Plant Community Analysis in Embahasti Remnant Forest, Southern Tigray, Ethiopia

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The purpose of this study was to assess the plant communities of Embahasti remnant forest in southern Tigray, Ethiopia. Vegetation data were collected from 40 sample quadrates placed in transect lines, which were systematically laid. All vascular plant species including herbs, shrubs, lianas, and trees in each quadrat were recorded. Hierarchical cluster analysis and Canonical Correspondence analysis (CCA) performed that used for plant community analysis. Shannon-Wiener diversity Index was also computed for ecological data analysis. All the above analysis was performed using R 3.4.1 version software. A total of 74 plant species belonging 44 families were found in the study area; shrubs and trees (70.27%) species were dominant. Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae were the dominant families in terms of species. Three plant communities identified from the forest, namely Olea europaea subsp. Cuspidata – Juniperus procera, Myrsine africana – Erica arborea, Acacia abyssinica – Dodonea angustifolia . The highest Shannon-wiener diversity index was 3.26 while the least was 2.29 found in community one and three, respectively. Altitude, Slope, Grazing and human impacts are the factors influencing species distribution. It is, therefore, based on the results of this study, detailed ecological studies in relation to various environmental factors such as soil type and properties, ethnobotanical studies to explore indigenous knowledge on the diverse uses of plants, and sound management and monitoring as well as maintenance of biodiversity that promote sustainable use of the forest is recommended. Conservation Embahasti Floristic Composition Remnant Forest Tigray Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 1. INTRODUCTION Although biodiversity is understood as a key factor for the sustainability of life, biodiversity loss is one of the greatest environmental crises. The growing human population and the demand for natural resources have put great pressure on the biodiversity wealth of the world through deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and overexploitation of species [ 1 , 2 ]. Habitat loss and change, over-harvesting, pollution, and climate change have been the direct causes of global biodiversity loss [ 3 ], while population growth, changes in economic activities, socio-political factors, cultural factors, and technological change are indirect drivers [ 4 ]. Besides, these global factors, lack of technical knowledge and awareness, and political instability have exacerbated the problem in many developing countries [ 5 ]. The definition of forest given in two important studies of East-African vegetation [ 6 , 7 ] has been adapted: "Forest is a continuous stand of woody individuals, at least 5 m in height, with crowns touching or intermingling". However, Ethiopia adopted a new forest definition as follows: “Land spanning at least 0.5 ha covered by trees and bamboo), attaining a height of at least 2 m and a canopy cover of at least 20% or trees with the potential to reach these thresholds in situ in due course” [ 8 ]. This forest definition differs from the definition used for international reporting to the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FAO) and from the forest definition used in the National Forest Inventory which both applied the FAO forest definition with the thresholds of 10% canopy cover, a 0.5 ha area and a 5 m height. The reason for Ethiopia to change its national forest definition is to better capture dry and lowland-moist vegetation resources. In specific, the reason for lowering the tree height from 5 to 2 m is to capture Terminalia - Combretum dense woodlands found in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States which in its primary state consists of trees reaching a height of around 2–3 m and above [ 8 ]. Forest degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, has widely taken place because people gain immediate economic benefits from the forest -related economic activities [ 9 ]. Ethiopia is one of the top 25 biodiversity-rich countries in the world, and two of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots, namely: the Eastern Afromontane and the Horn of Africa hotspots [ 10 ]. It is also among the countries in the Horn of Africa regarded as major center of diversity and endemism for several plants. The diverse topography gave rise to a wide range of altitude and other environmental factors. This has resulted in wide variations in rainfall, humidity, and temperature because of which the country comprises ten ecosystems that range from Afro-alpine at the highest elevations to desert and semi-desert ecosystems at the lowest elevations. Owing to the combined effects of topographic and climatic factors, the country is endowed with diverse ecosystems. The Ethiopian flora is estimated to be home for 6000 species of higher plants of which 10% are considered to be endemic. Woody plants constitute about 1000 species [ 11 ]. Currently, natural forests in Ethiopia mainly occur in the south-western part of the country, while the forests that originally existed in central and northern Ethiopia have almost disappeared [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Accelerated deforestation and habitat fragmentation that arise largely due to the conversion of forests to other agricultural land-use types and the overutilization of forest resources to satisfy the food and energy requirements of the increasing population are major environmental concerns in Ethiopia [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Tigray is one of the most environmentally degraded regions in Ethiopia left with remnant natural vegetation. According to pollen and charcoal studies in northern Ethiopia, forest disturbance has a 3000-year history [ 18 ], and soil erosion following vegetation clearance in Tigray occurred in the middle Holocene [ 19 ]. Around 500 BC, the pre-disturbance Podocarpus-Juniperus forest was converted into a secondary vegetation of Dodonaea scrub and grasslands that dominated the northern Ethiopia for 1800 years while Juniperus , Olea and Celtis spread around AD 1400 to 1700 [ 18 ]. The travertine deposition in the plateau of Tigray indicates the dense forest cover that once covered northern Ethiopia during the middle Holocene [ 19 ]. At present, the original vegetation is confined around religious and worship areas where religion and culture forbid cutting trees and removal of plants and in limited other isolated and protected areas [ 20 ]. [ 21 ] stated that misuse of natural resources has resulted in very serious land degradation in most places. It can be said that environmental degradation, drought and socioeconomic instability are common in contemporary Tigray. In 2003, the natural forest cover in Tigray was only 0.2% of the total land mass of the region [ 4 ], indicating the severe forest degradation in the region. Currently, the western escarpment of the Great Rift Valley is the only site with an intact Afromontane forest cover in northern Ethiopia. To my knowledge, no work has been published to date on the plant communities of Embahasti remnant forest that is found in the western escarpment and one of the National priority areas for restoration in Ethiopia. 1.2.3 Objectives 1.2.3.1 Major objective To study plant communities of Embahasti remnant forest 1.2.3.2 Specific objectives To document vascular plant species of Embahasti Forest To describe and classify plant community types found in Embahasti Forest 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS 3.1 Study Area Description 3.1.1 Location of the forest The forest is located in southern Tigray at about 630 km north of Addis Ababa or some 120 km south of Mekelle town, the capital of Tigray Regional State. It is located between 12º47´ N latitude and 39º26 E Longitudes (Fig. 4). Altitudinal ranges from 2383 to 2787 m.a.s.l. In the same mountain range, parts of Tsibet Mountain are covered with Eucalyptus spp. plantation of Maychew Chipboard factory. Tsibet is the highest mountain in Tigray with over 4000 m.a.s.l. The forest area falls within Endamekoni woreda. 3.1.2 Topography Found within the domain of northern highlands of Ethiopia in the Western escarpment of the rift valley in the east. Altitude rises from 1560 to 3949 meters and it decreases eastwards from the west where the elevation reaches its peak. The topography is hill, flat, mountain, and valleys. 3.1.3 Climate The rainfall and temperature data for this study were collected from the nearest Meteorological station (Maychew). The data were collected from 2007–2016 by National Meteorological Service Agency [ 22 ]. Climate diagram was computed by using R for window version 3.4.1 statistical package [ 24 ]. The average maximum temperature in the study area is in June (25.68 O C) and May (24.90 O C), respectively. On the other hand, average minimum temperature observed is during June (14.25 O C) and August (13.65 O C). Nevertheless, throughout the year the maximum and minimum temperature ranges from 17. 95 O C to 25.68 O C & 5.47 O C to 14.25 O C, respectively. According to the ten years rainfall summarized data, the study area has a high rainfall distribution between July and August and a little bit between March, April and May. The mean monthly rainfall of the study area is 55.42 mm [ 22 ]. 3.1.4 Geology and soil Embahasti forest is formed on tertiary basalt, alkali-alluvial basalt and tuff [ 23 ]. The dominant soils are Leptosols and Regosols [ 23 ]. Large parts of the undulating terrains in northern Ethiopia are characterized by shallow soils and frequent rock outcrops, while relatively thick soils are found along valley bottoms. 3.1.5 Vegetation There are both natural and plantation forests. The patches of remnant natural forests belong to the Dry Afromontane forest types, with dominant trees like Juniperus procera , Olea europaea Subsp cuspidata , and Acacia abyssinica . According to [ 24 ], the vegetation of northern Ethiopia can be broadly classified as montane evergreen thicket and savanna. The common species in this vegetation type include Juniperus procera , Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata , Acokanthera schimperi , Carissa spinarum , and species of Euclea , Rhus and Maythenus [ 15 ]. 3.1.6 Demographics The National census conducted in Endamekoni woreda by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia [ 25 ], showed that it had a total population 84,739. Tigrigna was spoken as a first language by 97.87%, and 1.43% spoke Amharic. Concerning education, 18.78% of the population was considered literate [ 26 ]. 3.2 Data Collection Methods 3.2.1 Vegetation Sampling Vegetation data were collected from sample plots placed in transect lines, which were systematically laid at one edge of the forest. Forty plots were laid along transect lines following sampling approach as described by [ 27 ]. For collection of trees and shrubs, quadrants of 20 m x 20 m (400 m 2 ) were laid at every 200 meters along transect lines, which were laid 300 meters apart. For the collection of herbaceous species, subplots of 1 m x 1 m at the four corners and the center of the large quadrat were laid. 3.2.2 Floristic data collection All plant species encountered in each quadrate were recorded. The vernacular (local) names were recorded when available. Altitude, longitude, latitude, and slope were measured for each quadrant using GPS, and clinometer respectively. Besides, Grazing and human impact estimated visually. The plant specimens were brought to the National Herbarium (ETH) of Addis Ababa University for identification. The nomenclature of the taxa follows Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea (FEE). Cover abundance data, defined here as the proportion of area in a quadrat covered by every species recorded and gathered from each quadrat were later converted to cover abundance values using the modified 1–9 Braun-Blanquet scale [ 28 ] as follows. 1: Rare, generally one individual; 2: Occasional, with less than 5% cover of the total; 3: Abundant, with less than 5% cover of the total; 4: Very abundant, with less than 5% cover of the total; 5: 5–12% covers of the total area; 6: 12–25% covers of the total area; 7: 25–50% covers of the total area; 8: 50–75% covers of the total area; 9: 75–100% covers of the total area; 3.3 Data Analysis 3.3.1 Multivariate Analysis of Vegetation Data Classification by means of hierarchical cluster analysis is the most common multivariate technique to analyze community data. Cluster analysis helps to group a set of observations (here plots or vegetation samples) together based on their attributes or floristic similarities [ 29 , 30 ]. Accordingly, a Hierarchical Cluster Analysis was performed using R for window version 3.4.1 statistical package [ 31 ] to classify the vegetation into plant community types based on abundance data of the species in each quadrat. The Relative Euclidean Distance (RED) measures using Ward’s method were used in the current study. The data matrix contained 40 plots and 54 species collected from the sample plots. The Euclidean Distance was used because it eliminates the differences in total abundance among sample units and the Ward’s method was used because it minimizes the total within group mean of squares or residual sum of squares [ 32 , 30 ]. Community environment relationship was analyzed with the ordination program Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) using R for window version 3.4.1 statistical package [ 31 ]. 3.3.2 Diversity Indices Biological diversity can be quantified in different ways. Shannon-Wiener diversity index, species richness and Shannon’s evenness were computed to describe species diversity of the plant community types in the vegetation. Shannon - Wiener diversity index is the most popular measure of species diversity because it accounts for both species richness and evenness, and it is not affected by sample size [ 29 , 33 ]. Shannon-Wiener diversity index was calculated follows. Evenness (Equitability) J = H’/H’max , Where, J = Evenness, H ’=Shannon-Wiener diversity index and H’max = ln s where s is the number of species. The higher the value of J, the more even the species is in their distribution within the community or the quadrats. Similarly, the higher the value the more diverse the community or the quadrat is 3.3.3 Species accumulation curve Since number of species is highly dependent on sample size, comparing communities having different sample size is problematic [ 34 , 35 ]. Hence, to overcome this problem, all samples from different communities should be standardized to a common sample size of the same number of individuals [ 33 ]. Species accumulation curve is a statistical method for estimation the number of species expected in a random sample of individuals taken from a collection [ 33 ]. Species accumulation curves have also been used to estimate the expected number of new species to be detected given a level of additional sampling effort, which can lead to efficient planning and sampling protocols [36, 37, 38, 39]. 3. RESULTS 3.1 Floristic Composition A total of 74 species belonging to 61 genera and 44 families were recorded and identified from Embahasti forest. Of all the families, Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae were the dominant families contributed 5 species each (6.75%) followed by Asteraceae, Malvaceae, Anacardiaceae and Celastraceae with 3 species each (4.05%). Cupressus lustanica, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Eucalyptus globulus are exotic species, while the remaining species were native. 3.2 Habit Out of 74, 37 (50.00%) species were shrubs, 15 (20.27%) species were trees, 9 (12.16%) species were climbers, 11 (14.86%) species were herbs and 1 (2.70%) species were succulent. (S = Shrub; T = Tree; H = Herb; C = Climber; Su = Succlent) Figure 5. Habit of plants in Embahasti forest Table 1 New species record from Tigray floristic region on FEE. No. Scientific name Family Habit Vernacular name 1 Dovyalis verrcucosa (Hochst.) Warb. Flacourtiaceae S Tuemtegna 2 Erica arborea L. Ericaceae S Hasti 3 Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Ait. f. Asclepiadaceae S Tseba dimu 4 Senecio hadiensis Forssk. Asteraceae H Suhum atali 5 Solanum anguivi Lam. Solanaceae H Alamo kelbi 6 Podocarpus falcatus (Thun) Mirb. Podocarpaceae T Zigba Table 2 Endemic species in Embahasti Forest No. Scientif name Family Status 1 Becium grandiflorum (Lam) Pic. Serm. Lamiaceae NT 2 Lippia adoensis var. adoensis Hochst. ex Walp. Verbenacae LC 3 Rhus glutinosa A. Rich. Anacardiaceae LC LC = Least concern, NT = Near threatened 3.3 Species Diversity As shown in (Table 3 ) community 2 has the highest altitude contained the highest species richness while community 3 contained the least species richness with the relative least altitude. Table 3 Shannon-Wiener diversity index Community No. of quadrats Average altitude Richness Shannon-Wiener (Hʹ) Shannon-Evenness 1 8 2586.00 56 3.26 0.809516872 2 8 2729.88 62 3.02 0.741186234 3 24 2535.88 15 2.29 0.845623662 3.4 Species accumulation curve As indicated in Fig. 6 , species accumulation curves (rarefaction) were plotted for the vascular plants recorded in Embahasti forest. This graph was plotted for the cumulative number of species recoded as a function of sampling effort i.e. the number of samples pooled. Species accumulation curve helps to illustrate the rate at which new species were included as the sampling effort proceed. From Fig. 6 , it is observed that there were still new species to be recorded in the forest though at decreasing rate. 3.5 Plant communites Three plant communities were derived from the hierarchical cluster analysis (Fig. 7). A list of plant community types along with the synoptic value of the species is given in Appendix 2. Community names were given after one or two species that had higher synoptic values. In all observed plant community species, higher synoptic values are those that were easily observed repeating themselves in associations. Thus, the identified groups are coinciding with the natural associations that any botanist can observe while crossing through the forest. The hierarchical cluster analyses identified three plant communities: Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata – Juniperus procera, Myrsine africana – Erica arborea, Acacia abyssinica – Dodonea angustifolia , which were represented by 56, 62, and 15 species, respectively. The following is the description of the plant community types identified from the forest: Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata – Juniperus procera Community Type This community type was represented by 8 quadrates and 56 species. The altitudinal range of this community was from 2463–2770 m.a.s.l. Dominant species associated with this community are Clutia abyssinica , Maytenus undata , Nuxia congesta , Pavetta abyssinica , Pittosporum viridiflorum and Rhus glutinosa. Myrsine africana – Erica arborea Community Type This community was represented by 8 quadrats and 60 species. The altitudinal range of this community was from 2687–2786 m.a.s.l. Dominant species associated with this community are Maytenus arbutifolia , Cadia purpurea , Becium grandiflorum and Abutilon pannosum Acacia abyssinica – Dodonea angustifolia Community Type The altitudinal range of this community was from 2383–2787 m.a.s.l. Dominant species associated with this community are Cassipourea malosana , Clerodendrum myricoides , Maytenus senegalensis and Osyris quadripartita 3.6 Ordination The distribution of the study plots in Embahasti forest over environmental gradient was well explained using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), which is a direct gradient analysis. Ordination with CCA of Embahasti forest revealed the following relationship between community types and environmental factors. CCA1 of the ordination diagram reflects mainly grazing and human impacts. CCA2 reflects gradients of altitude and slope. Along CCA1 Myrsine africana- Erica arborea community type found at relatively higher altitude or associated by altitude. Along CCA2 the differentiation is based on grazing and human impact that is Acacia abyssinica – Dodonea angustifolia community type. 4. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4.1 Discussion 4.1.1 Floristic Composition and Habit Comparison of species richness in tropical and subtropical dry forests is difficult due to the inherent heterogeneity of the forests [ 40 ]. However, to give a general picture of the species richness of Embahasti forest, the results of the present study are compared with results from other forests in Ethiopia. Accordingly, Embahasti forest is less species rich, especially in tree species, than many other Afromontane forests, e.g., Jibat (131 species) [ 41 ], Zegie (113 species) [ 42 ], Tara Gedam (111 species) and Abebaye (88 species) [ 43 ], Mana Angetu (212 species) [ 44 ], Komto (180 species) [ 45 ]. However, Embahasti forest is more species rich than small Afromontane forest fragments in Tigray [ 46 ] which may be due to its larger area [ 47 ], the relatively higher rainfall [ 48 ], and lower extent of degradation [ 49 ] at Embahasti forest. Compared to Desa’a forest [ 50 ], which is another natural forest remnant in Tigray, Embahasti forest has a lesser species density. This could be partly due to higher rainfall and less disturbance. As indicated in Fig. 5, 50.00% were shrubs that were far beyond the other growth habits. This indicates that the natural forest remnants, which were expected to serve as sources of propagules for the restoration of the native tree species in the degraded sites, were not able to sustain the populations of the relevant forest species [ 46 ]. 4.1.2 Species Diversity Shannon-Wiener diversity, species richness, evenness of communities is given in Table 3 . The overall observed Shannon-Wiener diversity index (Hʹ = 2.86) of Embahasti forest. This value was found to be higher than that of other Ethiopian forests, such as Chilimo (Hʹ = 2.72) [ 51 ], Abebaye (Hʹ = 1.31) [ 43 ]. However, its diversity was found to be less than that of Zegie (Hʹ = 3.72), [ 42 ]. The possible reason for variability of each diversity value between each community type could be difference in number of species, cover abundance values, degree of disturbance, the slope of the quadrats in the community, altitude and other related factors [ 52 ]. 4.1.3 Species accumulation curve Species accumulation curve is useful to show how much of the species in a given ecosystem are sampled given the sampling effort (number of samples) and the rate of including new species if the sampling effort proceed. As it was shown in Fig. 6 the accumulation curve of the forest did not attain its asymptote revealing that there are new species to be recorded if sampling continues though in a decreased rate than at the beginning of the sampling stage. Comparing mean number of species per plot is not possible for different number of sample as number of species is highly affected by sample size [ 35 ]. 4.1.4 Plant communities Community type one with good timber species: Juniperus procera, Olea europaea sub sp. cuspidata had experienced human interference in the form of selective cutting. Cattle interferences were also observed in some of its stands. Community type two, which was dominated by Maytenus arbutifolia , Cadia purpurea , Becium grandiflorum , and Abutilon pannosum and characterized by Erica arborea , is found in habitats such as along sloppy and higher altitudes. The stands sampled in this type were located at the middle of the forest, which was less grazed by cattle and its human impact was found to be low. Although most area of this stands was highly affected before about 20 years being used as farming land, by now it was in good regeneration status. In most of its stands introduced exotic species of Cuppresus lusitanica and Eucalyptus camaldulensis has been observed. Community type three was rich in shrub layer species. The stands sampled in this community were located in an area having shallow soils with high human interference in the form of firewood collection and selective cutting with heavily grazed. This might be due to being near to the farmer’s settlement area. Differences in species composition observed among the three plant communities identified in Embahasti forest could be attributed to variations in environmental gradients. According to [ 53 ], vegetation patterns among communities can best be explained by differences in environmental gradients. [ 54 ] also explained that plant community distribution is an expression of physical gradients (elevation, soil heterogeneity and microclimate), biotic responses to these gradients and human-induced and/or environmental disturbances in a region. In Embahasti, the observed community can best be explained by differences in altitudinal ranges that are proper to the identified communities, slope and habitat disturbances. 4.1.5 Ordination Examination of the relationship between environmental variables revealed that a strong relationship between attitude and slope, which means that steep slope are more common at higher altitudes [ 41 , 55 , 56 ]. Myrsine africana- Erica arborea community type was mainly influenced by altitude and slopes. [ 57 ] stated that altitude affects atmospheric pressure, moisture and temperature in an area whereby the latter directly influence growth and development of plants, and the corresponding patterns of vegetation distribution. Human impacts and grazing have also had connection in the pattern. If there is grazing, there is illegal cutting and agricultural land that commonly found in the edge of the forest. Acacia abyssinica- Dodonea angustifolia community type is highly influenced by grazing and human impacts. At the center of forest, it was believed that there were harmful wild animals for human and domestic animals that was relatively undisturbed area. 4.1.6 Implication for conservation Three plant communities belonging to dry forests were identified in Embahasti forest. This indicated that topographical position (e.g., elevation and slope) and disturbance (Grazing and human impact) were important determinants of species distribution and community structure. These factors were important and need to be considered in the design of biodiversity conservation programs. The Myrsine africana–Erica arborea community was more diverse and contains species (e.g., Podocarpus falcatus , Cadia purpurea , Becium grandiflorum and Abutilon pannosum ) that were locally threatened in the study area. Furthermore, this community was found in a narrower habitat range (e.g., elevation & slope) than the other communities, which made the rare tree species vulnerable. It is worth establishing a biodiversity conservation corridor along elevational gradient that includes the three plant communities. Conservation programs should also consider plant communities that may not be species rich, but may include endemic and threatened species. 4.2 Conclusion The study has resulted in the documentation of 74 vascular plant species. Embahasti forest was grouped in to three communities. These communities were arranged based on cover abundance, altitude, slope, grazing and human impact. Plant community two exhibited the highest species richness (62) while the highest diversity index was observed in community one (3.26). Community type three was known with the least species richness and diversity. The variation in species composition and diversity among communities associated to different factors, such as altitude, slope, grazing and human impact. The environmental degradation and intense deforestation that have continued for century have been the main causes for the reduction of forest in the study area. From the name depicted, Embahasti forest is meant forest of Erica , but Erica is currently limited to a certain area of the mountain. Generally, the status of Erica arborea, Juniperus procera , Olea europaea Subsp. cuspidata and Podocarpus falcatus are being overexploited for different purposes. 4.3 Recommendation Based on the observation and findings of this study the following points are recommended: An ethnobotanical study to explore indigenous knowledge on the diverse uses of plants and sound management of the forest is needed. The present study is based on few selected environmental factors that determine species distribution patterns in which further investigations on the influence of soil physical and chemical properties on species distribution is needed. Reserving Embahasti Forest as a nature reserve protected from grazing and human interference is recommended Taking legal measures on illegal human impacts particularly agricultural expansion and illegal cutting. Declarations Author Contribution The author developed the proposal, collected field data, wrote the document. Acknowledgement I am grateful to the local community for conserving the Embahasti Remnant forest. References Terborgh J., van Schaik CP. Minimizing species loss: The imperative of protection. In R. Kramer et al (eds) Protected areas and the defense of tropical biodiversity. Oxford University Press, New York, 1997. pp 15-35. Noss RF. Assessing and monitoring forest biodiversity: A suggested framework and indicators. 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Addison-Welsey Educational Publishers, USA; 1999. Peet RK. The measurement of species diversity. Ann. Rev.Ecol.Syst 1974 ;. 5: 285-307. Magurran AE. Measuring Ecological Diversity. Blackwell Science Ltd., Malden; 2004. Soberon JM, Llorente JB. The use of species accumulation functions for the prediction of species richness. Conservation Biology 1993; 7:480–488. Colwell RK, Coddington AJ. Estimating terrestrial biodiversity through extrapolation. Philosophical Transaction oh the Royal Society Biological Science 1994; 345:101-118. Moreno CE, Halffter G. Assessing the completeness of bat biodiversity inventories using species accumulation curves. Journal of Applied Ecology 2000; 37:149–158. Shen TJ, Chao A, Lin CF. Predicting the number of new species in further taxonomic sampling. Ecology 2003 ; 84: 798–804. Murphy PG, Lugo AE. Ecology of tropical dry forest. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst . 1986; 17:67-88 Tamrat B. Vegetation ecology of remnant Afromontane forests on the Central Plateau of Shewa, Ethiopia. Acta Phytogeographic Suecica. 1993; 79 : 1-59. Alemnew Al, Demel T, Yonas Y, Edwards S. Diversity and status of regeneration of woody plants on the peninsula of Zegie, north-western Ethiopia. Tropical Ecology, 2007; 48(1): 37-49. Haileab Z, Demel T, Ensermu K. Diversity and regeneration status of woody species in Tara Gedam and Abebaye Forests, north-western Ethiopia. Journal of Forestry Research 2011; 22(3 ): 315–328. Ermias L, Ensermu K, Tamrat B, Haile Y. Plant species composition and structure of the Mana Angetu moist montane forest, Southeastern Ethiopia. Journal of East African Natural History 2008; 97(2): 165-185. Fekadu G, Teshome S, Ensermu K. Floristic composition and community analysis of Komto Afromontane moist forest, East Wollega Zone, West Ethiopia. Science Technology and Arts Research Journal 2013; 2(2): 58-69. Aerts R, Van-Overtveld K, Deckers J. Species composition and diversity of small Afromontane forest fragments in northern Ethiopia. Plant Ecology 2006; 187:127-142 Hill JL, Curran PJ. Area, shape and isolation of tropical forest fragments: effects on tree species diversity and implications for conservation. Journal of Biogeography 2003; 30:1391-1403. Linder HP. Plant diversity and endemism in sub-Saharan tropical Africa. Journal of Biogeography 2001; 28:169-182 Dos-Santos K, Kinoshita LS, Dos-Santos FA. Tree species composition and similarity in semi deciduous forest fragments of southeastern Brazil. Biological Conservation 2007; 135:268-277. Ermias A, Manfred Denich M, Diress T. Regeneration response of Juniperus procera and Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata to exclosure in a dry Afromontane forest in northern Ethiopia. Mountain Research and Development 2009; 29(2):143-152. Tadesse W, Demel T, Edwards S, Olsson M. Woody plant and avian species diversity in a dry Afromontane forest on the central plateau of Ethiopia: Biological indicators for conservation. Ethiopian Journal of Natural Resources 2000; 2: 255-293. Dikaso UG, Tesema TT. Floristic Composition and Diversity of Woody Plant Species of Wotagisho Forest, Boloso Sore Woreda, Wolaita Zone, Southwest, Ethiopia. International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management . 2016; 1: 3 63-70. Whittaker RJ, Willis KJ, Field R. Climatic–energetic explanations of diversity: a macroscopic perspective. In Macroecology: concepts and consequences , Blackburn, T.M. and Gaston, K.J. (eds), Cambridge University Press; Cambridge, 2003. pp. 107-129 Urban D, Miller C, Halpin P, Stephenson N. Forest gradient response in Sierran landscapes: the physical template. Landscape Ecology 2000; 15 : 603–620. Leul K, Tamrat B, Sileshi N. Vegetation Composition in Hugumbirda-Gratkhassu National Forest Priority Area, South Tigray. MEJS 2010; 2 (2):27-48. Ermias A. Forest diversity in fragmented landscapes of northern Ethiopia and implications for conservation. PhD Dissertation, Bonn University, Germany; 2011 Hedberg O. Features of Afroalpine plant ecology. Acta Phytogeographica Suecica 1964; 49: 1-144. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryMaterial.doc Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editor assigned by journal 02 Jul, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 02 Jul, 2024 First submitted to journal 25 Jun, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4637663","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":321561869,"identity":"dfc0e521-2c40-4104-aa39-bcd76e1e9ac2","order_by":0,"name":"Mebrahtu Hishe Gidey","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA90lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACHgYGxgYGBgNmBjYGhgqgADNzAzFaDKBazoC0MBKrhQGohbENJEJAi25777EPP3f8SdzOzv7swcd5tdH87UAtPyq24dRiduZc8szeMwaJO5t5zA1nbjueO+MwYwNjz5nbuLXcyDFm4G0zSNxwmIdNmnfbsdwGoBZmxjY8Wu6/MWb8C9bC/kz675xjufMJarnBY8wMsYXBTJqxoSZ3A0EtZ/KSmWXbjI2BDjOT7Dl2IHcjUMtBvH45fvYw49s2OdkN548/k/hRU5c77/zhgw9+VODWgg4Og8kDRKsHgjpSFI+CUTAKRsEIAQDPJl6nzZrHzAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Adigrat University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mebrahtu","middleName":"Hishe","lastName":"Gidey","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-25 15:51:24","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4637663/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4637663/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":61060001,"identity":"310cf6d0-520d-4b0b-8281-3deef3e2499d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:30:35","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":654456,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePartial view of Embahasti forest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/e407f1421262f9eb245dbc51.png"},{"id":61059995,"identity":"073135ca-ea1e-44dd-8997-d69a8108929a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:30:34","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":748665,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePartial view of Embahasti forest\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/2d72bd5182eadb15d3997741.png"},{"id":61059996,"identity":"9dd56afc-0a03-4cde-aed0-ab2affa51de7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:30:34","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":14538,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eClimatic diagram of Maychew Town\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: NMSA, 2017 (2007-2016)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/303fcd7289cffc7251375417.png"},{"id":61061682,"identity":"9ba2e6de-f0b4-461b-9f65-fcf69023e55a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:46:34","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":151877,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Endamekoni woreda showing study area (developed using ArcGIS 10.1)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/d7a0a8ba692c116836f981a6.png"},{"id":61061015,"identity":"d42c0210-aa26-493b-adf2-28bf75366981","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:38:34","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":14207,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHabit of plants in Embahasti forest\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/2102ade54c20c0205f935aad.png"},{"id":61059999,"identity":"e13f8754-9fbd-40eb-a942-0c82ba6c6ebb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:30:34","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6404,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpecies accumulation curves of Embahasti forest\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/7d100da5bd2f5307b297a656.png"},{"id":61060004,"identity":"6920d76c-7e83-4902-b377-e9721e8e2da9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:30:35","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13408,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDendrogram of the vegetation data from hierarchical cluster analysis\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/f8839565fcc6e38e13a7ba8c.png"},{"id":61061029,"identity":"30289e4e-3226-49c5-b700-5b2b8a62d5cf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:38:34","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":11052,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCCA of sites constrained by some environmental variables\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/fd6818bf7fa6154bbd78427e.png"},{"id":61061881,"identity":"1bd6277a-18b0-4f67-b3cc-3c07a3ef64a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:46:43","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2463538,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/14dd5f01-f0fa-4511-b80b-35227bc294dd.pdf"},{"id":61061031,"identity":"4e307a42-6e4b-4f03-8394-45d43067a227","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-25 06:38:34","extension":"doc","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":125952,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterial.doc","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4637663/v1/4857e31e1040b80d446cf299.doc"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Plant Community Analysis in Embahasti Remnant Forest, Southern Tigray, Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough biodiversity is understood as a key factor for the sustainability of life, biodiversity loss is one of the greatest environmental crises. The growing human population and the demand for natural resources have put great pressure on the biodiversity wealth of the world through deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and overexploitation of species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabitat loss and change, over-harvesting, pollution, and climate change have been the direct causes of global biodiversity loss [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], while population growth, changes in economic activities, socio-political factors, cultural factors, and technological change are indirect drivers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Besides, these global factors, lack of technical knowledge and awareness, and political instability have exacerbated the problem in many developing countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe definition of forest given in two important studies of East-African vegetation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] has been adapted: \"Forest is a continuous stand of woody individuals, at least 5 m in height, with crowns touching or intermingling\".\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, Ethiopia adopted a new forest definition as follows: \u0026ldquo;Land spanning at least 0.5 ha covered by trees and bamboo), attaining a height of at least 2 m and a canopy cover of at least 20% or trees with the potential to reach these thresholds in situ in due course\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. This forest definition differs from the definition used for international reporting to the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FAO) and from the forest definition used in the National Forest Inventory which both applied the FAO forest definition with the thresholds of 10% canopy cover, a 0.5 ha area and a 5 m height. The reason for Ethiopia to change its national forest definition is to better capture dry and lowland-moist vegetation resources. In specific, the reason for lowering the tree height from 5 to 2 m is to capture \u003cem\u003eTerminalia - Combretum\u003c/em\u003e dense woodlands found in Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States which in its primary state consists of trees reaching a height of around 2\u0026ndash;3 m and above [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eForest degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, has widely taken place because people gain immediate economic benefits from the forest -related economic activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthiopia is one of the top 25 biodiversity-rich countries in the world, and two of the world\u0026rsquo;s 34 biodiversity hotspots, namely: the Eastern Afromontane and the Horn of Africa hotspots [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. It is also among the countries in the Horn of Africa regarded as major center of diversity and endemism for several plants. The diverse topography gave rise to a wide range of altitude and other environmental factors. This has resulted in wide variations in rainfall, humidity, and temperature because of which the country comprises ten ecosystems that range from Afro-alpine at the highest elevations to desert and semi-desert ecosystems at the lowest elevations. Owing to the combined effects of topographic and climatic factors, the country is endowed with diverse ecosystems. The Ethiopian flora is estimated to be home for 6000 species of higher plants of which 10% are considered to be endemic. Woody plants constitute about 1000 species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCurrently, natural forests in Ethiopia mainly occur in the south-western part of the country, while the forests that originally existed in central and northern Ethiopia have almost disappeared [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccelerated deforestation and habitat fragmentation that arise largely due to the conversion of forests to other agricultural land-use types and the overutilization of forest resources to satisfy the food and energy requirements of the increasing population are major environmental concerns in Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTigray is one of the most environmentally degraded regions in Ethiopia left with remnant natural vegetation. According to pollen and charcoal studies in northern Ethiopia, forest disturbance has a 3000-year history [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], and soil erosion following vegetation clearance in Tigray occurred in the middle Holocene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAround 500 BC, the pre-disturbance \u003cem\u003ePodocarpus-Juniperus\u003c/em\u003e forest was converted into a secondary vegetation of \u003cem\u003eDodonaea\u003c/em\u003e scrub and grasslands that dominated the northern Ethiopia for 1800 years while \u003cem\u003eJuniperus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOlea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCeltis\u003c/em\u003e spread around AD 1400 to 1700 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The travertine deposition in the plateau of Tigray indicates the dense forest cover that once covered northern Ethiopia during the middle Holocene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt present, the original vegetation is confined around religious and worship areas where religion and culture forbid cutting trees and removal of plants and in limited other isolated and protected areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] stated that misuse of natural resources has resulted in very serious land degradation in most places. It can be said that environmental degradation, drought and socioeconomic instability are common in contemporary Tigray.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2003, the natural forest cover in Tigray was only 0.2% of the total land mass of the region [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], indicating the severe forest degradation in the region. Currently, the western escarpment of the Great Rift Valley is the only site with an intact Afromontane forest cover in northern Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo my knowledge, no work has been published to date on the plant communities of Embahasti remnant forest that is found in the western escarpment and one of the National priority areas for restoration in Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2.3 Objectives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2.3.1 Major objective\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo study plant communities of Embahasti remnant forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section4\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2.3.2 Specific objectives\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo document vascular plant species of Embahasti Forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo describe and classify plant community types found in Embahasti Forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIAL AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Study Area Description\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Location of the forest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe forest is located in southern Tigray at about 630 km north of Addis Ababa or some 120 km south of Mekelle town, the capital of Tigray Regional State. It is located between 12\u0026ordm;47\u0026acute; N latitude and 39\u0026ordm;26 E Longitudes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). Altitudinal ranges from 2383 to 2787 m.a.s.l.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the same mountain range, parts of Tsibet Mountain are covered with \u003cem\u003eEucalyptus\u003c/em\u003e spp. plantation of Maychew Chipboard factory. Tsibet is the highest mountain in Tigray with over 4000 m.a.s.l. The forest area falls within Endamekoni woreda.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 Topography\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFound within the domain of northern highlands of Ethiopia in the Western escarpment of the rift valley in the east. Altitude rises from 1560 to 3949 meters and it decreases eastwards from the west where the elevation reaches its peak. The topography is hill, flat, mountain, and valleys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.3 Climate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe rainfall and temperature data for this study were collected from the nearest Meteorological station (Maychew). The data were collected from 2007\u0026ndash;2016 by National Meteorological Service Agency [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Climate diagram was computed by using R for window version 3.4.1 statistical package [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The average maximum temperature in the study area is in June (25.68 \u003csup\u003eO\u003c/sup\u003eC) and May (24.90 \u003csup\u003eO\u003c/sup\u003eC), respectively. On the other hand, average minimum temperature observed is during June (14.25 \u003csup\u003eO\u003c/sup\u003eC) and August (13.65 \u003csup\u003eO\u003c/sup\u003eC). Nevertheless, throughout the year the maximum and minimum temperature ranges from 17. 95 \u003csup\u003eO\u003c/sup\u003eC to 25.68 \u003csup\u003eO\u003c/sup\u003eC \u0026amp; 5.47 \u003csup\u003eO\u003c/sup\u003eC to 14.25 \u003csup\u003eO\u003c/sup\u003eC, respectively. According to the ten years rainfall summarized data, the study area has a high rainfall distribution between July and August and a little bit between March, April and May. The mean monthly rainfall of the study area is 55.42 mm [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.4 Geology and soil\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmbahasti forest is formed on tertiary basalt, alkali-alluvial basalt and tuff [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. The dominant soils are Leptosols and Regosols [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Large parts of the undulating terrains in northern Ethiopia are characterized by shallow soils and frequent rock outcrops, while relatively thick soils are found along valley bottoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.5 Vegetation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are both natural and plantation forests. The patches of remnant natural forests belong to the Dry Afromontane forest types, with dominant trees like \u003cem\u003eJuniperus procera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOlea europaea\u003c/em\u003e Subsp \u003cem\u003ecuspidata\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAcacia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], the vegetation of northern Ethiopia can be broadly classified as montane evergreen thicket and savanna. The common species in this vegetation type include \u003cem\u003eJuniperus procera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOlea europaea\u003c/em\u003e subsp. \u003cem\u003ecuspidata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAcokanthera schimperi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCarissa spinarum\u003c/em\u003e, and species of \u003cem\u003eEuclea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRhus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMaythenus\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1.6 Demographics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe National census conducted in Endamekoni woreda by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], showed that it had a total population 84,739. Tigrigna was spoken as a first language by 97.87%, and 1.43% spoke Amharic. Concerning education, 18.78% of the population was considered literate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Data Collection Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Vegetation Sampling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetation data were collected from sample plots placed in transect lines, which were systematically laid at one edge of the forest. Forty plots were laid along transect lines following sampling approach as described by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. For collection of trees and shrubs, quadrants of 20 m x 20 m (400 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) were laid at every 200 meters along transect lines, which were laid 300 meters apart. For the collection of herbaceous species, subplots of 1 m x 1 m at the four corners and the center of the large quadrat were laid.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Floristic data collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll plant species encountered in each quadrate were recorded. The vernacular (local) names were recorded when available. Altitude, longitude, latitude, and slope were measured for each quadrant using GPS, and clinometer respectively. Besides, Grazing and human impact estimated visually. The plant specimens were brought to the National Herbarium (ETH) of Addis Ababa University for identification. The nomenclature of the taxa follows Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea (FEE).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCover abundance data, defined here as the proportion of area in a quadrat covered by every species recorded and gathered from each quadrat were later converted to cover abundance values using the modified 1\u0026ndash;9 Braun-Blanquet scale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] as follows.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1: Rare, generally one individual;\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e2: Occasional, with less than 5% cover of the total;\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e3: Abundant, with less than 5% cover of the total;\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e4: Very abundant, with less than 5% cover of the total;\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e5: 5–12% covers of the total area;\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e6: 12–25% covers of the total area;\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e7: 25–50% covers of the total area;\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e8: 50–75% covers of the total area;\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e9: 75–100% covers of the total area;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1 Multivariate Analysis of Vegetation Data\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassification by means of hierarchical cluster analysis is the most common multivariate technique to analyze community data. Cluster analysis helps to group a set of observations (here plots or vegetation samples) together based on their attributes or floristic similarities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Accordingly, a Hierarchical Cluster Analysis was performed using R for window version 3.4.1 statistical package [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] to classify the vegetation into plant community types based on abundance data of the species in each quadrat. The Relative Euclidean Distance (RED) measures using Ward\u0026rsquo;s method were used in the current study. The data matrix contained 40 plots and 54 species collected from the sample plots. The Euclidean Distance was used because it eliminates the differences in total abundance among sample units and the Ward\u0026rsquo;s method was used because it minimizes the total within group mean of squares or residual sum of squares [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Community environment relationship was analyzed with the ordination program Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) using R for window version 3.4.1 statistical package [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2 Diversity Indices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological diversity can be quantified in different ways. Shannon-Wiener diversity index, species\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003erichness and Shannon\u0026rsquo;s evenness were computed to describe species diversity of the plant community types in the vegetation. Shannon - Wiener diversity index is the most popular measure of species diversity because it accounts for both species richness and evenness, and it is not affected by sample size [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShannon-Wiener diversity index was calculated follows.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\" width=\"239\" height=\"88\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvenness (Equitability) \u003cb\u003eJ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;H\u0026rsquo;/H\u0026rsquo;max\u003c/b\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eJ\u003c/b\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Evenness,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eH\u003c/b\u003e\u0026rsquo;=Shannon-Wiener diversity index and\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eH\u0026rsquo;max\u003c/b\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;ln s where s is the number of species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe higher the value of J, the more even the species is in their distribution within the community\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eor the quadrats. Similarly, the higher the value the more diverse the community or the quadrat is\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.3 Species accumulation curve\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince number of species is highly dependent on sample size, comparing communities having different sample size is problematic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Hence, to overcome this problem, all samples from different communities should be standardized to a common sample size of the same number of individuals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Species accumulation curve is a statistical method for estimation the number of species expected in a random sample of individuals taken from a collection [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies accumulation curves have also been used to estimate the expected number of new species to be detected given a level of additional sampling effort, which can lead to efficient planning and sampling protocols [36, 37, 38, 39].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec30\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Floristic Composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 74 species belonging to 61 genera and 44 families were recorded and identified from Embahasti forest. Of all the families, Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae were the dominant families contributed 5 species each (6.75%) followed by Asteraceae, Malvaceae, Anacardiaceae and Celastraceae with 3 species each (4.05%). \u003cem\u003eCupressus lustanica, Eucalyptus camaldulensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEucalyptus globulus\u003c/em\u003e are exotic species, while the remaining species were native.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Habit\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOut of 74, 37 (50.00%) species were shrubs, 15 (20.27%) species were trees, 9 (12.16%) species were climbers, 11 (14.86%) species were herbs and 1 (2.70%) species were succulent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Shrub; T\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Tree; H\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Herb; C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Climber; Su\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Succlent)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 5. Habit of plants in Embahasti forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNew species record from Tigray floristic region on FEE.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVernacular name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDovyalis verrcucosa\u003c/em\u003e (Hochst.) Warb.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlacourtiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTuemtegna\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErica arborea\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEricaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHasti\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGomphocarpus fruticosus\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Ait. f.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsclepiadaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTseba dimu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSenecio hadiensis\u003c/em\u003e Forssk.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuhum atali\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum anguivi\u003c/em\u003e Lam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlamo kelbi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePodocarpus falcatus\u003c/em\u003e (Thun) Mirb.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePodocarpaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZigba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEndemic species in Embahasti Forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientif name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBecium grandiflorum\u003c/em\u003e (Lam) Pic. Serm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLippia adoensis var. adoensis\u003c/em\u003e Hochst. ex Walp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerbenacae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhus glutinosa\u003c/em\u003e A. Rich.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnacardiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eLC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Least concern, NT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Near threatened\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec32\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Species Diversity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) community 2 has the highest altitude contained the highest species richness while community 3 contained the least species richness with the relative least altitude.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShannon-Wiener diversity index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo. of quadrats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage altitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRichness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShannon-Wiener (Hʹ)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShannon-Evenness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2586.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.809516872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2729.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.741186234\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2535.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.845623662\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec33\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Species accumulation curve\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs indicated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, species accumulation curves (rarefaction) were plotted for the vascular plants recorded in Embahasti forest. This graph was plotted for the cumulative number of species recoded as a function of sampling effort i.e. the number of samples pooled. Species accumulation curve helps to illustrate the rate at which new species were included as the sampling effort proceed. From Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, it is observed that there were still new species to be recorded in the forest though at decreasing rate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec34\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Plant communites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree plant communities were derived from the hierarchical cluster analysis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;7). A list of plant community types along with the synoptic value of the species is given in Appendix 2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity names were given after one or two species that had higher synoptic values. In all observed plant community species, higher synoptic values are those that were easily observed repeating themselves in associations. Thus, the identified groups are coinciding with the natural associations that any botanist can observe while crossing through the forest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe hierarchical cluster analyses identified three plant communities: \u003cem\u003eOlea europaea subsp. cuspidata \u0026ndash; Juniperus procera, Myrsine africana \u0026ndash; Erica arborea, Acacia abyssinica \u0026ndash; Dodonea angustifolia\u003c/em\u003e, which were represented by 56, 62, and 15 species, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following is the description of the plant community types identified from the forest:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eOlea europaea subsp. cuspidata \u0026ndash; Juniperus procera\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eCommunity Type\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis community type was represented by 8 quadrates and 56 species. The altitudinal range of this community was from 2463\u0026ndash;2770 m.a.s.l. Dominant species associated with this community are \u003cem\u003eClutia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMaytenus undata\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNuxia congesta\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePavetta abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePittosporum viridiflorum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eRhus glutinosa.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMyrsine africana \u0026ndash; Erica arborea\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eCommunity Type\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis community was represented by 8 quadrats and 60 species. The altitudinal range of this community was from 2687\u0026ndash;2786 m.a.s.l. Dominant species associated with this community are \u003cem\u003eMaytenus arbutifolia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCadia purpurea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBecium grandiflorum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAbutilon pannosum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAcacia abyssinica \u0026ndash; Dodonea angustifolia\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eCommunity Type\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe altitudinal range of this community was from 2383\u0026ndash;2787 m.a.s.l. Dominant species associated with this community are \u003cem\u003eCassipourea malosana\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eClerodendrum myricoides\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eMaytenus senegalensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eOsyris quadripartita\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec35\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6 Ordination\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe distribution of the study plots in Embahasti forest over environmental gradient was well explained using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA), which is a direct gradient analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrdination with CCA of Embahasti forest revealed the following relationship between community types and environmental factors. CCA1 of the ordination diagram reflects mainly grazing and human impacts. CCA2 reflects gradients of altitude and slope. Along CCA1 \u003cem\u003eMyrsine africana- Erica arborea\u003c/em\u003e community type found at relatively higher altitude or associated by altitude. Along CCA2 the differentiation is based on grazing and human impact that is \u003cem\u003eAcacia abyssinica \u0026ndash; Dodonea angustifolia\u003c/em\u003e community type.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec37\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Discussion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec38\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.1.1 Floristic Composition and Habit\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of species richness in tropical and subtropical dry forests is difficult due to the inherent heterogeneity of the forests [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. However, to give a\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003egeneral picture of the species richness of Embahasti forest, the results of the present\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003estudy are compared with results from other forests in Ethiopia. Accordingly,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmbahasti forest is less species rich, especially in tree species, than many other\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfromontane forests, e.g., Jibat (131 species) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], Zegie (113 species) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], Tara Gedam (111 species) and Abebaye (88 species) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], Mana Angetu (212 species) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], Komto (180 species) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. However, Embahasti forest is more species rich than small Afromontane forest fragments in Tigray [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e] which may be due to its larger area [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e], the relatively higher rainfall [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e], and lower extent of degradation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e] at Embahasti forest. Compared to Desa\u0026rsquo;a forest [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e], which is another natural forest remnant in Tigray, Embahasti forest has a lesser species density. This could be partly due to higher rainfall and less disturbance. As indicated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;5, 50.00% were shrubs that were far beyond the other growth habits. This indicates that the natural forest remnants, which were expected to serve as sources of propagules for the restoration of the native tree species in the degraded sites, were not able to sustain the populations of the relevant forest species [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec39\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.2 Species Diversity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eShannon-Wiener diversity, species richness, evenness of communities is given in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The overall observed Shannon-Wiener diversity index (Hʹ = 2.86) of Embahasti forest. This value was found to be higher than that of other Ethiopian forests, such as Chilimo (Hʹ = 2.72) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e], Abebaye (Hʹ = 1.31) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. However, its diversity was found to be less than that of Zegie (Hʹ = 3.72), [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. The possible reason for variability of each diversity value between each community type could be difference in number of species, cover abundance values, degree of disturbance, the slope of the quadrats in the community, altitude and other related factors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec40\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.3 Species accumulation curve\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies accumulation curve is useful to show how much of the species in a given ecosystem are\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003esampled given the sampling effort (number of samples) and the rate of including new species if\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ethe sampling effort proceed. As it was shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e the accumulation curve of the forest\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003edid not attain its asymptote revealing that there are new species to be recorded if sampling\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003econtinues though in a decreased rate than at the beginning of the sampling stage. Comparing\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003emean number of species per plot is not possible for different number of sample as number of\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003especies is highly affected by sample size [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec41\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.4 Plant communities\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity type one with good timber species: \u003cem\u003eJuniperus procera, Olea europaea sub\u003c/em\u003esp. \u003cem\u003ecuspidata\u003c/em\u003e had experienced human interference in the form of selective cutting. Cattle interferences were also observed in some of its stands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity type two, which was dominated by \u003cem\u003eMaytenus arbutifolia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCadia purpurea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBecium grandiflorum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAbutilon pannosum\u003c/em\u003e and characterized by \u003cem\u003eErica arborea\u003c/em\u003e, is found in habitats such as along sloppy and higher altitudes. The stands sampled in this type were located at the middle of the forest, which was less grazed by cattle and its human impact was found to be low.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough most area of this stands was highly affected before about 20 years being used as farming land, by now it was in good regeneration status. In most of its stands introduced exotic species of \u003cem\u003eCuppresus lusitanica\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEucalyptus camaldulensis\u003c/em\u003e has been observed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity type three was rich in shrub layer species. The stands sampled in this community were located in an area having shallow soils with high human interference in the form of firewood collection and selective cutting with heavily grazed. This might be due to being near to the farmer\u0026rsquo;s settlement area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferences in species composition observed among the three plant communities identified in Embahasti forest could be attributed to variations in environmental gradients. According to [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e], vegetation patterns among communities can best be explained by differences in environmental gradients. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e] also explained that plant community distribution is an expression of physical gradients (elevation, soil heterogeneity and microclimate), biotic responses to these gradients and human-induced and/or environmental disturbances in a region. In Embahasti, the observed community can best be explained by differences in altitudinal ranges that are proper to the identified communities, slope and habitat disturbances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec42\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.5 Ordination\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eExamination of the relationship between environmental variables revealed that a strong relationship between attitude and slope, which means that steep slope are more common at higher altitudes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. \u003cem\u003eMyrsine africana- Erica arborea\u003c/em\u003e community type was mainly influenced by altitude and slopes. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e] stated that altitude affects atmospheric pressure, moisture and temperature in an area whereby the latter directly influence growth and development of plants, and the corresponding patterns of vegetation distribution. Human impacts and grazing have also had connection in the pattern. If there is grazing, there is illegal cutting and agricultural land that commonly found in the edge of the forest. \u003cem\u003eAcacia abyssinica- Dodonea angustifolia\u003c/em\u003e community type is highly influenced by grazing and human impacts. At the center of forest, it was believed that there were harmful wild animals for human and domestic animals that was relatively undisturbed area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec43\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1.6 Implication for conservation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree plant communities belonging to dry forests were identified in Embahasti forest. This indicated that topographical position (e.g., elevation and slope) and disturbance (Grazing and human impact) were important determinants of species distribution and community structure. These factors were important and need to be considered in the design of biodiversity conservation programs. The \u003cem\u003eMyrsine africana\u0026ndash;Erica arborea\u003c/em\u003e community was more diverse and contains species (e.g., \u003cem\u003ePodocarpus falcatus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCadia purpurea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBecium grandiflorum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAbutilon pannosum\u003c/em\u003e) that were locally threatened in the study area. Furthermore, this community was found in a narrower habitat range (e.g., elevation \u0026amp; slope) than the other communities, which made the rare tree species vulnerable. It is worth establishing a biodiversity conservation corridor along elevational gradient that includes the three plant communities. Conservation programs should also consider plant communities that may not be species rich, but may include endemic and threatened species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec44\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Conclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study has resulted in the documentation of 74 vascular plant species. Embahasti forest was grouped in to three communities. These communities were arranged based on cover abundance, altitude, slope, grazing and human impact. Plant community two exhibited the highest species richness (62) while the highest diversity index was observed in community one (3.26). Community type three was known with the least species richness and diversity. The variation in species composition and diversity among communities associated to different factors, such as altitude, slope, grazing and human impact. The environmental degradation and intense deforestation that have continued for century have been the main causes for the reduction of forest in the study area. From the name depicted, Embahasti forest is meant forest of \u003cem\u003eErica\u003c/em\u003e, but \u003cem\u003eErica\u003c/em\u003e is currently limited to a certain area of the mountain. Generally, the status of \u003cem\u003eErica arborea, Juniperus procera\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOlea europaea\u003c/em\u003e Subsp. \u003cem\u003ecuspidata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePodocarpus falcatus\u003c/em\u003e are being overexploited for different purposes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec45\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Recommendation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the observation and findings of this study the following points are recommended:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn ethnobotanical study to explore indigenous knowledge on the diverse uses of plants and sound management of the forest is needed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study is based on few selected environmental factors that determine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003especies distribution patterns in which further investigations on the influence of soil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ephysical and chemical properties on species distribution is needed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eReserving Embahasti Forest as a nature reserve protected from grazing and human interference is recommended\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaking legal measures on illegal human impacts particularly agricultural expansion and illegal cutting.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe author developed the proposal, collected field data, wrote the document.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eI am grateful to the local community for conserving the Embahasti Remnant forest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTerborgh J., van Schaik CP. 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Woody plant and avian species diversity in a dry Afromontane forest on the central plateau of Ethiopia: Biological indicators for conservation. \u003cem\u003eEthiopian Journal of Natural Resources \u003c/em\u003e2000; 2: 255-293.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDikaso UG, Tesema TT. Floristic Composition and Diversity of Woody Plant Species of Wotagisho Forest, Boloso Sore Woreda, Wolaita Zone, Southwest, Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management\u003c/em\u003e. 2016; \u003cstrong\u003e1: 3\u003c/strong\u003e 63-70. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWhittaker RJ, Willis KJ, Field R. Climatic\u0026ndash;energetic explanations of diversity: a macroscopic perspective. In \u003cem\u003eMacroecology: concepts and consequences\u003c/em\u003e, Blackburn, T.M. and Gaston, K.J. (eds), Cambridge University Press; Cambridge, 2003. pp. 107-129\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUrban D, Miller C, Halpin P, Stephenson N. Forest gradient response in Sierran landscapes: the physical template. \u003cem\u003eLandscape Ecology\u003c/em\u003e 2000; 15\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e 603\u0026ndash;620.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLeul K, Tamrat B, Sileshi N. Vegetation Composition in Hugumbirda-Gratkhassu National Forest Priority Area, South Tigray. \u003cem\u003eMEJS \u003c/em\u003e2010; 2 (2):27-48.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eErmias A. Forest diversity in fragmented landscapes of northern Ethiopia and implications for conservation. PhD Dissertation, Bonn University, Germany; 2011\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHedberg O. Features of Afroalpine plant ecology. \u003cem\u003eActa Phytogeographica Suecica \u003c/em\u003e1964; 49: 1-144.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Conservation, Embahasti, Floristic Composition, Remnant Forest, Tigray","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4637663/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4637663/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eTigray is one of the most environmentally degraded regions in Ethiopia left with remnant natural vegetation. The purpose of this study was to assess the plant communities of Embahasti remnant forest in southern Tigray, Ethiopia. Vegetation data were collected from 40 sample quadrates placed in transect lines, which were systematically laid. All vascular plant species including herbs, shrubs, lianas, and trees in each quadrat were recorded. Hierarchical cluster analysis and Canonical Correspondence analysis (CCA) performed that used for plant community analysis. Shannon-Wiener diversity Index was also computed for ecological data analysis. All the above analysis was performed using R 3.4.1 version software. A total of 74 plant species belonging 44 families were found in the study area; shrubs and trees (70.27%) species were dominant. Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae were the dominant families in terms of species. Three plant communities identified from the forest, namely \u003cem\u003eOlea europaea subsp. Cuspidata \u0026ndash; Juniperus procera, Myrsine africana \u0026ndash; Erica arborea, Acacia abyssinica \u0026ndash; Dodonea angustifolia\u003c/em\u003e. The highest Shannon-wiener diversity index was 3.26 while the least was 2.29 found in community one and three, respectively. Altitude, Slope, Grazing and human impacts are the factors influencing species distribution. It is, therefore, based on the results of this study, detailed ecological studies in relation to various environmental factors such as soil type and properties, ethnobotanical studies to explore indigenous knowledge on the diverse uses of plants, and sound management and monitoring as well as maintenance of biodiversity that promote sustainable use of the forest is recommended.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Plant Community Analysis in Embahasti Remnant Forest, Southern Tigray, Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-25 06:30:27","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4637663/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-07-02T07:22:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-07-02T07:13:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Sustainability","date":"2024-06-25T15:47:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2285dbbd-4dd5-404f-915a-6c4031d01a08","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 25th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-07-25T06:30:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-25 06:30:27","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4637663","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4637663","identity":"rs-4637663","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}