The Influence of Harsh Parenting on Adolescents’ Bullying: The Moderating Role of Perceived Class Climate and Gender

The Influence of Harsh Parenting on Adolescents’ Bullying: The Moderating Role of Perceived Class Climate and Gender | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Influence of Harsh Parenting on Adolescents’ Bullying: The Moderating Role of Perceived Class Climate and Gender Zanxin Chen, Tongsheng Xi, Xiangrui Leng, Huiling Fan, Kun Cheng This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6843507/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The present study examined the moderating effects of perceived class climate in the relations between harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying and parent and adolescent gender differences in the moderating mechanism in Chinese society. This study used a sample of 400 middle school students and both their parents in central China. We constructed a Structural Equation Model to explore the relation between harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying and the moderating role of perceived class climate. Our findings revealed that maternal but not paternal harsh parenting attitude was found to significantly predict boys’ bullying. Moreover, perceived class climate exacerbated the relations between paternal harsh parenting behavior and girls’ bullying. The findings provide partial support for the “healthy context paradox” and highlight the importance of considering how the broader class context may interact with harsh parenting to influence the physical and mental health of adolescents. Harsh parenting Adolescents’ bullying Perceived class climate Gender Figures Figure 1 1 Introduction Bullying is generally defined as “intentional, repeated, and persistent negative behaviors of individuals or groups inflict towards victims in situations of power imbalance”, including verbal bullying, physical bullying, and relational bullying. Bullying can cause serious psychological adaptation problems for both bullies and victims, affecting individual physical and mental development [ 1 ]. People who frequently engage in bullying are prone to cognitive dissonance, and may exhibit antisocial behavior, violations of discipline, laws and so on [ 2 ]. Individuals who are frequently bullied are prone to psychological distress such as anxiety, depression, and insecurity, and some may even exhibit non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and drug abuse [ 3 , 4 ]. Therefore, identifying the meaning and influence factor of adolescents’ bullying can help reduce it and promote the physical and mental health development of adolescents. According to Social Learning Theory, individuals will learn different forms of aggressive behavior by observing and imitating their parents' behavior. In recent years, the relationship between harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying has received some attention. Harsh parenting includes physical attacks (slapping, pushing), verbal attacks (yelling, insulting), and psychological attacks from parents towards adolescents [ 5 , 6 ]. Research has found that harsh parenting is associated with adolescents’ aggressive and destructive behavior, and is a family risk factor that triggers adolescent delinquency and substance abuse [ 7 , 8 ]. A study using parent-adolescent conflict measurement methods and multiple studies using harsh parenting scales have confirmed a significant positive correlation between harsh parenting and individual aggressive behavior [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. 1.1 Perceived class climate as a Moderator Adolescents’ bullying is influenced by various factors, including not only harsh parenting, but also the social and psychological environment on campus [ 12 ]. Class is an important place for student activities, which has a significant impact on students' psychology and behavior [ 13 ]. As one of the important microsystems closely related to the development of adolescents, class environment not only affects the acquisition of knowledge and skills by adolescents, but also influences the cultivation of their willpower and the shaping of their personality and behavior [ 14 ]. High quality emotional and teaching support from teachers to students, as well as positive interactions between teachers and students, will increase their emotional connections and contribute to the formation of a positive classroom atmosphere [ 15 ]. As an important component of the campus social and psychological environment, class climate refers to the quality of interpersonal relationships felt by individual students in the class, including the level of cooperation, respect, and cohesion among students [ 16 ]. Research has shown that teacher support, admonishment, and discipline in class environment can improve students' peer relationships, weaken the negative link between problem students' aggressive behavior and peer acceptance, and show a significant negative correlation between class climate and bullying [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Therefore, perceived class climate may play a role in mitigating the negative impact of harsh parenting on bullying. 1.2 Parent and Adolescent Gender Differences in the Moderating Mechanism Previous studies have shown that parental harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying may vary systematically based on parent and adolescent gender. Mothers showed more harsh discipline toward adolescents than fathers [ 20 , 21 ]. Boys are more susceptible to parental harsh parenting, but girls who experience physical punishment from their parents are more likely to exhibit antisocial behavior [ 22 , 23 , 24 ]. In addition, parental corporal punishment may lead to externalized problematic behaviors in boys (such as aggression and discipline), and internalized problematic behaviors such as anxiety and depression in girls [ 25 ]. According to the Same-Sex Imitation Hypothesis, we can know that the influence of parenting styles is greatest in the combination of same-sex parents and adolescents (father and son, mother and daughter) [ 24 ]. Although previous studies have documented the parent and adolescent gender differences in harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying, little research has examined whether the moderating effects of perceived class climate on the relations between harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying differ by parent and adolescent gender. Based on the above analysis, this study constructs a structural equation model to explore the moderating effect of perceived class climate on the relationship between harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying, as well as gender differences in the moderating mechanism. 2 Methods 2.1 Participants The participants are students and their parents from a middle school in central China. The survey questionnaire was distributed and collected within one month, and ultimately 400 valid questionnaires were collected. The participants were mainly the Han nationality (98.75%), and their mother tongue was Chinese. The average age of teenagers was 16.25 years old ( SD = 0.89, age-range = 15–18 years,), with boys accounting for 56.75%. The mean age of the fathers and mothers was 41.23 years old (age-range = 40–51 years) and 40.14 years old (age-range = 37–43 years). In terms of employment, 82.5% of fathers and 70.54% of mothers worked as workers (e.g., factory workers). Nearly 12.16% of fathers and 8.66% of mothers were engaged in professional or technical jobs (e.g., teachers, doctors, engineers). About 0.35% of fathers and 9.25% of mothers were unemployed. In terms of parental education, nearly 44.27% of fathers and 51.64% of mothers completed at most a junior-high-school education, 34.27% of fathers and 30.15% of mothers had the highest education level in high school, and about 15.58% of fathers and 11.47% of mothers had completed at least some college education. 2.2 Measures 2.2.1 Harsh parenting. A Chinese version of the Harsh Parenting Scale was used to access harsh parenting[ 6 , 26 ]. This scale contains 4 items (e.g., “When my child does something wrong or makes me angry, I will “lose my temper and even yell at the child.”), and each item is scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Higher scores indicate high levels of harsh parenting, and the Cronbach's alpha for this scale were 0.81. To reduce reporting bias and improve measurement stability, the adolescents were asked to evaluate their parents’ parenting as above as well, with only a slight change in the expression of the items (e.g., “When I do something wrong or make my parent angry, he/she loses his/her temper with me or even yells at me.”). The mean of the four reports was used as the level of harsh parenting. 2.2.2 Bullying. Bullying was assessed by the Chinese translated version of Bullying/Bullied Questionnaire [ 27 ]. It consists of 12 items (e.g., “What do you usually do when you see a girl your age being bullied at school?” and “What do you usually do when you see a boy your age being bullied at school?”), and each item is scored by 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 4 (1 = none, 2 = only once to twice, 3 = three to five times, and 4 = six times and more).The Cronbach's alpha for this measure were 0.898. 2.2.3 Perceived class climate. Perceived class climate was measured by the Perceived Class Interpersonal Harmony Scale for students [ 28 ]. It is a 26-item scale with 3 dimensions of the perceived class climate (e.g., “When I have difficulties, the teacher will help me.”), each item was rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always). This instrument has good consistency and validity in researches [ 29 ]. Higher scores reflect high levels of perceived class climate, and the Cronbach's alpha for this scale were 0.82, 0.72, and 0.85 at T1, T2, and T3, respectively. 2.2.3 Data Analyses Structural Equation Model (SEM) was used to test the potential moderating roles of perceived class climate in the relations between harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying. Model fit was evaluated using a combination of the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI). Kline [ 30 ] suggested that model fit is acceptable when CFI > .90, TLI > .90, and RMSEA ≤ .08. Then, we performed multiple-group structural equation modeling analyses to test adolescents’ gender differences in the relations between harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying. Socioeconomic status (SES) was added as a covariate in the model because SES is an important factor that influences adolescent bullying. If significant harsh parenting × perceived class climate was found, the follow-up simple slope test recommended by Holmbeck [ 31 ] was adopted to test the nature of the interaction. All the predictors were mean centered in the analysis. 3 Results 3.1Preliminary analysis Since the data for this study came from self-reports of participants, it was necessary to check for common method bias. Conduct exploratory factor analysis using Harman single factor test for all projects. The test results show that the maximum factor variance explanation rate is 25.647%, which is less than the standard of 40%. Preliminary evidence suggests that common method bias cannot explain most of the variation between variables. Table 1 provided the descriptive statistics and the intercorrelations among all study variable separately for boys and girls. Analyses of skewness and kurtosis indicated that both perceived class climate and harsh parenting were approximately normally distributed (skewness =-0.37-1.02, kurtosis =-0.31-1.21), while both paternal harsh parenting behavior and maternal harsh parenting behavior were positively skewed and leptokurtotic (skewness = 2.35 and 1.36, kurtosis = 8.27 and 1.97). Independent-sample t-test revealed that compared to girls, boys were more likely to experience paternal harsh parenting attitude ( t = 2.25, p < 0.05) and harsh parenting behavior ( t = 3.63, p < 0.01). However, the adolescent gender differences were nonsignificant for maternal harsh parenting, perceived class climate and adolescents’ bullying ( ts 0.05). Compared to fathers, mothers used more harsh parenting ( ts > 2.11, ps 14.63, ps < 0.001). Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations among Study Variables. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 M SD 1 PHPA - .14 * .45 *** .14 * − .12 − .11 .13 3.51 3.14 2 MHPA .24 *** - .18 *** .57 *** − .11 .03 .15 * 5.77 4.46 3 PHPB .62 *** .17 ** - .22 ** − .12 − .12 .06 1.68 1.64 4 MHPB .24 *** .51 *** .21 *** - − .11 − .12 .12 2.39 3.02 5 HPCC − .18 ** − .23 *** − .11 − .17 ** - .11 − .10 21.38 3.37 6 LPCC − .15 ** − .21 *** − .21 *** − .13 * .15 ** - − .14 * 20.53 3.82 7 Adolescent Bullying .11 * .21 *** .04 .13 * − .13 * − .06 - 16.53 7.12 M 4.53 5.57 1.77 2.51 21.24 20.68 15.53 - - SD 3.82 3.87 3.09 2.85 3.44 3.86 7.27 - - Note: Correlations above the diagonal are for girls, below the diagonal are for boys. Maternal harsh parenting attitude (MHPA); maternal harsh parenting behavior (MHPB); paternal harsh parenting attitude (PHPA); paternal harsh parenting behavior (PHPB). * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. As shown in Table 1 , for both boys and girls, there were significantly positive correlations among harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior. Moreover, paternal harsh parenting attitude, maternal harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior were significantly and positively related to boys’ bullying, while for girls, only maternal harsh parenting attitude was significantly and positively related to their bullying. For boys, the correlations between perceived class climate and harsh parenting were significant and in the expected direction. However, there were no significant relations between perceived class climate and parental harsh parenting for girls. In addition, high perceived class climate was correlated to boys’ bullying, while low perceived class climate was correlated to girls’ bullying. 3.2 Structural Equation Modeling Analyses Parental harsh parenting (harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior), perceived class climate, and adolescents’ bullying in the model were conducted to examine the direct effect of parental harsh parenting and perceived class climate on adolescents’ bullying as observed variables. In addition, the interactions between parental harsh parenting (harsh parenting attitude/harsh parenting behavior) and perceived class climate were used to explore the moderating effect of perceived class climate. According to ecological systems theory, parenting behavior is influenced by family environment and climate, as well as broader socio-cultural factors, so we added a series of correlations among paternal harsh parenting (harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior), maternal harsh parenting (harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior), high perceived class climate, and low perceived class climate in the model. The hypothesized models presented acceptable fits to the data, χ²/df = 1.56, RMSEA = 0.04, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.92. Multiple-group models comparison indicated that significant differences were found between the fully constrained and unconstrained models for the model, Δχ²s/dfs > 3.89, p < 0.001, indicating that the relations between parental harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying were significantly different across boys and girls. The specific results are shown as follows. Table 2 Structural equation modeling analysis with regulation β p-value socio-economic status .04/-.06 .37/.29 MHPA → Adolescent Bullying .18 * /.11 .01/.24 PHPA → Adolescent Bullying .10/.13 .16/.07 MHPB→ Adolescent Bullying .04/.06 .52/.47 PHPB→ Adolescent Bullying − .07/-.05 .30/.54 HPCC → Adolescent Bullying − .10/.04 .06/.53 LPCC →Adolescent Bullying − .02/-.16 * .70/.03 MHPA×HPCC → Adolescent Bullying − .02/.03 .66/.69 MHPB×HPCC → Adolescent Bullying .11/-.01 .12/.95 PHPA×LPCC → Adolescent Bullying .13/.05 .08/.51 HPB×LPCC → Adolescent Bullying − .11/-.10 .11/.31 MHPA×LPCC → Adolescent Bullying .15/-.12 .05/.18 MHPB×LPCC → Adolescent Bullying − .02/.13 .71/.12 PHPA×HPCC → Adolescent Bullying − .04/-.07 .56/.36 PHPB× HPCC → Adolescent Bullying .01/.22 * .86/.02 Note: β and p to the left of the "/" represent boys, those to the right represent girls, Maternal harsh parenting attitude (MHPA); maternal harsh parenting behavior (MHPB); paternal harsh parenting attitude (PHPA); paternal harsh parenting behavior (PHPB); high perceived class climate (HPCC); low perceived class climate (LPCC). * p < 0.05. 3.2.1 The moderating role of high perceived class climate in the relationship between maternal harsh parenting and adolescent bullying (1) The effect of mothers' harsh parenting attitudes on boys’ bullying as shown in Table 2 , maternal harsh parenting attitudes significantly predicted boys' bullying ( β = 0.18, t = 4.23, p < 0.05), whereas it did not reach the level of significance for girls’ bullying. (2) Moderating effect of high perceived class climate the main effect of high perceived class climate and the interaction between maternal harsh parenting attitudes and high perceived class climate were not significant ( p > 0.05), suggesting that high perceived class climate did not moderate the relationship between maternal harsh parenting and adolescent bullying. 3.2.2 The moderating role of low perceived class climate in the relationship between paternal harsh parenting and adolescent bullying (1) Moderating effect of low perceived class climate the main effect of low perceived class climate was significant for girls’ bullying ( β = -0.16, t = 7.22, p 0.05), whereas neither paternal harsh parenting behavior nor attitudes The main effect of both and their interaction with low perceived class climate was not significant for all adolescents ( p > 0.05), suggesting that low perceived class climate did not moderate the relationship between paternal harsh parenting and adolescent bullying. (2) Effect of paternal harsh parenting behavior and attitude on adolescent bullying as shown in Table 2 , the effect of paternal harsh parenting behavior and attitude on adolescent bullying did not reach a significant level ( p > 0.05) for both boys and girls. 3.2.3 The moderating role of low perceived class climate in the relationship between maternal harsh parenting attitudes and adolescent bullying (1) The effect of maternal harsh parenting attitudes on boys’ bullying statistically significant ( β = 0.18, t = 7.71, p 0.05) for both boys and girls, suggesting that low perceived class climate does not moderate the relationship between maternal harsh parenting attitudes and adolescent bullying. 3.2.4 The Moderating Role of Low Perceived Class Climate in the Relationship Between Maternal Rough Parenting Behavior and Adolescent Bullying Moderating effect of mothers’ rough parenting behavior and low classroom climate not significant ( p > 0.05) for both boys and girls, indicating that low perceived class climate does not moderate the relationship between maternal harsh parenting behavior and adolescent bullying. 3.2.5 The moderating role of high classroom climate in the relationship between paternal harsh parenting attitudes and adolescent bullying Moderating effect of paternal harsh parenting attitudes and high perceived class climate not significant ( p > 0.05) for both boys and girls, indicating that high perceived class climate did not moderate the relationship between paternal harsh parenting attitudes and adolescent bullying. 3.2.6 The Moderating Role of High Perceived Class Climate in the Relationship Between Paternal Harsh Parenting Behavior and Adolescent Bullying Moderating effect of paternal harsh parenting behavior and high perceived class climate not significant for boys ( p > 0.05). Significant for girls ( β = 0.22, t = 9.14, p < 0.05), indicating that high perceived class climate significantly moderated the relationship between paternal harsh parenting behaviors and girls' bullying, and the results of the simple slope analysis of follow-up indicated that high perceived class climate exacerbated the relationship between paternal harsh parenting behaviors and girls’ bullying. As shown in Fig. 1 , in the high perceived class climate level group, the effect of paternal harsh parenting behavior on girls’ bullying was exacerbated by high perceived class climate (simple slope = 0.89, t = 2.28, p 0.05), the increase of perceived class climate has reduced the impact of paternal harsh parenting behavior on bullying girls. 4. Discussion The present study expanded on previous research by examining the relations between both maternal and paternal harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying and the moderating role of both perceived class climate and adolescent gender in Chinese societies. The findings showed that maternal harsh parenting attitude significantly and positively predicted boys’ bullying rather than girls’ bullying, while maternal harsh parenting behavior failed to predict adolescents’ bullying. Neither paternal harsh parenting attitude nor harsh parenting behavior significantly predicted boys’ and girls’ bullying. Moreover, high perceived class climate exacerbated the relation between paternal harsh parenting behavior and girls’ bullying. These aspects of the results will be discussed below. In the current study, gender plays a moderating role in the harsh parenting on adolescents’ bullying, with maternal and paternal harsh parenting having different effects on adolescents’ bullying, and maternal but not paternal harsh parenting behavior were found to predict boys’ bullying. One possible explanation for the differential impacts of Chinese maternal and paternal harsh parenting may be related to the proverb “stern father and loving mother” emphasized in traditional Chinese culture. In this cultural context, adolescent may be more inclined to perceive their mother’s (rather than their father’s) harsh parenting as irregular, and thus view their mother’s harsh parenting as a recycling or rejection of love [ 32 ]. According to the Parental Acceptance-Rejection Theory, children may feel unappreciated and unaccepted if their parents are not sufficiently accepting and supportive of them, which may increase their bullying. It has been shown that parental rejection is significantly and positively associated with adolescents’ bullying [ 33 ]. The present study also found that there is more mothers’ harsh parenting than fathers’, this finding may also be explained by the fact that mothers are generally the primary caregivers of their children despite fathers’ increasing involvement with children in China [ 34 ]. Compared to fathers, mothers spend more time with adolescents and have more opportunities for conflict, which may lead more harsh parenting and increase more chances of mothers influencing adolescents’ bullying [ 35 ]. Moreover, according to gender theory, boys have a more decisive, straightforward, bold, and independent personality, and are prone to extremism and impulsiveness when faced with situations. Girls have a quieter, gentler, more considerate, meticulous, more tolerant, and less aggressive personality, and are more likely to hesitate and be conservative when faced with situations. Therefore, men are more likely to exhibit rebellious behavior when they are dissatisfied or unhappy, while girls are more likely to be submissive and accepting. So, more harsh parenting leads more bullying in boys. Generally speaking, class climate with less bullying and more harmonious teacher-student relationships are positive and healthy types of contexts. In such context, students have higher levels of mental health, fewer behavioral problems, and better adjustment. Class climate has been shown to have a positive effect on reducing bullying [ 36 ]. However, a recent study found that high class climate does not mitigate the negative effects of harsh parenting on adolescent bullying, and that the few children who suffer from bullying in classes with lower bullying prevalence instead experience more adjustment problems, such as anxiety, depressive et al [ 37 ]. Prof. Christina Salmvalli of the University of Turku, Finland, named it “healthy context paradox” [ 38 ]. In the present study, the negative effects of fathers’ harsh parenting behaviors on girls’ bullying were not only not buffered in a healthy class climate (i.e., high class climate), but the opposite was more likely to be reinforced. The possible reason is that high class climate is difficult to dispel the influence of fathers’ harsh parenting on girls’ bullying. Previous research has shown that fathers use less harsh parenting on girls rather than boys [ 22 ]. In the context of less frequency of fathers’ harsh parenting on girls, different degrees of harsh parenting may be more likely to attract girls’ attention. Girls in healthy class environments may be more likely to compare high class climate to parental harsh parenting (attitudes and behaviors), and thus perceive their father’s harsh parenting as a denial of love, exacerbating the relationship between father’s harsh parenting and girls’ bullying. This finding supports the “healthy context paradox”. In addition, this study also found that the moderating effect of class climate varied by the gender of the parents and children. High class climate did not affect the relationship between mothers’ harsh parenting and girls’ bullying, but only exacerbated the relationship between fathers’ harsh parenting and girls’ bullying. One possible explanation for this difference is that the traditional family education in China is “men blame their fathers, daughters blame their mothers”, i.e., fathers are more involved in disciplining their sons, while mothers are more involved in disciplining their daughters, and in this gendered cultural context, girls may perceive that their mothers’ harsh parenting is more acceptable and understandable than their fathers’ harsh parenting. Thus, when father’s harsh parenting occurs to girls in high class climate, this harsh parenting may be more destructive to girls’ environmental adjustment (e.g., increase girls’ bullying). The “healthy context paradox” may be more likely to occur when healthy contexts are provided by same-sex parents and unhealthy contexts are provided by opposite-sex parents. Therefore, we further explored the effects of the variables of harsh parenting, class climate, and gender on adolescents’ bullying. From ecosystem theory, harsh parenting actually belongs to the family microsystem, while class climate belongs to the school mesosystem. At the microsystem level, harsh parenting undermines the development of emotional regulation and moral cognition, thus forming the susceptibility of adolescents to bullying; at the mesosystem level, class climate is a social context variable, and adolescents’ subjective perceptions of class climate also moderates the effects of harsh parenting on bullying. In addition, gender as an individual characteristic variable moderates both paths; girls are more sensitive to class climate perceptions and may internalize family conflict as self-denial; boys are more likely to externalize anger through bullying, so boys may be more likely to outwardly express physical bullying, while girls are more likely to verbal or relational bullying, which may be related to societal expectations of gender roles. 5. Research limitations Due to various factors such as survey conditions, this study still has some limitations. Firstly, the research data obtained by this study are all self-reported data. Given that being treated roughly by parents and being bullied by classmates is ignoble, not all teenagers are willing to tell the truth, and the subjects may hide the truth or weaken the severity of the problem, resulting in the discrepancy between the data and the actual situation. Secondly, this study adopted a cross-sectional design, and due to inherent limitations of this design, the results need to be further validated through longitudinal design to enhance the reliability and scientific validity of the findings. Finally, the high degree of consistency in the socio-cultural backgrounds of the subjects in this study may limit the applicability and generalizability of the findings in a multicultural context, so the applicability and generalizability of the findings in a wider range of contexts still need to be explored in depth and carefully considered. 6. Strengths and conclusion Although this study still has certain limitations, its research results still have specific significance. Firstly, the high class climate exacerbates the relationship between fathers’ harsh parenting behavior and girls’ bullying, this finding provides a certain supplement and extension to healthy context paradox. Based on this, intervening in fathers’ harsh parenting behavior is crucial to reducing the incidence of bullying among girls in a good class climate. From the perspective of family education, it can be found that the healthy parenting style of fathers has a positive promoting effect on the psychological health development of adolescents. In addition, the moderating effect of class climate varies between parents and children of different genders. These results not only highlight the importance of using parents’ and children’s gender as moderating variables in parent-child relationships, but also indicate that implementing intervention strategies based on gender differences and optimizing class climate can effectively alleviate the negative impact of parents’ harsh parenting on adolescents, and thus promote the healthy growth of adolescents as well as the healthy development of family education. Abbreviations Not applicable Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This survey was approved by the ethics committee of psychological research at Yangtze University and adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from both participants and their parents. Consent for publication Consent for publication is not applicable as the study does not involve any identifying images or personal/clinical details of participants that compromise anonymity. Availability of data and materials The data that support the finding of this study was available from the corresponding author upon reasonable requests. Declaration of Competing Interest The authors have no conflicts of interests that might be interpreted as influencing the research. Funding This research was supported by the General Projects for Philosophy and Social Science Research of Department of Education of HubeiProvince in 2023（23Y105） Authors' contributions C.Z. completed the initial draft of the paper. X.T. completed the initial draft of the paper,revising the manuscript, data processing and analysis, and result visualization. L.X .conducted the research, performed data analysis, and partially revised the initial draft. F.H .conducted the research, performed data analysis, and partially revised the initial draft. C.K. proposed the research design and paper structure, revised and reviewed the initial draft. All authors have reviewed the paper. Acknowledgements Not applicable References Olweus D. Bullying at school: basic facts and effects of a school-based intervention program. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1994;35(7):1171–90. Zhang J, Liu J. 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Impact of classroom climate on school bullying behavior among high grade students of migrant elementary school. Chin J School Health. 2015;36(02):194–7. Kline RB. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford; 2023. Holmbeck GN. Post-hoc probing of significant moderational and mediational effects in studies of pediatric populations. J Pediatr Psychol. 2002;27(1):87–96. Wang M, Wang X, Liu L. Paternal and maternal psychological and physical aggression and children's anxiety in China. Child Abuse Negl. 2016;51:12–20. Wang H. The Relationship between Parenting Style, Peer Relationship and Junior High School Students’ Online and Offline Victimization (Unpublished master's thesis). Harbin Normal University. 2016. Wong WCW, Chen WQ, Goggins WB, Tang CS, Leung PW. Individual, familial and community determinants of child physical abuse among high-school students in China. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68(10):1819–25. Straus MA, Stewart JH. Corporal punishment by American parents: National data on prevalence, chronicity, severity, and duration, in relation to child and family characteristics. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 1999;2:55–70. Eliot M, Cornell D, Gregory A, Fan X. Supportive school climate and student willingness to seek help for bullying and threats of violence. J Sch Psychol. 2010;48(6):533–53. Pan B, Li T, Ji L, Malamut S, Zhang W, Salmivalli C. Why does classroom-level victimization moderate the association between victimization and depressive symptoms? The Healthy Context Paradox and two explanations. Child Dev. 2021;92(5):1836–54. Salmivalli C. Peer victimization and adjustment in young adulthood: Commentary on the special section. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2018;46(1):67–72. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6843507","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":485016209,"identity":"5ee0894d-8d4a-4064-ae67-40ab21cedbe3","order_by":0,"name":"Zanxin Chen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"College of Education and Sports Sciences of Yangtze University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zanxin","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""},{"id":485016210,"identity":"77cff627-0bc1-4fb6-b810-946f543ad12e","order_by":1,"name":"Tongsheng Xi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Experimental Primary School of Dadukou District of Chongqing","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tongsheng","middleName":"","lastName":"Xi","suffix":""},{"id":485016211,"identity":"b85ede08-690e-4175-b5a4-81826e4c6e12","order_by":2,"name":"Xiangrui Leng","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"College of Education and Sports Sciences of Yangtze University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xiangrui","middleName":"","lastName":"Leng","suffix":""},{"id":485016212,"identity":"9ef7f60e-562f-4a10-94ee-dc416b729a34","order_by":3,"name":"Huiling Fan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"School of Marxism of Yangtze University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Huiling","middleName":"","lastName":"Fan","suffix":""},{"id":485016213,"identity":"4e19b7d9-1a24-47d4-848d-296eed1f4953","order_by":4,"name":"Kun Cheng","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC+2bGhgMSBjbIYgn4tRiwNx88YFGQBmIzNhCnhedY8oGKD4dJ0GIukWNw4IbB+cT+2e3XH/6oOMzAz55jwPBzB24tljNyDA7OMLidOOPOmcIGiTOHGSR73hgw9p7BY82NHIPDEkAtDTdyEhsM2w4zGABFmBnbCGj5Y3AucT5IS+K/wwz2hLQYnDmWAAzkA4kbbqQfbDjYALRFgoAWyfbmA0AtycYbb+Qwzmw4ls4jceZZwcFePFr4mRmbP0j8sZOddyP9wccfNdZy/O3JGx/8xOcXKHBsYOAxADF4QMQBwhqACYeBgf0BMQpHwSgYBaNgBAIAFWxgM3cUd0AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"School of Foreign Studies of Yangtze University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kun","middleName":"","lastName":"Cheng","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-07 14:53:23","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6843507/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6843507/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86779785,"identity":"3894ce5f-fc05-449e-83e4-a450964f21c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-15 13:11:08","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":80748,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInteraction between paternal harsh parenting behavior and high perceived class climate on bullying among girls\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6843507/v1/f759f1a1ba4042ddea798acb.png"},{"id":98194494,"identity":"ceaa4b44-5613-47f4-8407-4ce81a7c57dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 06:25:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1492142,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6843507/v1/7cc97169-a451-400f-813f-2a412b74c6f5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Influence of Harsh Parenting on Adolescents’ Bullying: The Moderating Role of Perceived Class Climate and Gender","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBullying is generally defined as \u0026ldquo;intentional, repeated, and persistent negative behaviors of individuals or groups inflict towards victims in situations of power imbalance\u0026rdquo;, including verbal bullying, physical bullying, and relational bullying. Bullying can cause serious psychological adaptation problems for both bullies and victims, affecting individual physical and mental development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. People who frequently engage in bullying are prone to cognitive dissonance, and may exhibit antisocial behavior, violations of discipline, laws and so on [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Individuals who are frequently bullied are prone to psychological distress such as anxiety, depression, and insecurity, and some may even exhibit non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and drug abuse [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, identifying the meaning and influence factor of adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying can help reduce it and promote the physical and mental health development of adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Social Learning Theory, individuals will learn different forms of aggressive behavior by observing and imitating their parents' behavior. In recent years, the relationship between harsh parenting and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying has received some attention. Harsh parenting includes physical attacks (slapping, pushing), verbal attacks (yelling, insulting), and psychological attacks from parents towards adolescents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Research has found that harsh parenting is associated with adolescents\u0026rsquo; aggressive and destructive behavior, and is a family risk factor that triggers adolescent delinquency and substance abuse [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. A study using parent-adolescent conflict measurement methods and multiple studies using harsh parenting scales have confirmed a significant positive correlation between harsh parenting and individual aggressive behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.1 Perceived class climate as a Moderator\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying is influenced by various factors, including not only harsh parenting, but also the social and psychological environment on campus [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Class is an important place for student activities, which has a significant impact on students' psychology and behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. As one of the important microsystems closely related to the development of adolescents, class environment not only affects the acquisition of knowledge and skills by adolescents, but also influences the cultivation of their willpower and the shaping of their personality and behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. High quality emotional and teaching support from teachers to students, as well as positive interactions between teachers and students, will increase their emotional connections and contribute to the formation of a positive classroom atmosphere [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. As an important component of the campus social and psychological environment, class climate refers to the quality of interpersonal relationships felt by individual students in the class, including the level of cooperation, respect, and cohesion among students [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Research has shown that teacher support, admonishment, and discipline in class environment can improve students' peer relationships, weaken the negative link between problem students' aggressive behavior and peer acceptance, and show a significant negative correlation between class climate and bullying [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, perceived class climate may play a role in mitigating the negative impact of harsh parenting on bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.2 Parent and Adolescent Gender Differences in the Moderating Mechanism\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have shown that parental harsh parenting and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying may vary systematically based on parent and adolescent gender. Mothers showed more harsh discipline toward adolescents than fathers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Boys are more susceptible to parental harsh parenting, but girls who experience physical punishment from their parents are more likely to exhibit antisocial behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, parental corporal punishment may lead to externalized problematic behaviors in boys (such as aggression and discipline), and internalized problematic behaviors such as anxiety and depression in girls [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the Same-Sex Imitation Hypothesis, we can know that the influence of parenting styles is greatest in the combination of same-sex parents and adolescents (father and son, mother and daughter) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Although previous studies have documented the parent and adolescent gender differences in harsh parenting and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying, little research has examined whether the moderating effects of perceived class climate on the relations between harsh parenting and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying differ by parent and adolescent gender.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the above analysis, this study constructs a structural equation model to explore the moderating effect of perceived class climate on the relationship between harsh parenting and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying, as well as gender differences in the moderating mechanism.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Participants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe participants are students and their parents from a middle school in central China. The survey questionnaire was distributed and collected within one month, and ultimately 400 valid questionnaires were collected. The participants were mainly the Han nationality (98.75%), and their mother tongue was Chinese. The average age of teenagers was 16.25 years old (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.89, age-range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15\u0026ndash;18 years,), with boys accounting for 56.75%. The mean age of the fathers and mothers was 41.23 years old (age-range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;40\u0026ndash;51 years) and 40.14 years old (age-range\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37\u0026ndash;43 years). In terms of employment, 82.5% of fathers and 70.54% of mothers worked as workers (e.g., factory workers). Nearly 12.16% of fathers and 8.66% of mothers were engaged in professional or technical jobs (e.g., teachers, doctors, engineers). About 0.35% of fathers and 9.25% of mothers were unemployed. In terms of parental education, nearly 44.27% of fathers and 51.64% of mothers completed at most a junior-high-school education, 34.27% of fathers and 30.15% of mothers had the highest education level in high school, and about 15.58% of fathers and 11.47% of mothers had completed at least some college education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Measures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 Harsh parenting.\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA Chinese version of the Harsh Parenting Scale was used to access harsh parenting[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. This scale contains 4 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;When my child does something wrong or makes me angry, I will \u0026ldquo;lose my temper and even yell at the child.\u0026rdquo;), and each item is scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Higher scores indicate high levels of harsh parenting, and the Cronbach's alpha for this scale were 0.81. To reduce reporting bias and improve measurement stability, the adolescents were asked to evaluate their parents\u0026rsquo; parenting as above as well, with only a slight change in the expression of the items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;When I do something wrong or make my parent angry, he/she loses his/her temper with me or even yells at me.\u0026rdquo;). The mean of the four reports was used as the level of harsh parenting.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Bullying.\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBullying was assessed by the Chinese translated version of Bullying/Bullied Questionnaire [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. It consists of 12 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;What do you usually do when you see a girl your age being bullied at school?\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;What do you usually do when you see a boy your age being bullied at school?\u0026rdquo;), and each item is scored by 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 4 (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;none, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;only once to twice, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;three to five times, and 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;six times and more).The Cronbach's alpha for this measure were 0.898.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.3 Perceived class climate.\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceived class climate was measured by the Perceived Class Interpersonal Harmony Scale for students [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. It is a 26-item scale with 3 dimensions of the perceived class climate (e.g., \u0026ldquo;When I have difficulties, the teacher will help me.\u0026rdquo;), each item was rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always). This instrument has good consistency and validity in researches [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Higher scores reflect high levels of perceived class climate, and the Cronbach's alpha for this scale were 0.82, 0.72, and 0.85 at T1, T2, and T3, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2.3 Data Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural Equation Model (SEM) was used to test the potential moderating roles of perceived class climate in the relations between harsh parenting and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying. Model fit was evaluated using a combination of the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Tucker\u0026ndash;Lewis Index (TLI). Kline [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] suggested that model fit is acceptable when CFI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.90, TLI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.90, and RMSEA\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;.08. Then, we performed multiple-group structural equation modeling analyses to test adolescents\u0026rsquo; gender differences in the relations between harsh parenting and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying. Socioeconomic status (SES) was added as a covariate in the model because SES is an important factor that influences adolescent bullying. If significant harsh parenting \u0026times; perceived class climate was found, the follow-up simple slope test recommended by Holmbeck [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] was adopted to test the nature of the interaction. All the predictors were mean centered in the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1Preliminary analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSince the data for this study came from self-reports of participants, it was necessary to check for common method bias. Conduct exploratory factor analysis using Harman single factor test for all projects. The test results show that the maximum factor variance explanation rate is 25.647%, which is less than the standard of 40%. Preliminary evidence suggests that common method bias cannot explain most of the variation between variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e provided the descriptive statistics and the intercorrelations among all study variable separately for boys and girls. Analyses of skewness and kurtosis indicated that both perceived class climate and harsh parenting were approximately normally distributed (skewness =-0.37-1.02, kurtosis =-0.31-1.21), while both paternal harsh parenting behavior and maternal harsh parenting behavior were positively skewed and leptokurtotic (skewness\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.35 and 1.36, kurtosis\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.27 and 1.97). Independent-sample t-test revealed that compared to girls, boys were more likely to experience paternal harsh parenting attitude (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.25, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and harsh parenting behavior (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.63, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). However, the adolescent gender differences were nonsignificant for maternal harsh parenting, perceived class climate and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying (\u003cem\u003ets\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.21, \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Compared to fathers, mothers used more harsh parenting (\u003cem\u003ets\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2.11, \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Both mothers and fathers reported significantly more frequent use of harsh parenting attitude than harsh parenting behavior (\u003cem\u003ets\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;14.63, \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Correlations among Study Variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1 PHPA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.14\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.45\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.14\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2 MHPA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.24\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.18\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.57\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.15\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3 PHPB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.62\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.17\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.22\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4 MHPB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.24 \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.51\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.21\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5 HPCC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.18\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.23\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.17\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6 LPCC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.21\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.21\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.13\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.15\u003csup\u003e**\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.14\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e7 Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.11\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.21\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.13\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.13\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eM\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003eNote: Correlations above the diagonal are for girls, below the diagonal are for boys. Maternal harsh parenting attitude (MHPA); maternal harsh parenting behavior (MHPB); paternal harsh parenting attitude (PHPA); paternal harsh parenting behavior (PHPB). *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05, **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01, ***\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, for both boys and girls, there were significantly positive correlations among harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior. Moreover, paternal harsh parenting attitude, maternal harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior were significantly and positively related to boys\u0026rsquo; bullying, while for girls, only maternal harsh parenting attitude was significantly and positively related to their bullying. For boys, the correlations between perceived class climate and harsh parenting were significant and in the expected direction. However, there were no significant relations between perceived class climate and parental harsh parenting for girls. In addition, high perceived class climate was correlated to boys\u0026rsquo; bullying, while low perceived class climate was correlated to girls\u0026rsquo; bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Structural Equation Modeling Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental harsh parenting (harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior), perceived class climate, and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying in the model were conducted to examine the direct effect of parental harsh parenting and perceived class climate on adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying as observed variables. In addition, the interactions between parental harsh parenting (harsh parenting attitude/harsh parenting behavior) and perceived class climate were used to explore the moderating effect of perceived class climate. According to ecological systems theory, parenting behavior is influenced by family environment and climate, as well as broader socio-cultural factors, so we added a series of correlations among paternal harsh parenting (harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior), maternal harsh parenting (harsh parenting attitude and harsh parenting behavior), high perceived class climate, and low perceived class climate in the model.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe hypothesized models presented acceptable fits to the data, \u003cem\u003eχ\u0026sup2;/df\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.56, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.04, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.94, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.92. Multiple-group models comparison indicated that significant differences were found between the fully constrained and unconstrained models for the model, \u003cem\u003eΔχ\u0026sup2;s/dfs\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;3.89, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, indicating that the relations between parental harsh parenting and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying were significantly different across boys and girls. The specific results are shown as follows.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural equation modeling analysis with regulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003esocio-economic status\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04/-.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.37/.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMHPA \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.18\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e/.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.01/.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePHPA \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.10/.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.16/.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMHPB\u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04/.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.52/.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePHPB\u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.07/-.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.30/.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHPCC \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.10/.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.06/.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLPCC \u0026rarr;Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02/-.16\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.70/.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMHPA\u0026times;HPCC \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02/.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.66/.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMHPB\u0026times;HPCC \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.11/-.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.12/.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePHPA\u0026times;LPCC \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.13/.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.08/.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHPB\u0026times;LPCC \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.11/-.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.11/.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMHPA\u0026times;LPCC \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.15/-.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.05/.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMHPB\u0026times;LPCC \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.02/.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.71/.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePHPA\u0026times;HPCC \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.04/-.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.56/.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePHPB\u0026times; HPCC \u0026rarr; Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.01/.22\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.86/.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote: \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e to the left of the \"/\" represent boys, those to the right represent girls, Maternal harsh parenting attitude (MHPA); maternal harsh parenting behavior (MHPB); paternal harsh parenting attitude (PHPA); paternal harsh parenting behavior (PHPB); high perceived class climate (HPCC); low perceived class climate (LPCC).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e*\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2.1 The moderating role of high perceived class climate in the relationship between maternal harsh parenting and adolescent bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(1) The effect of mothers' harsh parenting attitudes on boys\u0026rsquo; bullying\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eas shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, maternal harsh parenting attitudes significantly predicted boys' bullying (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.18, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), whereas it did not reach the level of significance for girls\u0026rsquo; bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(2) Moderating effect of high perceived class climate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe main effect of high perceived class climate and the interaction between maternal harsh parenting attitudes and high perceived class climate were not significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), suggesting that high perceived class climate did not moderate the relationship between maternal harsh parenting and adolescent bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2.2 The moderating role of low perceived class climate in the relationship between paternal harsh parenting and adolescent bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(1) Moderating effect of low perceived class climate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003ethe main effect of low perceived class climate was significant for girls\u0026rsquo; bullying (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.16, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.22, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and not significant for boys (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.02, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.15, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), whereas neither paternal harsh parenting behavior nor attitudes The main effect of both and their interaction with low perceived class climate was not significant for all adolescents (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), suggesting that low perceived class climate did not moderate the relationship between paternal harsh parenting and adolescent bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(2) Effect of paternal harsh parenting behavior and attitude on adolescent bullying\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eas shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the effect of paternal harsh parenting behavior and attitude on adolescent bullying did not reach a significant level (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) for both boys and girls.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2.3 The moderating role of low perceived class climate in the relationship between maternal harsh parenting attitudes and adolescent bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(1) The effect of maternal harsh parenting attitudes on boys\u0026rsquo; bullying\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003estatistically significant (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.18, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.71, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(2) Moderating effect of low perceived class climate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003enot significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) for both boys and girls, suggesting that low perceived class climate does not moderate the relationship between maternal harsh parenting attitudes and adolescent bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2.4 The Moderating Role of Low Perceived Class Climate in the Relationship Between Maternal Rough Parenting Behavior and Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerating effect of mothers\u0026rsquo; rough parenting behavior and low classroom climate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003enot significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) for both boys and girls, indicating that low perceived class climate does not moderate the relationship between maternal harsh parenting behavior and adolescent bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2.5 The moderating role of high classroom climate in the relationship between paternal harsh parenting attitudes and adolescent bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerating effect of paternal harsh parenting attitudes and high perceived class climate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003enot significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) for both boys and girls, indicating that high perceived class climate did not moderate the relationship between paternal harsh parenting attitudes and adolescent bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2.6 The Moderating Role of High Perceived Class Climate in the Relationship Between Paternal Harsh Parenting Behavior and Adolescent Bullying\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerating effect of paternal harsh parenting behavior and high perceived class climate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003enot significant for boys (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Significant for girls (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.22, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.14, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), indicating that high perceived class climate significantly moderated the relationship between paternal harsh parenting behaviors and girls' bullying, and the results of the simple slope analysis of follow-up indicated that high perceived class climate exacerbated the relationship between paternal harsh parenting behaviors and girls\u0026rsquo; bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, in the high perceived class climate level group, the effect of paternal harsh parenting behavior on girls\u0026rsquo; bullying was exacerbated by high perceived class climate (simple slope\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.89, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.28, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), whereas in the low perceived class climate level group (simple slope = -0.24, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = -0.87, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), the increase of perceived class climate has reduced the impact of paternal harsh parenting behavior on bullying girls.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study expanded on previous research by examining the relations between both maternal and paternal harsh parenting and adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying and the moderating role of both perceived class climate and adolescent gender in Chinese societies. The findings showed that maternal harsh parenting attitude significantly and positively predicted boys\u0026rsquo; bullying rather than girls\u0026rsquo; bullying, while maternal harsh parenting behavior failed to predict adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying. Neither paternal harsh parenting attitude nor harsh parenting behavior significantly predicted boys\u0026rsquo; and girls\u0026rsquo; bullying. Moreover, high perceived class climate exacerbated the relation between paternal harsh parenting behavior and girls\u0026rsquo; bullying. These aspects of the results will be discussed below.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the current study, gender plays a moderating role in the harsh parenting on adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying, with maternal and paternal harsh parenting having different effects on adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying, and maternal but not paternal harsh parenting behavior were found to predict boys\u0026rsquo; bullying. One possible explanation for the differential impacts of Chinese maternal and paternal harsh parenting may be related to the proverb \u0026ldquo;stern father and loving mother\u0026rdquo; emphasized in traditional Chinese culture. In this cultural context, adolescent may be more inclined to perceive their mother\u0026rsquo;s (rather than their father\u0026rsquo;s) harsh parenting as irregular, and thus view their mother\u0026rsquo;s harsh parenting as a recycling or rejection of love [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the Parental Acceptance-Rejection Theory, children may feel unappreciated and unaccepted if their parents are not sufficiently accepting and supportive of them, which may increase their bullying. It has been shown that parental rejection is significantly and positively associated with adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The present study also found that there is more mothers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting than fathers\u0026rsquo;, this finding may also be explained by the fact that mothers are generally the primary caregivers of their children despite fathers\u0026rsquo; increasing involvement with children in China [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Compared to fathers, mothers spend more time with adolescents and have more opportunities for conflict, which may lead more harsh parenting and increase more chances of mothers influencing adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, according to gender theory, boys have a more decisive, straightforward, bold, and independent personality, and are prone to extremism and impulsiveness when faced with situations. Girls have a quieter, gentler, more considerate, meticulous, more tolerant, and less aggressive personality, and are more likely to hesitate and be conservative when faced with situations. Therefore, men are more likely to exhibit rebellious behavior when they are dissatisfied or unhappy, while girls are more likely to be submissive and accepting. So, more harsh parenting leads more bullying in boys.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGenerally speaking, class climate with less bullying and more harmonious teacher-student relationships are positive and healthy types of contexts. In such context, students have higher levels of mental health, fewer behavioral problems, and better adjustment. Class climate has been shown to have a positive effect on reducing bullying [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. However, a recent study found that high class climate does not mitigate the negative effects of harsh parenting on adolescent bullying, and that the few children who suffer from bullying in classes with lower bullying prevalence instead experience more adjustment problems, such as anxiety, depressive et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Prof. Christina Salmvalli of the University of Turku, Finland, named it \u0026ldquo;healthy context paradox\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the negative effects of fathers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting behaviors on girls\u0026rsquo; bullying were not only not buffered in a healthy class climate (i.e., high class climate), but the opposite was more likely to be reinforced. The possible reason is that high class climate is difficult to dispel the influence of fathers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting on girls\u0026rsquo; bullying. Previous research has shown that fathers use less harsh parenting on girls rather than boys [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. In the context of less frequency of fathers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting on girls, different degrees of harsh parenting may be more likely to attract girls\u0026rsquo; attention. Girls in healthy class environments may be more likely to compare high class climate to parental harsh parenting (attitudes and behaviors), and thus perceive their father\u0026rsquo;s harsh parenting as a denial of love, exacerbating the relationship between father\u0026rsquo;s harsh parenting and girls\u0026rsquo; bullying. This finding supports the \u0026ldquo;healthy context paradox\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, this study also found that the moderating effect of class climate varied by the gender of the parents and children. High class climate did not affect the relationship between mothers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting and girls\u0026rsquo; bullying, but only exacerbated the relationship between fathers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting and girls\u0026rsquo; bullying. One possible explanation for this difference is that the traditional family education in China is \u0026ldquo;men blame their fathers, daughters blame their mothers\u0026rdquo;, i.e., fathers are more involved in disciplining their sons, while mothers are more involved in disciplining their daughters, and in this gendered cultural context, girls may perceive that their mothers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting is more acceptable and understandable than their fathers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting. Thus, when father\u0026rsquo;s harsh parenting occurs to girls in high class climate, this harsh parenting may be more destructive to girls\u0026rsquo; environmental adjustment (e.g., increase girls\u0026rsquo; bullying). The \u0026ldquo;healthy context paradox\u0026rdquo; may be more likely to occur when healthy contexts are provided by same-sex parents and unhealthy contexts are provided by opposite-sex parents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, we further explored the effects of the variables of harsh parenting, class climate, and gender on adolescents\u0026rsquo; bullying. From ecosystem theory, harsh parenting actually belongs to the family microsystem, while class climate belongs to the school mesosystem. At the microsystem level, harsh parenting undermines the development of emotional regulation and moral cognition, thus forming the susceptibility of adolescents to bullying; at the mesosystem level, class climate is a social context variable, and adolescents\u0026rsquo; subjective perceptions of class climate also moderates the effects of harsh parenting on bullying. In addition, gender as an individual characteristic variable moderates both paths; girls are more sensitive to class climate perceptions and may internalize family conflict as self-denial; boys are more likely to externalize anger through bullying, so boys may be more likely to outwardly express physical bullying, while girls are more likely to verbal or relational bullying, which may be related to societal expectations of gender roles.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Research limitations","content":"\u003cp\u003eDue to various factors such as survey conditions, this study still has some limitations. Firstly, the research data obtained by this study are all self-reported data. Given that being treated roughly by parents and being bullied by classmates is ignoble, not all teenagers are willing to tell the truth, and the subjects may hide the truth or weaken the severity of the problem, resulting in the discrepancy between the data and the actual situation. Secondly, this study adopted a cross-sectional design, and due to inherent limitations of this design, the results need to be further validated through longitudinal design to enhance the reliability and scientific validity of the findings. Finally, the high degree of consistency in the socio-cultural backgrounds of the subjects in this study may limit the applicability and generalizability of the findings in a multicultural context, so the applicability and generalizability of the findings in a wider range of contexts still need to be explored in depth and carefully considered.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Strengths and conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAlthough this study still has certain limitations, its research results still have specific significance. Firstly, the high class climate exacerbates the relationship between fathers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting behavior and girls\u0026rsquo; bullying, this finding provides a certain supplement and extension to healthy context paradox. Based on this, intervening in fathers\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting behavior is crucial to reducing the incidence of bullying among girls in a good class climate. From the perspective of family education, it can be found that the healthy parenting style of fathers has a positive promoting effect on the psychological health development of adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, the moderating effect of class climate varies between parents and children of different genders. These results not only highlight the importance of using parents\u0026rsquo; and children\u0026rsquo;s gender as moderating variables in parent-child relationships, but also indicate that implementing intervention strategies based on gender differences and optimizing class climate can effectively alleviate the negative impact of parents\u0026rsquo; harsh parenting on adolescents, and thus promote the healthy growth of adolescents as well as the healthy development of family education.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis survey was approved by the ethics committee of psychological research at Yangtze University and adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from both participants and their parents.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent for publication\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication is not applicable as the study does not involve any identifying images or personal/clinical details of participants that compromise anonymity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the finding of this study was available from the corresponding author upon reasonable requests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest \u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no conflicts of interests that might be interpreted as influencing the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003cbr /\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by the General Projects for Philosophy and Social Science Research of Department of Education of HubeiProvince in 2023（23Y105）\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC.Z. completed the initial draft of the paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eX.T. completed the initial draft of the paper,revising the manuscript, data processing and analysis, and result visualization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eL.X .conducted the research, performed data analysis, and partially revised the initial draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eF.H .conducted the research, performed data analysis, and partially revised the initial draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC.K. proposed the research design and paper structure, revised and reviewed the initial draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors have reviewed the paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOlweus D. 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J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2018;46(1):67\u0026ndash;72.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Harsh parenting, Adolescents’ bullying, Perceived class climate, Gender","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6843507/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6843507/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"The present study examined the moderating effects of perceived class climate in the relations between harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying and parent and adolescent gender differences in the moderating mechanism in Chinese society. This study used a sample of 400 middle school students and both their parents in central China. We constructed a Structural Equation Model to explore the relation between harsh parenting and adolescents’ bullying and the moderating role of perceived class climate. Our findings revealed that maternal but not paternal harsh parenting attitude was found to significantly predict boys’ bullying. Moreover, perceived class climate exacerbated the relations between paternal harsh parenting behavior and girls’ bullying. The findings provide partial support for the “healthy context paradox” and highlight the importance of considering how the broader class context may interact with harsh parenting to influence the physical and mental health of adolescents.","manuscriptTitle":"The Influence of Harsh Parenting on Adolescents’ Bullying: The Moderating Role of Perceived Class Climate and Gender","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-15 13:11:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6843507/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f9f025a5-402a-4a8c-a76c-c902acaf58d7","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 15th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-15T06:25:17+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-15 13:11:04","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6843507","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6843507","identity":"rs-6843507","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}