the diversity of tabanids in the biosphere reserve. This is calculated using the following formula: the ratio of the number of species (S) minus one (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) to the log of the total number of individuals collected (N).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equa\" class=\"mathdisplay\"\u003e$$\\:\\:\\varvec{D}=\\frac{(\\mathbf{S}-1)}{\\mathbf{l}\\mathbf{n}\\:\\left(\\mathbf{N}\\right)\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e➣ Density\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis corresponds to the abundance of the different species of tabanids caught and is expressed by calculating their apparent density per trap per day.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e➣ Apparent density\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ1\" class=\"mathdisplay\"\u003e$$\\:\\varvec{D}\\varvec{A}=\\frac{\\:\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{s}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{s}\\:\\text{c}\\text{a}\\text{u}\\text{g}\\text{h}\\text{t}\\:(\\text{m}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{e}+\\text{f}\\text{e}\\text{m}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{e})}{\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{a}\\text{p}\\text{s}\\:\\text{x}\\:\\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{t}\\text{r}\\text{a}\\text{p}\\:\\text{d}\\text{a}\\text{y}\\text{s}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e➣ Specific density\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ2\" class=\"mathdisplay\"\u003e$$\\:\\:\\varvec{D}\\varvec{S}=\\left[\\frac{\\:\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{i}\\text{d}\\text{u}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{s}\\:\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{l}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{g}\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{g}\\:\\text{t}\\text{o}\\:\\text{a}\\:\\text{g}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}}{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{i}\\text{d}\\text{u}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{s}\\:\\text{o}\\text{f}\\:\\text{a}\\text{l}\\text{l}\\:\\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s}\\:\\text{c}\\text{a}\\text{u}\\text{g}\\text{h}\\text{t}}\\right]100$$\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInventory of species and calculation of overall prevalence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver a period of eight days, seventy-seven specimens were captured using three Vavoua traps. These vectors were classified into two distinct families, namely the Tabanidae and the Stomoxyinae. With regard to the Tabanidae, we recorded a total of 34 flies, divided between two genera: three Philipotabanus elviae and thirty-one Tabanus taeniola. In the Stomoxyinae family, we identified 18 Stomoxys indicus and 25 Stomoxys calcitrans (\u003cstrong\u003eFig. 2\u003c/strong\u003e). Identification of horseflies and Stomoxys\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCalculation of apparent density\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll 77 haematophagous flies were collected over a period of eight days, which is equivalent to an apparent density (AD) of 3.208 flies per day. Of these flies, 37.66% or 29 individuals were caught in zone 1, characterised by the proximity of farms to watercourses, with an apparent density per trap and per day of 3.625 flies per trap per day. In zone 2, where the farms are close to forested areas, 48 specimens (62.34% of the total) were collected, with an apparent density of 3 flies per trap per day (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApparent density of biting flies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAreas\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumbers of\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumbers of\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApparent density\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Flies/trap/day)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eArea 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.625\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eArea 2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDistribution of genera by biotope\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the two environments used to place the traps, three genera of flies were identified. In the area close to the watercourses (Area 1), the apparent density of Stomoxys was 1.125 flies per trap per day, which is equivalent to a total of 9 flies caught per trap in eight days. For the genus Tabanus, the apparent density was estimated at 2.125 flies per trap per day, either a total of 17 flies caught over the same period. For the Philipotabanus genus, the apparent density was lower, with 0.375 flies per trap per day, representing a total of 03 flies caught. No Philipotabanus specimens were caught during the entire sampling period in traps placed on farms close to forested areas (Area 2). The apparent density for the genus Stomoxys in this same biotope was 2.125 flies per trap per day, iether a total of 34 flies caught. For the genus Tabanus, the apparent density was 0.875 flies per trap per day, equivalent to a total of 14 flies per trap per day (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssessment of specific densities according to species composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe composition of the haematophagous flies caught during this study enabled them to be classified into four distinct species: Stomoxys calcitrans, Stomoxys indicus, Tabanus taeniola and Philipotabanus elviae. The Stomoxys calcitrans species accounted for 32.46% of the total, iether a total of 25 flies out of the 77 caught. For the species Stomoxys indicus, the specific density was 23.37%, equivalent to 18 flies. Next, the species Tabanus taeniola had a higher specific density, at 40.26%, with 31 individuals out of a total of 77 flies. Finally, Philipotabanus elviae was less represented, with only 3 individuals out of 77, corresponding to a specific density of 3.90% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDiversity of haematophagous flies in relation to the biotope\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex, which reflects the variety of tabanids and Stomoxes, revealed that the majority of flies were caught in the forest zone (48 specimens) using the Vavoua trap, compared with 29 caught in the area near watercourses. The biodiversity observed was not dominated by tabanids or Stomoxes, and only two tabanid species (Philipotabanus elviae and Tabanus taeniola) and two Stomoxes species (Stomoxys indicus and Stomoxys calcitrans) were collected. Margalef's diversity indices were 0,265 for Stomoxes and 0,283 for Tabanidae (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe data collected from this study revealed the presence of four (04) species of biting flies: Philipotabanus elviae, Tabanus taeniola, Stomoxys indicus and Stomoxys calcitrans, all belonging to two families: Stomoxyinae and Tabanidae. The size of the samples obtained during the capture would seem to be linked to the period (November) of capture and above all to the use of certain repellents against these biting insects. Furthermore, the low captures during this study could be explained by the use of a single type of trap (Ange et al. 2016). Entomological findings in this study revealed 43 (55.84%) Stomoxys, 03 (3.89%) Philipotabanus and 31 (23.87%) Tabnus were captured during this work. This variability of species could be linked to the presence of the watercourses that drain this department and, above all, the edges and forests that constitute a favourable habitat for their development. Other findings revealed the presence of 18%.58 (704/3085) of Tabanus and Stomoxys (Seyoun et al. 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall apparent density of biting flies (Tabanus and Stomoxys) was 3.208 flies/day. This low apparent density is probably due to the period (early dry season) of capture (November-December). Similar results of a low apparent density (2.93 flies/trap/day) of biting flies have been obtained (Seyoun et al. 2022). Moreover, these low apparent densities of Tabanus and Stomoxys have already been revealed by several authors (Eyasu et al. 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe apparent densities of haematophagous flies in relation to the type of biotope revealed that in farms located near watercourses (Zone 1) the apparent density was 3.625 compared with 3 farms near forested areas. These high numbers of biting flies in the two habitats could be due to the increased humidity in these areas during the drought, which would be conducive to their activity. The variation observed is in agreement with that of Desta et al. (2013) and Seyoun et al. (2022) who showed a high apparent density of tsetse flies in the riverine vegetation type followed by savannah, forest, bush and cultivated areas. In addition, the density according to the genus of flies recorded an identical apparent density of 2.125 for Tabanus and Stomoxys. The diversity of hosts available would appear to contribute to their distribution in this locality. Our results are at odds with other studies that confirm the predominance of the Tabanus genus in C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire (Acapovi et al. 2013) and Cameroon (Eteme et al. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, Tabnus taeniola was the fly represented (40.26%) in the specific distribution of haematophagous flies. This zone being the ecological transition zone, it would be better suited to this species. The species T. par and T. taeniola were observed in all biotopes with a high abundance in forest galleries (Eteme et al. 2023). Acapovi (2005) showed that T. taeniola and T. par are abundant in all biotopes and collections of swampy water, which represent breeding sites for the latter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study reports that only four species of haematophagous flies were captured, including Philipotabanus elviae, Tabanus taeniola, Stomoxys indicus and Stomoxys calcitrans. This low diversity could be explained by the capture period and, above all, by the duration of the study. These opposite results were reported in studies conducted by researchers in Makokou, Gabon, which revealed the presence of seven Stomoxys species (Mavoungou et al. 2013). On the other hand, another study in Gabon, focusing on the inventory of haematophagous flies, revealed that the stomox family was the only group of haematophagous flies captured during our study (Kutomy et al. 2014).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provided an overview of the diversity of vectors of bovine anaplasmosis in the department of Kounahiri. It revealed the presence of Stomoxyinae and Tabanidae in the different sites studied. Consequently, the distribution of the diversity of species of haematophagous flies (Stomoxys, Philipotabanus and Tabanus) captured was almost balanced. We caught a total of 03 Philipotabanus elviae and thirty-one Tabanus taeniola, 18 Stomoxys indicus and 25 Stomoxys calcitrans. In addition, a high specific density (40.26%) was obtained for the Tabanus taeniola species, either 31 out of 77 flies. Appropriate control and monitoring methods will need to be implemented in each case. The inclusion of mechanical vectors in vector control strategies should help to minimise the impact of biting flies on livestock.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiment was non-invasive and complied with Ivorian legislation. At the end of the study, the specimens were deposited in the entomological collection of the Korhogo Regional Laboratory (LRK), C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompeting interests on behalf of all the authors, I hereby state that there is no conflict of interest, including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations, which could inappropriately influence this work. The participating authors grant their authorization for the publication of this study in \u003cb\u003eInternational Journal of Tropical Insect Science\u003c/b\u003e. This work has not been published previously, and it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgment:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur thanks go to the head and senior research technicians of the Regional Laboratory of Korhogo (LRK) of the National Laboratory for Agricultural Development Support (LANADA) in the parasitology department.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e-Godfray H, Charles J, Aveyard P, Garnett T, Hall JW, Key TJ, Lorimer J, Pierrehumbert RT, Scarborough P, Springmann M, Jebb SA (2018) Meat consumption, health, and the environment. 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Entomologie Faunistique 69:111\u0026ndash;123\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e-Seyoun W, Tora E, Kore K, et Lejebo F (2022) Seasonal patterns: Bovine trypanosomosis, \u003cem\u003eGlossina pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e density, and infection in Rift Valleys of Gamo zone, Southern Ethiapia. Front Veterinary Sci 9:805564\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e-Eyasu T, Mekuria S, et Sheferaw D (2022) Seasonal prevalence of trypanosomosis, Glossina density and infection along the escarpment of Omo River, Loma district, Southern Ethiopia. Heliyon 7(4):e06667\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e-Desta M, Menkir S, et Kebede A (2013) The study on tsetse fly (Glossina species) and their role in the trypanosome infection rate in Birbir valley, Baro Akobo river system, western Ethiopia. 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J Experimental Appl Trop Biology 3(1):15\u0026ndash;25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e-Acapovi-Yao GL (2005) Identification et bio \u0026eacute;cologie des Tabanid\u0026eacute;s, vecteurs m\u0026eacute;caniques potentiels de la transmission de la trypanosomose bovine dans les r\u0026eacute;gions de savanes en C\u0026ocirc;te d\u0026rsquo;Ivoire (Odienn\u0026eacute; et Korhogo). Th\u0026egrave;se de Doctorat, Universit\u0026eacute; de Cocody, Abidjan (C\u0026ocirc;te d\u0026rsquo;Ivoire), 147 p\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e-Mavoungou JF, Picard N, Kohagne LT, M\u0026rsquo;batchi B, Gilles J, et Duvallet G (2013) Spatiotemporal variation of biting flies, Stomoxys spp. (Diptera: Muscidae), along a man-made disturbance gradient, from primary forest to the city of Makokou (North-East, Gabon). Med Vet Entomol 27:339\u0026ndash;345\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e-Kutomy POO, Koumba CRZ, Nguema OAM, Sembene PM, et, Mavoungou JF (2014) Inventaire des mouches h\u0026eacute;matophages dans les \u0026eacute;levages bovins, ovins et porcins \u0026agrave; Oyem (Nord Gabon). Afrique Sci 10(2):373\u0026ndash;381\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtis","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Tropical Insect Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/42690)","snPcode":"42690","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jtis/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Tabanus taeniola, diversity, Stomoxys calcitrans, Philipotabanus elviae, Flies, Côte d’Ivoire","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4831525/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4831525/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to identify the hematophagous flies that contribute to disease transmission in cattle. This work took place in the department of Kounahiri (C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire), 520 km from the city of Abidjan in December 2022. It took place over 08 days. Tabanidae and Stomoxyinae were caught using Vavoua traps. The insects collected were then placed in a freezer for twenty minutes to kill any insects that were still alive before being stored in a vial containing 70\u0026deg; ethanol. The identification of the different Stomoxyinae species was then developed using the determination keys of Zumpt and the additional morphological character to better separate S. calcitrans and S. niger niger. The Tabanidae were identified using the identification keys published by Oldroyd. The Tabanidae were divided into two genera: three (03) Philipotabanus elviae and thirty-one (31) Tabanus taeniola. On the other hand, among the Stomoxyinae, we identified 18 Stomoxys indicus and 25 Stomoxys calcitrans. The apparent density (AD) was 3.208 flies per day. As for the assessment of specific densities as a function of species composition, \u003cem\u003eTabanus taeniola\u003c/em\u003e had a higher specific density, at 40.26%, with 31 individuals out of a total of 77 flies. In addition, the diversity of haematophagous flies in relation to the biotope gave Margalef\u0026rsquo;s diversity indices of 0.612 for Stomoxes and 0.652 for Tabanidae. We can conclude from this research that, the inclusion of mechanical vectors in vector control strategies should help to minimise the impact of biting flies on livestock.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Overview of haematophagous flies involved in the transmission of vector-borne diseases in cattle","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-28 10:06:01","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4831525/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":2},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-08-01T09:17:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-07-31T12:46:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","date":"2024-07-30T20:48:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtis","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Tropical Insect Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/42690)","snPcode":"42690","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jtis/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9c90abc0-f0ea-4333-a3a0-ac8520205aa9","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 28th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-02T16:00:34+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4831525","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-025-01540-5","journal":{"identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isVorOnly":false,"title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science"},"publishedOn":"2025-05-31 15:57:19","publishedOnDateReadable":"May 31st, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-28 10:06:01","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s42690-025-01540-5","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-025-01540-5","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4831525","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4831525","identity":"rs-4831525","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}