Mapping Virtual Reality Research in Science Education: A Systematic and Bibliometric Review with Implications for Ethnoscience Research

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However, its integration with ethnoscience remains underexplored. Methods This study employed a systematic literature review following PRISMA guidelines combined with bibliometric analysis. Data were collected from the Scopus and CrossRef databases (2016–2025) and analyzed using VOSviewer. Results The findings indicate a steady increase in VR-related publications, particularly in 2025. Research is predominantly conducted in higher education contexts, with chemistry and biology as the main disciplines. Research and development, as well as experimental methods, are the most commonly employed approaches, with questionnaires and tests serving as the primary data collection instruments. Bibliometric mapping identifies virtual reality as the central theme, with emerging interdisciplinary connections, including ethnoscience, although these remain limited. Conclusions VR research in science education is rapidly growing and holds strong potential to enhance learning. However, integration with ethnoscience remains limited, highlighting the need for culturally contextualized VR learning environments. " } { "@context": "http://schema.org", "@type": "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement": [ { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "1", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/", "name": "Home" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "2", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/browse/articles", "name": "Browse" } }, { "@type": "ListItem", "position": "3", "item": { "@id": "https://f1000research.com/articles/15-597", "name": "Mapping Virtual Reality Research in Science Education: A Systematic..." } } ] } Home Browse Mapping Virtual Reality Research in Science Education: A Systematic... ALL Metrics - Views Downloads Get PDF Get XML Cite How to cite this article Sudarmin S, Noor Savitri E, Septiana Sari D et al. Mapping Virtual Reality Research in Science Education: A Systematic and Bibliometric Review with Implications for Ethnoscience Research [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :597 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179348.1 ) NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article. Close Copy Citation Details Export Export Citation Sciwheel EndNote Ref. Manager Bibtex ProCite Sente EXPORT Select a format first Track Share ▬ ✚ Systematic Review Mapping Virtual Reality Research in Science Education: A Systematic and Bibliometric Review with Implications for Ethnoscience Research [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] Sudarmin Sudarmin https://orcid.org/0009-0009-5316-327X 1 , Erna Noor Savitri https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5726-9081 2 , Dwi Septiana Sari 2 , Qori Agussuryani Puji Hartini https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4627-0683 2,3 , Reza Akmar 2 , Edy Hafizan bin Mohd Shahali 4 Sudarmin Sudarmin https://orcid.org/0009-0009-5316-327X 1 , Erna Noor Savitri https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5726-9081 2 , [...] Dwi Septiana Sari 2 , Qori Agussuryani Puji Hartini https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4627-0683 2,3 , Reza Akmar 2 , Edy Hafizan bin Mohd Shahali 4 PUBLISHED 19 Apr 2026 Author details Author details 1 Chemistry Education, Universitas Negeri Semarang Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Semarang, Central Java, 50229, Indonesia 2 Science Education, Universitas Negeri Semarang Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Semarang, Central Java, 50229, Indonesia 3 Elementary School Education, Universitas Sains Al-Qur'an, Wonosobo, Central Java, 56351, Indonesia 4 Mathematics and Science Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia Sudarmin Sudarmin Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project Administration, Software, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Erna Noor Savitri Roles: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing Dwi Septiana Sari Roles: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing Qori Agussuryani Puji Hartini Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Software, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Reza Akmar Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Software, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Edy Hafizan bin Mohd Shahali Roles: Data Curation, Methodology, Resources, Writing – Review & Editing OPEN PEER REVIEW REVIEWER STATUS AWAITING PEER REVIEW Abstract Background Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a transformative technology in science education, offering immersive learning experiences that enhance conceptual understanding. However, its integration with ethnoscience remains underexplored. Methods This study employed a systematic literature review following PRISMA guidelines combined with bibliometric analysis. Data were collected from the Scopus and CrossRef databases (2016–2025) and analyzed using VOSviewer. Results The findings indicate a steady increase in VR-related publications, particularly in 2025. Research is predominantly conducted in higher education contexts, with chemistry and biology as the main disciplines. Research and development, as well as experimental methods, are the most commonly employed approaches, with questionnaires and tests serving as the primary data collection instruments. Bibliometric mapping identifies virtual reality as the central theme, with emerging interdisciplinary connections, including ethnoscience, although these remain limited. Conclusions VR research in science education is rapidly growing and holds strong potential to enhance learning. However, integration with ethnoscience remains limited, highlighting the need for culturally contextualized VR learning environments. READ ALL READ LESS Keywords Bibliometric mapping, virtual reality, keyword analysis, PRISMA, ethnoscience Corresponding Author(s) Sudarmin Sudarmin ( [email protected] ) Erna Noor Savitri ( [email protected] ) Close Corresponding authors: Sudarmin Sudarmin, Erna Noor Savitri Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information: This research is funded by the Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) on behalf of the Indonesian Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology and managed under the EQUITY Program (Contract No. 4311/B3/DT.03.08/2025) under grant number of 4.11.11/UN37/PPK.RO1/2025 The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Copyright: © 2026 Sudarmin S et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Sudarmin S, Noor Savitri E, Septiana Sari D et al. Mapping Virtual Reality Research in Science Education: A Systematic and Bibliometric Review with Implications for Ethnoscience Research [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] . F1000Research 2026, 15 :597 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179348.1 ) First published: 19 Apr 2026, 15 :597 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179348.1 ) Latest published: 19 Apr 2026, 15 :597 ( https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179348.1 ) Introduction Virtual reality (VR) is emerging as a dynamic and transformative force in educational technology, expanding far beyond its original purpose in gaming and simulations to new potentials in learning, particularly in STEM fields. Essentially, VR is a technology that utilizes computer-generated environments to simulate realistic or imaginary experiences, providing users with a sense of depth and immersion in their virtual space. 1 This perception of physical presence in a non-physical world allows for higher levels of engagement and interaction than conventional learning. 2 VR’s unique pedagogical potential comes from its ability to make abstract scientific concepts more sensory and understandable. 3 Compared to traditional learning methods that rely on abstract symbols such as equations and diagrams, VR allows students to explore and interact with scientific phenomena in a physically impossible yet concrete, three-dimensional way. For example, students can be virtually shrunk to the size of a human cell to explore its organelles, navigate the vastness of the solar system, or conduct high-stakes experiments in a virtual laboratory. 4 , 5 This ability to provide learning experiences that would otherwise be impossible for various reasons is a significant potential. Proponents of this technology have long predicted VR’s unique potential to revolutionize education at a fundamental level, transforming the cognitive processes of learning and enhancing conventional learning resources. The core of VR in science education is the transition from symbolic representation to sensory experience. In fields like physics, chemistry, and biology, where students struggle to understand phenomena that are too big or too small to see, VR can help them visualize them. 6 VR technology can help students learn in ways that traditional, passive learning cannot. For example, it lets students interact with virtual objects, try things out, and directly explore complex systems. This active, experience-based method is not just an extra tool; it changes the way science is taught and understood. Moreover, VR provides a distinctive opportunity to incorporate cultural context and local knowledge into scientific education through ethnoscience. VR can bring ethnoscience to life. Ethnoscience is the study of how different cultural groups understand and categorize the natural world. Students can virtually look at how a community used to do science. This method not only deepens their understanding of science, but it also helps them appreciate the variety of knowledge and how science is important in different cultures. 7 The implications of integrating VR into ethnoscience research are significant, transcending mere pedagogical improvement to tackle concerns of cultural preservation and equity in science education. 8 VR can validate and contextualize indigenous knowledge systems, such as traditional farming methods, herbal drinks, and traditional medicine, as rigorous forms of science by allowing researchers and students to experience them firsthand. 9 – 11 This process shifts ethnoscience from a field that merely describes things to one that lets people experience them, helping Western and indigenous scientific paradigms better talk to each other. Crucially, VR can help safeguard intangible cultural heritage by creating persistent, immersive records of traditional practices and environments that may be vulnerable to modernization or environmental change, ensuring that this knowledge remains accessible for future generations. Research on VR in education has grown rapidly to date, especially between 2016 and 2025, when the number of publications rose steadily and significantly. This marks a shift from an experimental to a well-studied and widely accepted area of educational technology. Since it was first conceived, VR technology has advanced rapidly, with new features, improvements, and advancements never seen before. 12 There is a lot of research on using VR in science education, so we need to conduct a structured study to examine research trends over the last 10 years. In this regard, this article uses bibliometric analysis and a systematic literature review (SLR) to examine trends in VR research across publicly accessible academic databases. SLR is an ideal method for systematically identifying and synthesizing prior studies on a specific topic. This approach minimizes bias by conducting a more comprehensive search than relying on a handful of studies. Then, to provide a quantitative map of research trends, a bibliometric analysis of keywords used in the selected studies was conducted. Overall, this study aims to identify research trends in VR for science learning over the past 10 years. This study is expected to answer the following questions: 1) What are the keywords that have become trends in VR research over time? 2) What is the overall trend of VR research in science learning? 3) What are the trends in VR research by location, year, level, type of research, and discipline? Even though there are many new studies examining how virtual reality (VR) can be used in science education, most reviews have focused on how well the technology works, how well students learn, or how well VR-based learning environments are designed. Few studies examine how VR research and culturally grounded perspectives, such as ethnoscience, work together. Ethnoscience emphasizes the importance of integrating local environmental knowledge, indigenous knowledge, and cultural practices into formal science education. However, the extent to which VR research has addressed this cultural dimension remains unclear. Consequently, there is a need for a comprehensive mapping of VR research trends in science education that not only identifies dominant themes and research patterns but also highlights opportunities for integrating VR with ethnoscience approaches. By combining a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis, this study aims to provide an overview of global research trends in VR for science education and to explore its potential implications for ethnoscience-based learning. Methods This review was conducted qualitatively using the systematic literature review (SLR) method and quantitatively using bibliometric analysis, followed by knowledge synthesis of the obtained articles. The SLR in this study followed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. 13 Metadata was sourced from several academic databases, namely Scopus and CrossRef, using the Publish or Perish software. The search used the Boolean query (“virtual reality” OR “VR”) AND (“science education” OR “science learning”) to identify publications on immersive technologies in scientific instructional settings. To focus on the most recent research on VR-based science education, the search was limited to peer-reviewed journal articles published in English between 2016 and 2025. The last search took place in January 2026. The search was also limited to English-language research articles published between 2016 and 2025, thereby excluding review articles, non-English articles, and articles outside the specified time range. Data were collected and checked for duplicate data or data that did not meet the criteria. The PRISMA framework was used to do the screening process in two steps. First, we reviewed the titles and abstracts to exclude articles that weren’t about science education or only briefly mentioned virtual reality. Second, the full texts of the other articles were reviewed to ensure they met the Population–Concept–Context (PCC) framework’s inclusion criteria. We excluded articles that were difficult to access or lacked sufficient methodological information from the final dataset. Inclusion and exclusion criteria followed the PCC (Population, Concept, and Context) format 14 ( Table 1 ). Data were collected in a dataset with RIS format (.ris), which contains important metadata, such as title, author, year, volume, issue number, and keywords. A bibliometric analysis of the article dataset was conducted using VOSviewer. The analysis focused on keyword co-occurrence to identify dominant research themes and relationships among topics in the selected publications. VOSviewer generated network visualizations and temporal maps that illustrate the evolution of research topics. These visualizations were then interpreted qualitatively to understand the development of VR research in science education and to explore emerging links with ethnoscience-related contexts. Articles included in the bibliometric map were those that included “virtual reality” and “science education” among their keywords. Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria with the PCC framework. Criteria Inclusion Exclusion Population K-12, Elementary, secondary, and higher education Non-formal education, professional education Concept Virtual reality media developed or integrated for science learning Unspecified use of VR or only using VR features in an insubstantial amount Context Science subjects (e.g, physics, chemistry, biology) or interdisciplinary subjects (e.g., earth science, astronomy, environmental science, etc.) Subjects or disciplines outside of science (e.g., mathematics, computer science, etc) or professional disciplines that include science but are intended for professional learning (e.g., medicine, pharmacology, nursing) The initial search yielded 839 articles from Scopus (n = 372), CrossRef (n = 449), and additional sources (n = 18) ( Figure 1 ). Prior to screening, 26 duplicate and non-English documents were removed. The first screening screened non-research articles (reviews, grey papers, proceedings, theses/dissertations) and articles that did not meet the criteria based on their titles and abstracts, reducing the total to 813 articles. The number of articles after the initial screening was reduced to 77. The next screening involved reviewing the full texts of the articles, which also identified those that were inaccessible or locked behind paywalls. This stage reduced the number of articles to 31, which were deemed to cover VR and science education and were therefore included in the bibliometric analysis and systematic literature review ( Figure 1 ). The final dataset was small, but the strict inclusion criteria ensured that all selected articles focused on how virtual reality could be used in science education. This focused dataset allowed for a more in-depth analysis of thematic trends and research patterns in the field. Figure 1. PRISMA flowchart showing the article selection process. Results A dataset comprising 31 articles was uploaded to VOSviewer, and a bibliometric map was subsequently generated ( Figure 2 ). The results of the bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer identified dynamic research trends centered on VR applications in science education. The keyword map indicates that VR is the central keyword, with the highest frequency, serving as a primary link to other topics. Meanwhile, the temporal trend is evident through the color gradation from purple to yellow on the bibliometric map. Figure 2. Bibliometric map for the keyword from 2020 to 2026. Cluster analysis shows that the research focus is split into a few main areas. The biggest cluster shows how this technology is being used in chemistry and physics classes. Words like “simulation” and “virtual laboratory” are very similar. This shows a strong trend toward using VR to create safe yet realistic lab experiences, such as using haptic technology to make learning-by-doing more effective. Another group of words is about the teaching and psychological effects of using technology in K-12 and STEM education. Some of these words are “learning performance,” “engagement,” and “cognitive load.” Another trend noticed is that topics such as “augmented reality,” “higher education,” and “chemistry” come up frequently. This is because people often compare augmented reality (AR) to virtual reality (VR). Both of these technologies aim to create a “virtual environment,” but VR is more immersive than AR. 15 The keyword “higher education” indicates a trend toward VR in higher education. The things studied in higher education are often more complicated or even dangerous, 16 , 17 which could explain this. The same reasons may also explain why VR is becoming more popular in chemistry classes. Temporal analysis, visualized through color on the map, further clarifies the evolution of research topics. Keywords in blue, representing early publications circa 2020, tend to focus on the fundamental concepts of technology and its impact on learning. Over time, research trends shift, as indicated by the green cluster (2022–2025), which highlights applications in more specific and interdisciplinary fields, including “biotechnology,” “ethnoscience,” and “climate change education.” This shift indicates that the scientific community is moving from a general exploration of VR to utilizing it as a specific tool to raise awareness of interdisciplinary issues. Furthermore, the emergence of keywords in yellow, although small, indicates that research on the application of VR and AR at lower levels of education, such as “elementary school,” is expected to be a growing focus area in the future. 18 Overall, this bibliometric map confirms that the use of virtual reality technology in science education is a rapidly developing field with significant potential for continued exploration across various disciplinary contexts ( Figure 2 ). Most publications are from Asia, with 17 articles from 7 countries ( Table 2 ). China had the most publications, with six articles, followed by Taiwan and Indonesia, with 4 and 3 articles, respectively. America contributed four articles, with three from the United States and one from Mexico. Furthermore, Europe contributed significantly, with seven publications from five countries; Finland and the UK had the most, with two articles each. Furthermore, articles came from Australia and South Africa, with 2 and 1, respectively. It appears that publications are concentrated in Asia, particularly China, as a previous literature review found China to be the top publisher in VR research in education. 19 Table 2. Summary of search results by continent and country. Category Subcategory Frequency Percentage (%) Asia China 6 19.4 Taiwan 4 12.9 Indonesia 3 9.7% India, Japan, Palestine, South Korea 1 (4) 3.2 (12.9) Europe Finland, UK 2 (4) 6.5 (12.9) Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands 1 (3) 3.2 (9.7) America United States 3 9.7 Mexico 1 3.2 Australia Australia 2 6.5 Africa South Africa 1 3.2 Based on the year and publication volume, a positive trend in the use of virtual reality (VR) in science learning is observed from 2016 to 2025 ( Table 3 ). In the early years, the number of articles published was relatively small, with one article each in 2017 and 2018. Since 2019, interest has steadily increased, with the number of publications rising from 3 to 4 and peaking at 5 in 2021. Although there was a temporary decline to 2 articles in 2022, the research trend increased again and stabilized at four articles in 2023 and 2024. Table 3. Summary of search results by year, level of education, type of study, subjects, and data collection method. Category Subcategory Frequency Percentage (%) Year 2017 1 3.2 2018 1 3.2 2019 3 9.7 2020 4 12.9 2021 5 16.1 2022 2 6.5 2023 5 16.1 2024 4 12.9 2025 6 19.4 Level Higher education 17 54.8 Secondary school (High) 6 19.4 Secondary school (Middle) 3 9.7 Elementary school 3 9.7 Unspecified/general 2 6.5 Type of Study R&D 16 51.6 Experimental 8 25.8 Case study 3 9.7 Mixed methods 2 6.5 Comparative study 1 3.2 Explorative study 1 3.2 Subjects Chemistry 9 29.0 Biology 6 19.4 Unspecified/general 5 16.1 Physics 5 16.1 Environmental 4 12.9 Geography 1 3.2 Geology 1 3.2 Data collection methods Test 10 27.8 Questionnaire 9 25.0 Feedback form 5 13.9 Case 3 8.3 Interview 3 8.3 Group discussion 2 5.6 Survey 2 5.6 Neuroimaging 1 2.8 Observation 1 2.8 The most significant peak in interest occurred in 2025, when the number of articles increased sharply to 6. By educational level, research on VR in science learning is predominantly concentrated at the tertiary level (17 articles), followed by secondary schools (middle and high; 9 articles) and elementary schools (4 articles). Only two articles did not specify the educational level or were intended for a general audience. 20 , 21 These data indicate that research on the application of VR in science education is predominantly at the tertiary level. This is because learning at the tertiary level demands more complex skills and cognitive abilities, making VR-based visualization highly desirable. 19 Meanwhile, by subject or discipline, research on VR in science education focuses most on chemistry (10 articles) and biology (7 articles). General subjects have six articles, while environmental science and physics each have five articles. The least research is found in geography and geology, with only 1 article per subject. This indicates that VR is currently being explored more in core science fields. Meanwhile, based on the methods used, R&D (Research and Development) was the most dominant approach in the last ten years, occurring 20 times. This method indicates a strong focus on developing VR-based products or learning models. The second most frequently used method was experimental, with nine studies, indicating a tendency to test the effectiveness of the developed products. Meanwhile, case studies were used three times, whereas comparative, exploratory, and mixed methods were used only once each. These data suggest that research in this area is predominantly focused on development and testing rather than on comparative or exploratory analysis. 22 However, these less frequent methods can provide new insights into VR research, such as one study comparing VR in a mobile physics laboratory with similar VR in a room-scale environment. 23 Regarding data collection, there is a clear concentration of research publications that utilize specific methods. The most dominant methods are tests and questionnaires, which together account for over half of all publications, with 10 and 9 publications, respectively. This indicates a strong preference for quantitative data collection in this field. A second tier of methods, including feedback forms, case studies, and interviews, is used moderately, while a long tail of methods, such as group discussions, surveys, neuroimaging, and observations, are far less common, each appearing in only one or two publications. This trend suggests that the field relies heavily on a few key methods for data collection, with a limited number of studies employing more complex or less traditional approaches. Implications for ethnoscience research Further analysis revealed a variety of topics; some studies focused on delivering content knowledge, for example, through the visualization of molecular structures, while others focused on practical simulations or hands-on practice in virtual environments as a substitute for traditional laboratories ( Table 4 ). Table 4. The Identified topics for each subject. Subjects Selected topics Chemistry Reaction rate (ethno-chemistry), 26 colloid, 25 molecule structure, 38 organic chemistry, 39 alloys, 40 laboratory work, 41 molecular geometry, 42 atomic structure, 6 FTIR spectroscopy 43 Biology Ecology and biodiversity (teh oyol), 24 biotechnology, 44 forensic molecular biology, 45 microscope experiment, 46 microbiology, 47 cells, 4 anatomy 48 Unspecified/general Climate change, 49 renewable energy power plant, 50 green energy 21 Physics Quantum chemistry, 51 motion, 52 solar system 5 Environmental Ocean coastal, 53 ecosystem Geography Urban design fieldwork 54 Geology Erosion and deposition 55 Among this diversity of topics, a small number of studies identified the potential for an ethnoscience approach, as seen in the subtopics of reaction rates, colloids, ecology & biodiversity, and biotechnology. 24 – 26 The use of VR in these topics can be interpreted as an effort to bridge the gap between formal science and local contexts and traditional practices. While still limited, these initial indications are worth examining further because they reveal a gap for VR to serve as a connecting medium between modern science and local wisdom. The emergence of these topics, although not yet mainstream research, warrants further study to better understand the implications of VR as a research and learning tool in the context of ethnoscience. Ethnoscience, in anthropological studies, refers to a system of knowledge built to classify and interpret objects, activities, and events within a particular cultural community. 27 In recent years, ethnoscience has begun to be recognized and integrated into formal science education, resulting in a positive trend in its publications. 28 , 29 Ethnoscience-based learning involves integrating the teaching and learning process with knowledge derived from local cultures to make it more relevant and meaningful. 30 Alongside the development of ethnoscience, VR technology has also experienced a significant increase in research on science education, as previously described. Therefore, the combination of these two major trends, namely the drive to contextualize science through ethnoscience approaches and the ability of VR to create immersive and authentic learning environments, has resulted in several studies specifically exploring the integration of VR and ethnoscience. 31 , 32 VR is seen as an ideal technological medium because it can address the challenges of ethnoscience. The goal of an ethnoscience approach to create more relevant learning for students can be further realized through VR. Ethnoscience is essentially indigenous knowledge that is highly dependent on specific local contexts and conditions. 33 For example, the Subak system in Bali, which combines hydrological and agricultural knowledge with specific social structures and religious philosophies, is closely linked to the environmental, ecosystem, and ecological conditions of the areas it inhabits. 34 Similarly, the Baduy people’s conservation knowledge is closely tied to the environmental, ecosystem, and ecological conditions of the areas they inhabit. VR can bring these contextual examples directly into the classroom without sacrificing depth. With VR, students not only read descriptions of Subak or Bajo people’s conservation practices but can also experience an immersive simulation of being a Pekaseh (leader) managing water distribution, understanding the relationship between temples and rice fields, and observing seasonal planting cycles. They could also experience how Baduy people practice sustainable farming, using natural resources with respect for their sacred lands. 35 This approach makes ethnoscience learning more engaging, authentic, and meaningful, allowing students to interact with local knowledge that is difficult to access. In line with this, VR is also a new and engaging content-delivery medium for students, although it is not yet fully immersive or capable of simulating environments. Ethnoscience-based media with non-immersive VR on the spatial.io platform has also been developed into a virtual gallery, allowing students to explore the media while viewing the content, much like a museum or gallery. 24 , 25 This approach offers the advantage of presenting content in a structured and narrative manner, which is invaluable in the ethnoscience context. In this virtual space, students can connect artifacts, scientific visualization models, and contextual information (such as descriptive text or videos of traditional processes) in a cohesive flow. Thus, this virtual gallery functions not only as an engaging new medium but also as an interactive digital archive that effectively facilitates in-depth contextual understanding, allowing students to build connections between elements of local knowledge independently. However, to successfully combine VR and ethnoscience, people need to consider both the technical and cultural aspects. Accuracy and validation are the two main problems that need to be solved. First, there is the problem of being true to and correct about culture. Ethnoscience includes practices, rituals, and classification systems unique to a given culture. So, replication in VR needs to be done with high accuracy, and it would be best if it were checked by people who know what they are talking about. 8 If this level of accuracy and authenticity is not maintained, cultural heritage can be distorted or misinterpreted. Second, there is the problem of how to check the validity. A lot of VR research in science uses tests and questionnaires to measure cognitive aspects. At the same time, the effectiveness of VR in ethnoscience must also be judged by how well it helps people understand the context and by its cultural appropriateness. Consequently, subsequent research must achieve methodological equilibrium by integrating additional qualitative techniques (e.g., comprehensive interviews, observations, and case studies) to validate and enhance the significance of the experiences provided by VR technology. The implications of virtual reality media on science and ethnoscience research Virtual Reality (VR) has profound implications for science education and ethnoscience research, as this immersive technology enhances the learning experience through interactive simulations that promote comprehension of intricate scientific concepts and enable the meaningful representation of cultural contexts in education. STEAM-based VR media can improve many parts of science literacy, such as content, context, competence, and attitudes, among elementary school students. This is a big improvement over traditional methods. 36 At the secondary level, the use of VR in biodiversity education enhances scientific literacy by offering immersive learning experiences that facilitate direct engagement with abstract environmental concepts. 37 Furthermore, incorporating VR into a problem-based learning framework significantly enhances digital literacy and critical thinking, demonstrating that VR facilitates not only the comprehension of scientific concepts but also the cultivation of 21st-century technological skills. From an ethnoscience standpoint, VR facilitates the incorporation of indigenous knowledge and cultural practices into scientific frameworks, as demonstrated by research teams that have created educational models that merge local cultural values with VR to situate scientific learning within community traditions and practices. Research on Virtual Reality (VR) in science education and ethnoscience also creates new opportunities for studies that combine science literacy, digital literacy, and knowledge of local cultures into a single teaching framework. From an ethnoscience standpoint, integrating ethnovlog media with VR rooted in local ecological contexts (e.g., tea ecology) offers culturally pertinent, interactive experiences that enhance students’ scientific process skills while embedding learning within community traditions. Consequently, VR research prompts educators and researchers to reevaluate pedagogical design to prioritize technological fluency, culturally relevant knowledge, and scientific reasoning, thereby cultivating educational environments that are both inclusive and significant for learners from diverse sociocultural backgrounds. Limitations There are some problems with this study that we should keep in mind when interpreting the results. First, the dataset included only publications indexed in Scopus and CrossRef. This could mean that important studies from other academic databases, such as Web of Science, ERIC, or Google Scholar, were not included. Second, the search was limited to English-language publications, which may have made it harder to find studies published in other languages. Third, the dataset of 31 articles is small because of the strict inclusion criteria used in this study. However, it may not show the full range of VR research in science education. Finally, the bibliometric analysis depends on the accuracy of the keywords provided by the authors, which can vary across studies and affect how thematic clusters are identified. Subsequent research may augment the dataset by integrating additional databases and by utilizing supplementary analytical methods, such as citation or network analysis. Conclusions Virtual Reality (VR) has significant potential to address longstanding challenges in science learning, particularly in subjects such as physics and chemistry, by enabling the visualization of abstract and complex concepts through immersive, interactive simulations. Studies indicate that VR technology has been increasingly explored for its capacity to enhance instructional design, presence, and engagement in educational settings, with keyword mappings frequently highlighting virtual reality and science education as central themes in the literature. This shift in focus from foundational VR learning tools toward cross-disciplinary approaches suggests that VR is being positioned not only to support conceptual understanding but also to foster higher-order cognitive skills and deeper student engagement. The implications for VR’s application in ethnoscience research are particularly meaningful, as VR can serve as a bridge between students and culturally contextualized learning experiences that connect scientific understanding with local knowledge and cultural practices. Ethics and consent This study is based solely on previously published literature and does not involve human participants or animals. Therefore, ethical approval was not required. Data availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available in the Figshare repository: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.31889122 under a CC-BY 4.0 license. The PRISMA checklist is available at Figshare: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.31889323 under a CC0 license. 56 Underlying data Figshare: Bibliometric and systematic review dataset for “Mapping Virtual Reality Research in Science Education”. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.31889122 This dataset includes: RIS file of selected articles, Data extraction sheet (year, country, method, subject), Bibliometric data used for VOSviewer analysis, and PRISMA screening data. Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0) . 57 References 1. Jantanukul W: Immersive reality in education: Transforming teaching and learning through AR, VR, and mixed reality technologies. Journal of Education and Learning Reviews. 2024; 1 : 51–62. Publisher Full Text 2. Nagendran S, Zaini H: Perception on the Use of Virtual Reality (VR) for Science Subjects in Primary School: A Systematic Literature Review.2025; IX : 303–312. 3. 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Sudarmin, Noor SE, Septiana SD, et al. : Mapping Virtual Reality Research in Science Education (2016–2025): A Systematic and Bibliometric Review. figshare. 2026 [cited 2026 Apr2]. Publisher Full Text 57. Sudarmin, Noor SE, Septiana SD, et al. : PRISMA 2020 Checklist for: Mapping Virtual Reality Research in Science Education (2016–2025). figshare. 2026 [cited 2026 Apr2]. Publisher Full Text Comments on this article Comments (0) Version 1 VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 19 Apr 2026 ADD YOUR COMMENT Comment Author details Author details 1 Chemistry Education, Universitas Negeri Semarang Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Semarang, Central Java, 50229, Indonesia 2 Science Education, Universitas Negeri Semarang Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Semarang, Central Java, 50229, Indonesia 3 Elementary School Education, Universitas Sains Al-Qur'an, Wonosobo, Central Java, 56351, Indonesia 4 Mathematics and Science Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia Sudarmin Sudarmin Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project Administration, Software, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Erna Noor Savitri Roles: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing Dwi Septiana Sari Roles: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing Qori Agussuryani Puji Hartini Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Software, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Reza Akmar Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Software, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation Edy Hafizan bin Mohd Shahali Roles: Data Curation, Methodology, Resources, Writing – Review & Editing Competing interests No competing interests were disclosed. Grant information This research is funded by the Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) on behalf of the Indonesian Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology and managed under the EQUITY Program (Contract No. 4311/B3/DT.03.08/2025) under grant number of 4.11.11/UN37/PPK.RO1/2025 The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Article Versions (1) version 1 Published: 19 Apr 2026, 15:597 https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.179348.1 Copyright © 2026 Sudarmin S et al . This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Download Export To Sciwheel Bibtex EndNote ProCite Ref. 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