A Two-Eyed Seeing approach to describe Gumegwsis (Cyclopterus lumpus) ecology and fisheries interactions in the inner Mawipoqtapei (Chaleur Bay), Canada

A Two-Eyed Seeing approach to describe Gumegwsis (Cyclopterus lumpus) ecology and fisheries interactions in the inner Mawipoqtapei (Chaleur Bay), Canada | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article A Two-Eyed Seeing approach to describe Gumegwsis (Cyclopterus lumpus) ecology and fisheries interactions in the inner Mawipoqtapei (Chaleur Bay), Canada M’sɨt No’gmaq, Ugpi’ganjig, Carole-Anne Gillis, Billie Chiasson, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3870664/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The integration of diverse knowledge systems, encompassing Indigenous, local, and Western perspectives, is gaining traction in Canadian scientific research for coastal areas and fisheries. Despite proven successes, skepticism persists among scientists and decision-makers, leading to ineffective recovery measures for endangered aquatic species. Responding to concerns from Mi’gmaw fishers in Ugpi’ganjiq, the Gespe’gewa’gi Institute of Natural Understanding (GINU) initiated a collaborative project focused on the threatened Gumegwsis (Common lumpfish) in Chaleur Bay, Eastern Canada. Employing a Two-eyed seeing approach, the study combined interviews, mapping, and temperature monitoring, uncovering Gumegwsis life history, its significance to local fishers, behavioral changes, and critical spawning and nursery habitats. In contrast to prior assessments, which dismissed ceremonial and Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge (ATK) uses, our study highlighted the unique insights of Mi’gmaw fishers, emphasizing the importance of embracing diverse knowledge for species ecology and habitat understanding. This underscores the need for collaborative species recovery strategies, advocating for the co-creation of solutions and fostering cooperation in fisheries research. Conservation Biology Indigenous Knowledge Two-Eyed Seeing Mi’gmaw knowledge Fisheries Common Lumpfish Cyclopterus lumpus Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Introduction Coastal and marine ecosystems are globally facing major challenges, including an increasing competition for resources, coupled with issues related to biodiversity loss and climate change (Armitage et al. 2017 ). Canadian marine and coastal areas are no exception: take, for example, the continued decline of the collapsed Atlantic Cod (Neuenhoff et al. 2019 ) or the declines in wild Pacific Salmon (Price et al. 2008 ; Price et al. 2017 ). Since Canada is the country with the longest coastline in the world, advancing knowledge and management of coastal areas and fisheries resources is crucial given their important role in the well-being and vitality of a multitude of communities. With respect to governing the coastal ecosystems and associated fisheries, several case studies tend to show that “more scientific data'' is not always the key to successful management (Berkes 2015 ; Berkes 2021 ). Co-management approaches based on a partnership of different actors with different sources of knowledge (e.g., Indigenous knowledge, local knowledge, western knowledge) can in fact yield higher success (Berkes 2021 ). It is important for fisheries scientists to use the best tools and knowledge available, regardless of their origin or perceived objectivity. This will help rectify uneven power relations, knowledge inequalities, and racially linked and unjust dynamics in fisheries research and management. It will also serve decolonial and reconciliatory efforts (TallBear 2014 ; Held 2019 ; Latulippe and Klenk 2020 ). In this regard, the potential contributions of Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) are substantial (Alexander et al. 2019 ). Weaving ILK and western knowledge can improve collective knowledge of social-ecological inter-dependencies, promote innovation and help determine sustainable future directions (Tengö et al. 2014 ; Aminpour et al. 2021 ; Reid et al. 2021 ). Knowledge partnerships, as a process, can also help build trust in relationships and decision making and, not the least, “ serve decolonial and reconciliatory efforts that help rectify uneven power relations, knowledge inequalities, and other racially linked and unjust dynamics in fisheries” (Reid et al. 2021 ) (see also: Held 2019 ; Latulippe and Klenk 2020 ; Ljubicic et al. 2022 ). Despite these benefits, obstacles to the interweaving of Indigenous and western knowledge for fisheries management remain numerous. They include, among others, the challenges of establishing dialogues between cultures and worldviews while respecting the integrity and context of different sources of Knowledge. They also include a remaining skepticism among scientists and decision-makers about the legitimacy of non-western knowledge to inform management. Therefore, while there has been an expanding body of literature related to environmental research and management that weaves multiple knowledge systems (Alexander et al. 2019 ; Henri et al. 2021 ), important gaps remain. Even in areas where the importance of ILK has been reflected in legislation, such as in the case of endangered species in Canada, Indigenous knowledge is sometimes left aside. This was the case for Gumegwsis , (Mi’gmaw language), listed as threatened for which documented knowledge and management has so far been exclusively based on Western knowledge. Gumegwsis , also known as the Common Lumpfish ( Cyclopterus lumpus , Linnaeus 1758) is a cold-water dwelling fish that roams the North Atlantic Ocean (Kennedy et al. 2018 ; Canada 2019 Feb 14). Only representative of the genus Cyclopterus ( family Cyclopteridae), Gumegwsis stands out because of its unusual physical appearance characterized by a round and short “ball-shaped” body, a thick scaleless skin covered with tubercles, and a ventral suction cup, also earning it the name of “lumpsucker” (Simpson et al. 2016 ; Fig. 5). Gumegwsis is a sexually dimorphic species. Males are smaller than females and present a red coloration during spawning as opposed to pale blue for females ou(Goulet et al. 1986 ; Deparment of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2016; COSEWIC 2017 ; Hvas et al. 2018 ). For most of the year, Gumegwsis reside in pelagic habitats, until it undertakes its migrations to shallow coastal waters for spawning. Males migrate to these waters in early spring to prepare nesting sites awaiting females to deposit their eggs in or on rocky substrates (Daborn and Gregory 1983 ; Blacker 1983 ; Hvas et al. 2018 ; Powell et al. 2018 ). Females generally deposit egg masses (e.g., 10 000 to 200 000 eggs) in crevices or rock depressions. Eggs and small Gumegwsis are then guarded and cared for by males for a period of 60 days or more, while females return to deeper waters (Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2016 ). Historically, Gumegwsis were used as bait for other Canadian fisheries such as lobster (COSEWIC 2017 ). Beginning in the late 1960’s, female lumpfish were also targeted across the Atlantic waters when a fishery for Gumegwsis roe was developed off Newfoundland as a substitute for depleted sturgeon ( Acipenseridae ) caviar (COSEWIC 2017 ; Powell et al. 2018 ). In the 1980s and 1990s, Canada became the world leader in Gumegwsis roe exportations. Nowadays, mature lumpfish are also captured and used to generate hatchery-reared populations which, in turn, are used to control sea lice in salmon aquaculture sites (Kennedy et al. 2018 ). Despite high market demand, sharp declines in commercial fishing landings of Gumegwsis were observed since 2005. Scientific surveys performed in the core part of Gumegwsis ’s Canadian range subsequently corroborated this decline, documenting a fall in abundance of about 58% in the last 15–20 years. In 2017, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada therefore designated Gumegwsis as a Threatened Species (COSEWIC 2017 ). Mortalities occurring from gillnet fisheries and as bycatch in other commercial fisheries (e.g., Atlantic Cod, Atlantic Halibut, Monkfish), change in habitat and seismic exploration were identified as potential threats to the species (COSEWIC 2017 ). Amongst other threats, ever growing populations of Grey Seals ( Halichoerus grypus , Fabricis 1791) from the Gulf of St. Lawrence are also known to take advantage of aggregations of lumpfish that are found close to shore in high numbers during spawning (Benoit and Bowen 1990 ; Simpson et al. 2016 ), but the overall impact of this predation remains unknown (Simpson et al. 2016 ). In Canada, the species at risk act (SARA) recognizes that “ the traditional knowledge of the Aboriginal Peoples of Canada should be considered in the assessment of which species may be at risk and in developing and implementing recovery measures” (Her Majesty the queen in right of Canada 2003). Aside from creating COSEWIC, the committee responsible for evaluating and assessing the status of species, Section 18(1) of the act also created the Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge Subcommittee (ATK-SC) on Species at Risk, the mandate of which is to provide expertise on Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge in the incorporation of this knowledge into COSEWIC’s species status assessment and classification processes. In the case of Gumegwsis , the original unedited 2017 COSEWIC report stipulated “ There are no indications of any ceremonial uses of Lumpfish in Canada and there is no ATK (Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge) information available” . Knowing that Mi'gmaq have fostered a relationship with this species since time immemorial, GINU reached out to COSEWIC and the report (COSEWIC 2017 ) was consequently updated to: “ No specific Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge (ATK) was available for this species. In Mi'gmaq, this fish is called: Gumegwsis ”. In 2018, members of the Mi’gmaw community of Ugpi’ganjig (New Brunswick, Canada, Fig. 1) voiced concerns regarding fisheries interactions and bycatch of Gumegwsis during the spawning season. Moreover, the fact that the species had a Mi'gmaw name was an indicator of the knowledge and relationship that the Nation has with the species. As a response, the Gespe’gewa’gi Institute of Natural Understanding (GINU; https://ginu.co/about-us/ ; see Methods ) , a Mi’gmaw non-profit organization focusing on aquatic research, co-developed a two-eyed seeing project about the species. Two-eyed seeing, also referred to as Etuaptmumk (Mi’gmaw language), is a concept championed by Mi’gmaw Elders Albert and Murdena Marshall which refers to “learning to see from one eye with the strengths of Indigenous ways of knowing and from the other eye with the strengths of Western ways of knowing and to using both of these eyes together, for the benefit of all” (Bartlett et al. 2012 , p. 335). In this project, we viewed Two-eyed seeing as a concept and a method to address community concerns in a positive manner. This approach could contribute to the ethical co-creation of knowledge and complementarity in knowledge generation, which in turn could improve our overall understanding of the ecology and threats for Gumegwsis in Mawipoqtapei. For example, Indigenous knowledge can help us in many ways: Indigenous knowledge can improve fisheries selectivity and sustainability, enhance sea state forecasting, reverse declines in exploited species abundance and size, provide missing baseline information through inaccessible ecological insights, and aid in fisheries policy improvement and adherence (Reid et al. 2021 ; Leonard et al. 2022 ). By collecting both western and Mi’gmaw Knowledge (MK), we aimed to i ) document MK about the species, ii ) to determine potential spawning ground locations and other critical habitats for Gumegwsis and lastly, iii) to provide information towards protection measures to limit fisheries interactions and promote species recovery. Since there is actually minimal data published on Gumegwsis in the Chaleur Bay, and there are no surveys that have targeted this species in the area (N.B.; Fig. 2), this project fills an important geographical gap in information regarding the species. Most importantly, this project aims to contribute to the ongoing discussion about the space to be given to Indigenous knowledge for the understanding and conservation of declining aquatic biodiversity. Methods Study area This project was conducted in the Chaleur Bay, an arm of the Gulf of St. Lawrence surrounded by the Northeastern coast of New Brunswick and the Southeastern part of Quebec, in Eastern Canada (Fig. 1). Measuring approximately 145 km long by 20–50 km wide, the Chaleur Bay, known as Mawipoqtapei in the Mi’gmaw language, is the largest bay in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, leading to its western end into the estuary of the Restigouche River, a world-renowned Atlantic salmon river. The bay is also known for its lobster and shellfish fishing activities. The largest cities around the bay are Campbellton (pop. approx. 6900) and Bathurst (pop. approx. 12,000), New Brunswick, and Carleton-sur-Mer (pop. approx. 4 000) in Québec. As noted previously, no scientific surveys for Lumpfish were ever conducted west of the New Brunswick town of Belledune (Fig. 2). Mawipoqtapei is at the heart of Gespe’gewa’gi, the seventh and largest district of Mi’gma’gi (the Mi’gmaw Territory) that includes what is now known as the Gaspé Peninsula, parts of mainland Québec, Maine, and northeastern New Brunswick (Fig. 1). In the past, Mi’gmaw family groups traveled annually over Gespe’gewa’gi. They came to the coast in early spring to harvest from rivers and the ocean, and then back inland to spend fall and winter on hunting territories. According to McMillan and Prosper ( 2016 ), it is estimated that up to 90% of the traditional Mi’gmaw diet was derived from rivers and the ocean. Muin’iskw and Crowfeather (2016) have described traditional Mi’gmaw fishing activities: Early in the year, the Mi’kmaq lived on shallow-water fish, such as the flounder, which lives on mudflats in the low-tide zone and in the mouths of rivers and estuaries where it can be speared, caught on hooked lines or trapped in weirs. In the middle of March, fish would begin to spawn, often so abundantly that everything swarmed with them. First smelt, then herring, then sturgeon and salmon would make their spawning runs, so that the people were assured of food from March through until September, when the Mi'kmaq's favourite fish, the eel, would begin to run. (Muin’iskw and Crowfeather 2016) Mawipoqtapei has been Mi’gmaw traditional territory since time immemorial, it is now also home to four Mi’gmaw communities located near or on its shores. These include Listuguj, Gesgapegiag, Ugpi’ganjig (Eel River Bar) and Winpegijuig (Pabineau). Fisheries remain an essential part of the Mi’qmaw culture. Today, the bay remains vital to the Mi'gmaw communities that surround it. It is a food source for traditional fisheries and provides economic prosperity through community-owned commercial licenses. The Mi'gmaw use the bay all year round to fish for eels, smelts, clams, salmon, lobster, trout, and more. Those interactions and how they interact form the basis of their culture. Relationships to the land and waters have been maintained and knowledge passed down from generation to generation despite colonial pressures and exclusion from the fisheries by the settler state, also known as Canada. A Two-Eyed Seeing Approach to study lumpfish As mentioned, this project grew out of Ugpi’ganjig fishers’ concerns about the status of the fish, their decline and fisheries interactions of Gumegwsis . In response, the Gespe’gewa’gi Institute of Natural Understanding (GINU), located in Listuguj, QC, decided to lead a research project on the species in order to collect more information about Gumegwsis and address the concerns of its member communities. GINU works collaboratively with First Nation governments, other Indigenous organizations, and public and private stakeholders to provide applied scientific and Mi’gmaw knowledge concerning aquatic species and their habitat. GINU is also involved in community outreach and public education efforts. Each project that is overseen by GINU is conducted following the Two-Eyed seeing approach. In accordance, GINU puts efforts to deploy aquatic research projects based on the latest scientific methods, while putting equivalent efforts in collecting and sharing Mi’gmaw Knowledge (MK). With regards to MK, the process by which information is gathered and shared by GINU follows the organizations’ own ethical research protocol with respect to the First Nations principles of ownership, control, access, and possession, also known as OCAP® (a registered trademark of the First Nations Information Governance Centre (FNIGC); https://fnigc.ca/ocap-training/ ). OCAP® principles assert that First Nations “have control over data collection processes, and that they own and control how this information can be used’’ (FNIGC 2023 ). Accordingly, GINU developed forms that guarantee the informed consent and protection of the identity of all participants in their studies. All interview data collected through GINU’s projects are stored on a local server, within the community of Listuguj. A posteriori access to the data depends on the sharing rules agreed upon through the informed consent form. The GINU’s Board of Directors is the entity managing requests for data access, but the organization is working on establishing a MK advisory committee that will eventually overlook and regulate every data access request. Gathering of Mi’gmaw Knowledge (MK) about Gumegwsis As part of the Etuaptmumk approach, an important part of the project involved the gathering of Gumegwsis -related MK. Since the project was rooted in community concerns, GINU provided information about the project, methods, and objectives through an information campaign on social networks aimed at its member communities. Aligning with GINU protocols and principles, individuals with knowledge regarding Gumegwsis were identified following recommendations from community members. A total of 10 experienced fishers, who also harvest yearly from May to June (the season when Gumegwsi s are likely to be observed), were identified as participants. Semi-structured interviews were chosen as the most appropriate method (Huntington 1998 ) to gather Gumegwsis -related MK. Semi-structured interviews are guided discussions during which the interviewer triggers the conversation but allows the participants to follow their train of thought and make their own associations in the course of the discussion. Semi-structured interviews typically involve using a list of topics identified by the interviewer that are used as a guide for the interview, but not as a fixed questionnaire. With consent, semi-structured interviews were scheduled with key individuals and held over six months (May – October 2021). One interview was conducted on land, but the others were planned in a more immersive setting, on fisher’s boats while navigating in areas where Gumegwsis were previously observed. Performing interviews while traveling in boats was a great way to engage in conversation about the species and to allow the interviewers to grasp a better understanding of the physicality of some aspects regarding the possible habitats available to Gumegwsis . Every interview started with the reading and signature of the consent form, allowing participants to decide how they would like the interview to be conducted and recorded (i.e., written, audio or visual recording) and to decide whether their identity could be revealed. For every interview, the interviewer was accompanied by a note taker, whose task was to focus on recording information while the interviewer focused on the storytelling and knowledge transfer. A total of five key knowledge holders accepted to be interviewed for the project. Interviews lasted between one and three hours. One interview was video recorded while the others were recorded through note taking. For GINU, community members, particularly fishers, are considered active partners of every project. GINU encourages the participation of fishers through sharing their knowledge and ways of knowing. In the case of Gumegwsis , their collaboration was key in collecting geolocated photos when the fish was caught as bycatch. Thirteen fishers therefore partook in the project by sharing (approx. 27) geolocated pictures of Gumegwsis that were caught as bycatch during the fishing seasons of 2021 and 2022. Moreover, 12 individuals contributed information about the species through informal discussions that took place during the 2021 Ugpi’Ganjig Pow-Wow, where GINU had set up an information table about the project. Following the interview process, information was analyzed and organized according to emerging themes, using both predefined and inductive (defined a posteriori) coding (Miles et al. 2014 ). All spatial information provided through both interviews and through the sharing of geolocated pictures as well as past distribution and abundance were compiled to produce a comprehensive map. Although we collected precise information of bycatch locations from Mi’gmaw fishers, we consciously removed these points from our maps to respect the principles of OCAP and preserve data safeguarding. After the interviews, GINU staff kept in contact with the interviewees through ongoing discussions that allowed them to clarify results. GINU staff responsible for the project also returned by boat with three of the five interviewed knowledge holders (three outings with each one of them, for a total of nine outings) to, again, informally discuss about Gumegwsis . Aligning with GINU’s principles, it was imperative that the information collected through the interviews be presented properly and with consent before being distributed publicly. Preliminary results were presented and validated with the community (Creswell and Poth 2017 ) during an information session held in Ugpi’Ganjig on February 3, 2023. Twenty-three community members attended, including the knowledge holders interviewed for the project. The informal discussions held after the interviews and during the information session allowed us to evaluate the congruence of information gathered using different approaches (Creswell and Poth 2017 ). Identification of suitable spawning habitat With the arrival of early spring, male Gumegwsis are known to undertake a migration to shallow coastal waters in order to prepare nesting sites along rocky substrates for spawning (Daborn and Gregory 1983 ; Hvas et al. 2018 ; Powell et al. 2018 ). From our MK interviews, we have learned that, following ice out in Mawipoqtapei, the east winds facilitate the migration of Gumegwsis to the inner sections of the bay. Egg masses (e.g., 10 000 to 200 000 eggs) are generally deposited in a crevice or depression on rocks by the female. Water temperatures recordings As described in the scientific literature, Gumegwsis eggs are suggested to hatch between 11.0 and 14 ⁰C (Goulet et al. 1986 ). Otherwise, the temperature preferences for Gumegwsis range between − 1.9 o C to 12 o C for both juvenile and adults (COSEWIC 2017 ). To determine water temperature in habitats identified as potential spawning sites, and to link this temperature to potential hatching time, a VR2Tx receiver was installed near the Dalhousie lighthouse (48°03'39.7"N 66°21'04.5''W; Fig. 1) at a depth of three meters from the bottom. In-situ water temperature (⁰C) was collected on a half-hourly basis from the beginning of June to the end of September in 2021 and 2022, respectively. Results Throughout the interviews with key knowledge holders, we were able to collect a wide range of Gumegwsis related MK such as relationships with other fish species present in Mawipoqtapei, communities and culture, the timing of migrations, life history, spawning and rearing habitats, prevalence of bycatch and fisheries interactions. All knowledge holders interviewed knew and had interacted with Gumegwsis through their fishing activities, past and present. Terminology used to refer to the species included the term Gumegwsis , but also the French term “Poule de mer '' and the English terms “Lumpfish” and “Pulley Mayor”. According to one informant “Pulley Mayor” (Poule de mer with an English accent) is a term that speaks to the prevalence of French and Acadians harvesting Gumegwsis centuries ago. “This is what they would name it locally and the Mi’gmaq would utilize this word for trade and barter” (Knowledge holder #01). By its peculiar appearance, sometimes described as an “ugly looking fish” (Knowledge holder #02) that “sticks” everywhere, this species seems to have marked the memories of several informants. Knowledge holders mentioned that Elders and grandparents use to eat Gumegwsis quite often in the past (1900–1980 period). Known as a slowly moving fish, Gumegwsis were said to be easy to spear, one informant recalling using a spear made by his dad, similar to an eel spear, to fish for it (Knowledge holder #03 ) . In general, Gumegwsis was not a species that was targeted for harvesting, but when they did catch them, Elders would prefer eating the males. As a food fish, Gumegwsis was described as being very tasty, with a salty meat. A woman Elder taught me how to clean it. Cut top fin, pectoral fin, cut the head, and then you have 2 filets. Looks like jelly/jello when you cook, it's white. Oily like eel. Chicken of the sea. (Knowledge holder #04) Another knowledge holder insisted that Gumegwsis are best to eat when in full color (spawning), not when their belly is black and white. While some fishers readily use Gumegwsis as lobster bait (renowned to be excellent), others refused to: [We] never used [Gumegwsis] as bait, too tasty for that! Grandmother loved the taste and would frown upon wasting it that way. (Knowledge holder #05) Nowadays, it is mainly the adults Gumegwsis that are observed during fishing. Since Mi'gmaw fishers use lobster traps or nets with fairly large meshes, juvenile Gumegwsis are too small to be captured. In the past however, Elders used to spread kelp on the salmon that had been caught to help keep them cool. It is while handling the kelp that some remembered it was common to observe a quantity of small Gumegwsis that were attached to the kelp with their suction cups. They would pull them and put them back in the water. Gumegwsis were known to stick to anything, and kids would play with them, sticking them to side of boats. Small Gumegwsis were therefore known to utilize kelp as a forest for refuge, to feed and grow (Fig. 3d). It was suggested that juveniles would adhere to kelp to save on energy and use it as an advantage due to their lower swimming capacity. According to the knowledge holders, kelp forests are not as abundant as they used to be in Mawipoqtapei. Combined with the decrease of sea urchins and starfish, this disappearance is, according to knowledge holders, another indicator of the broad changes taking place in the bay's ecosystem. Finally, Red (male) Gumegwsis were known to be smaller than females (blue). Males were also known to arrive sooner than females in the bay, earliest reports of bycatch occurring in May. All knowledge holders agreed that they observed a decline in Gumegwsis abundance was observed over their lifetime of fishing. Knowledge holder (#01) recalled that Gumegwsis used to be frequently caught in salmon nets, a long time ago. Historical observations from the 1980s suggest lumpfish would migrate and utilize coastal habitats further upstream, as far as Mcleods (NB) Knowledge holder #06. Earlier reports confirm Listuguj used to observe and harvest them near the community, but changes in silt loadings and construction of bridges displaced the lumpfish further east (Knowledge holder #07). Red (male) Gumegwsis were also said to be common bycatch during mackerel fishing in the late 1980s, era early 1990s near Ugpi’Ganjig and Charlo (Knowledge holder #08). Nowadays however, the “Poules de mer'' are said to be very rare. Nevertheless, Gumegwsis bycatch observations and potential spawning habitats were reported by participants, either through interviews or bycatch pictures (Fig. 2). Considering that the species is dimorphic, observations were most of the time specific as for the sex of the captured fish. Threats that could explain why Gumegwsis is not as abundant as in the past were put forward by the participants. These included an observed increase in the number of seals in Mawipoqtapei. One knowledge holder mentioned that seals are potential predators for the Gumegwsis , especially near seal rocks, where both species co-occur (Knowledge holder #03). Another mentioned the warming of the waters. According to one knowledge holder, warmer waters have caused an increased presence of jellyfish in Mawipoqtapei but are also likely to be affecting all aquatic species in the area (see above-mentioned declines in kelp and other species). Finally, the fact that bycatches of Gumegwsis are often recycled as bait across all lobster fisheries in the Atlantic is perceived as the major threat to the species. On that matter, Elder Earl Labillois even suggested that GINU should expand its outreach activities to mitigate fisheries interactions throughout the commercial lobster fishery (Atlantic wide). Comprehensive map We mapped all the shared geolocated pictures of lumpfish bycatch, locations of firsthand recent past observations as well as historical presence and abundance of lumpfish through storytelling. This data is not shared in this paper, but we carried out a comprehensive map on our secure in-community server and analyzed overlap of these locations with habitat features in relation to time of year. The result is that all species occurrences in early spring overlap with the entire infralittoral zone of Mawipoqtapei at a depth between 0 and 12 meters (Fig. 2). Water temperature In both years, waters around the Inch Arran lighthouse reached the ideal temperature range for the hatching of Gumegwsis eggs (11–14℃) on several occasions and for several days during each season (Fig. 4). Water temperature reached 11℃ for the first time on July 2nd in 2021, and on June 4th in 2022. Throughout the 2021 season, water temperatures mostly fell within the preferred temperature range for juvenile and adult Gumegwsis . However, in 2022, water temperatures were considerably warmer and often exceeded the ideal temperature range. Discussion Gumegwsis knowledge and relationship Our study brings to light a relationship between Mi’gmaw communities and Gumegwsis that until now was unsuspected. Knowledge holders interviewed and encountered during the project spent many years on the waters of Mawipoqtapei fishing, observing, and hearing stories from their Elders, building hands-on and meticulous knowledge about the waters and animals of the bay. Our results show that although not specifically targeted in Mi’gmaw fisheries, Gumegwsis is a fish whose taste was appreciated, and about which community members have developed knowledge, and therefore relationship. While official reports questioned the existence of Indigenous knowledge on Gumegwsis (COSEWIC 2017), this project shed light on a breadth of MK related to the species, ranging from stories to cultural use to potential rearing and spawning sites, changes in abundance, and, above all, a desire to care for the People- Gumegwsis relationship. One of the objectives of this community-led project was to determine potential spawning and rearing ground locations for the threatened Gumegwsis . According to several Knowledge holders, kelp forests are important habitats for young Gumegwsis . Fishers recalled juveniles being observed attached to kelp harvested to keep salmon cool, and kelp forests were hypothesized as being a good refuge for juveniles to feed and grow, especially considering their low swimming capacities. These observations and hypotheses are congruent with field observations and sampling of intertidal pools in Maine, USA, where Moring (1989) identified an association between juvenile Gumegwsis and algae of the genus Laminaria spp. (kelp). To explain this association, the author brought forward hypotheses similar to those mentioned by Mi’gmaw fishers, i.e., that kelp provides a refuge from predation and wave actions and a good feeding habitat due to the high presence of invertebrates (Moring 1989). Both knowledge systems therefore point to the importance of kelp for juvenile Gumegwsis . Based on both fishers’ observations as well as geolocated pictures, MK indicated a high probability of spawning and rearing sites for Gumegwsis in Mawipoqtapei in the infralittoral zone 0-12 m (Fig. 2). Temperature sampling also indicated that the waters of Mawipoqtapei did reach, in the summers of 2021 and 2022, the temperature range suitable for the hatching of Gumegwsis eggs, although temperatures sometimes exceeded the range in 2022 (see below). The knowledge provided by fishers, points to the importance of identifying key functional habitats for this species in Mawipoqtapei, most notably spawning grounds and juvenile rearing habitats necessary for species recovery. The decline in abundance of kelp mentioned by the knowledge holders also highlights the importance to set up a monitoring of kelp forests in the bay, and to establish a protocol to monitor juvenile Gumegwsis populations that are potentially associated with them. According to observations reported by the knowledge holders, the abundance of Gumegwsis has also greatly decreased in Mawipoqtapei since the last decades, as is observed elsewhere in its range (Simpson et al. 2016; COSEWIC 2017). This decline has been a source of concern for some Mi’gmaw fishers. Along the Canadian Atlantic coast, most of the literature on Gumegwsis describes their presence in areas such as Newfoundland (Goulet et al. 1986), the Bay of Fundy (New Brunswick; Daborn and Gregory 1983) and the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Deparment of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2016). While there has been reported observations of Gumegwsis made in Northeastern New Brunswick (N.B.), there was so far very little information available on the species in within Mawipoqtapei (Able and Irion 1985; Fréchet et al. 2012; Deparment of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2016). Considering the lack of information about Gumegwsis in the region, MK here contributes to expand the geographical range of information available about the species, confirming past and actual occurrence in Mawipoqtapei, and another evidence of a decline in abundance in the area. Threats identified through MK that are contributing to declines in Gumegwsis include an increase in the seal population in the bay. In the Northwest Atlantic, both gray seals ( Halichoerus grypus ) and harp seals ( Pagophilus groenlandicus ) are known to prey upon adult Gumegwsis (Benoit and Bowen 1990; Hammill and Stenson 2000; Stenson et al. 2009). Grey Seal populations, in particular, have also greatly increased in size since the mid-1980s (Hammill et al. 2014). If predation by gray seals is known to cause important mortality in fish species such as the Atlantic Cod and White hake (Hammill et al. 2014), the exact effect of seal predation on Gumegwsis remains unknown (Simpson et al. 2016; COSEWIC 2017). However, both MK and scientific studies point to the fact it may be a factor locally limiting population productivity. Overall changes in habitat conditions observed in Mawipoqtapei over the past decades, including warmer waters and their ensuing consequences, were another threat to Gumegwsis identified by knowledge holders. Although our study did not provide long-term data on water temperatures, recorded temperatures in the summer 2022 were considerably warmer than in 2021, while the 2021 May-November averaged monthly sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of St. Lawrence were already considered higher than average (Galbraith et al. 2022). While several fish species will likely suffer the negative impacts of increasing water temperatures, this is especially critical for species dependent upon narrow temperature ranges (Free et al. 2019). It is therefore possible that warming water temperatures may have affected Gumegwsis populations, considering that the species and its different life stages demonstrate specific temperature preferences (4 to 12ºC for larvae and young of the year and -1.9ºC to 12ºC for both juveniles and adults; COSEWIC 2017). Concerns regarding potential ecological mismatches due to shifting thermal regimes in critical habitats have been expressed by community members. Moreover, rising water temperatures have been associated with declines in kelp beds (Simonson et al. 2015), perhaps explaining declines in kelp beds needed for young of the year lumpfish nursery habitat as reported through MK in Mawipoqtapei. Given the anticipated ongoing increase in temperatures for both deep and surface waters, leading to potential impacts on fish and their environments, it remains crucial for Mi’gmaw fishers to serve as vital observers, documenting firsthand and throughout the year the various changes taking place. Finally, the last threat identified by knowledge holders, which originally triggered this project, are the non-targeted bycatch during lobster fishing. Fishing, both directed and indirect (as bycatch), has been recognized as one of the potential threats to Gumegwsis of Canada (Simpson et al. 2016; COSEWIC 2017). Of all fisheries mortality, the selective fishing of large gravid Gumegwsis females, for their roe, is thought to be the one with the greatest impact. Yet, bycatch of Gumegwsis (discarded at sea) has been observed in a variety of fisheries (Simpson et al. 2016). However, these figures exclude bycatch during lobster fishing, for which there is little data (see Boudreau and Hanley 2023). The observations and geo-located photos provided through this project provide further evidence that Gumegwsis is captured in lobster traps and that the impacts of this fisheries interaction may warrant outreach and best practices for mitigating the effects of bycatch for an effective species recovery plan. The way ahead: knowledge and stewardship The foundation of this project was above all rooted in a desire by Mi'gmaw fishers to care for Gumegwsis . In the Mi’gmaw culture, the ways of knowing, living and being are not separated. Instead, they are encompassed in a holistic understanding of the cultural and spiritual relations between people, species, and the land (Prosper et al. 2011). These relations and connections are captured in the complex cultural concept of Netukulimk . This culturally rooted concept operates as a guide to responsible co-existence and interdependence with natural resources, each other and other than human entities. It is considered as a body of living knowledge, which underpins the moral and ethical relationships that explains their world in the past and provides for the present by sustaining the future. (Prosper et al. 2011, p. 3) The history of this project shows that even a modest resource, in comparison with more emblematic species, holds significance in the Mi’gmaw culture, and therefore shall be cared for (Prosper 2009; Prosper et al. 2011). If the desire to take care of Gumegwsis was first expressed by fishers, the intention was immediately embodied by GINU. Not only did GINU set up this research project, but it also started an awareness and outreach program with its member communities to encourage lobster fishers to release Gumegwsis that are caught as bycatch (Fig. 5). GINU also led the writing of a children's book to teach the younger generations about Gumegwsis . Further, Elder Earl Labillois suggested expanding the outreach program to mitigate fisheries interactions throughout the commercial lobster fisheries (Atlantic wide). Taking the advice seriously, GINU decided in 2022 to expand the outreach program beyond the regional level, to eventually reach the Atlantic wide region. We also participated in Season 2 of Gespe’gewa’qi the Last Land, produced by Rezolution Pictures for the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network in Canada featuring GINU and elder Earl Labillois to carry the knowledge more broadly. With centuries of colonization, Mi’gmaq relationships to the land, waters and other life forms have been greatly altered, with consequences for the capacity to live according to customary laws and values, such as Nekutulimk. Our project is part of this approach, where the acquisition of knowledge is not detached from a process related to the stewardship of Gumegwsis , to ultimately honor the values of Netukulimk. Two-eyed seeing goes beyond braiding knowledge systems for studying a species, but rather moves towards a co-governance model that includes various ways of knowing and relating to the environment. Recommendations for Management actions While official reports concluded on the absence of Indigenous knowledge concerning Gumegwsis (COSEWIC 2017), our study revealed a breadth of MK about the species. Using a Two-Eyed Seeing approach, our study contributed to fill a gap in ecological and cultural knowledge about the species in Mawipoqtapei, pointing to the necessity to engage in the identification and monitoring of functional habitat, spawning and rearing sites in the area. Further, our project contributed to address a regional priority threat: fisheries interactions, by recommending measures to limit mortalities due to bycatch during lobster fishing. Finally, our project continues to promote the relationship with Gumegwsis , its conservation and recovery, showing that conservation actions can be based on Indigenous knowledge and values, or a resurgence of these values (Fig. 6). Our case study strongly encourages COSEWIC and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada to investigate the interdisciplinary, cross-cultural and pluralistic nature of Two-Eyed Seeing (Reid et al. 2021) as a basis to consider Mi’gmaw knowledge in Aquatic Species at Risk recovery strategies and policies. The time is now. Giles (2014) did identify several places and stages within the COSEWIC and Species at Risk Act processes where IKS could be incorporated, such as the recovery potential assessment, consultations and socio-economic analysis. Her study emphasizes the potential for including more Indigenous individuals into these processes through advisory committees, highlighting the success of certain advisory boards in establishing positive co-governance relationships and understanding between governmental bodies and Indigenous communities. As seen in this research, Mi’gmaw communities have already adapted management and communication practices in response to observed decline in Gumegwsis . These adaptations have been developed from a community standpoint and work at the local scale in accordance with local relationships with Gumegwsis . They are well attuned to a recent study on Common lumpfish genetic structures showing natal homing behaviors within the species (Jansson et al. 2023). From the study, we conclude that fine scale management strategies are needed to account for localized populations, including Mawipoqtapei, an area the study had not sampled. As in many fish species, one size fits all recovery strategies do not seem well-adapted to protect local populations and run the risk of excluding and failing to consider the relationships between Mi’gmaq and other Indigenous communities, and fish. Thus, the necessity to embrace both IKS and WS to develop strategies and different scales supported by various values. Amidst our rapidly changing Earth, humanity has a duty to utilize insights inclusive of all sources of knowledge to enhance its understanding of changing ecosystems and advance sustainable resources management (Chapin et al. 2011; Tengö et al. 2014). On that matter, both the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and the IPBES have recognized that respect for Indigenous Knowledge, practices, values and beliefs can contribute to the sustainable and equitable protection of the environment (Díaz et al. 2018). In Canada, if there has been a recent push for research practices that make space for Indigenous knowledge (Alexander et al. 2019; M’sɨt No’kmaq et al. 2021; Henri et al. 2021; Leonard et al. 2022), the consideration for Indigenous values in the management of ecosystems remains elusive (Warrior et al. 2022). We hope that our project will inspire others to pursue and include Two-eyed seeing approaches for monitoring of environmental changes, as well as a deep dialogue on how to embrace Indigenous values to realign our relationship with the ocean. A new study on Common lumpfish genetic structures revealed natal homing behaviors (Jansson et al. 2023). Therefore, fine scale management strategies must account for localized populations found in Mawipoqtapei, an area this study has not sampled. One size fits all recovery strategies are not well-adapted and exclusionary to the relationships between Mi’gmaw communities, and fish. Declarations Acknowledgements Wela’lin (thank you) to each of the knowledge holders who generously shared their time, experiences, knowledge, and stories throughout the project. Thank you to Jaclyn Hill for help with Fig. 4, and Madeleine-Zoé Corbeil-Robitaille for the graphic design of Fig. 6. Thank you to the Atlantic Salmon Federation for the water temperature data recorded with their equipment. This research was funded by Aboriginal Fund for Species at Risk, New Brunswick (AFSAR NB). Data availability Data presented in this manuscript are subject to the OCAP ® principles and data is not made public. Ethical considerations The Gespe’gewa’gi Institute of Natural Understanding (GINU) co-produced this study with Mi’gmaw knowledge holders. With regards to the knowledge, the process by which information was gathered by GINU are in accordance with the ethical research protocol and standards of the institute and with respect to the First Nations principles of ownership, control, access, and possession, also known as OCAP ® (a registered trademark of the First Nations Information Governance Centre (FNIGC); https://fnigc.ca/ocap-training/). OCAP ® principles assert that First Nations “have control over data collection processes, and that they own and control how this information can be used’’ (FNIGC 2023). Furthermore, the written informed consent was obtained from all the participants. Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. References Able KW, Irion W (1985) Distribution and reproductive seasonality of snailfishes and lumpfishes in the St. Lawrence River estuary and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3870664","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":267477941,"identity":"24a2ce74-9c0c-47d5-a09d-29b3fabc5256","order_by":0,"name":"M’sɨt No’gmaq","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"M’sɨt","middleName":"","lastName":"No’gmaq","suffix":""},{"id":267477956,"identity":"4978767f-ad08-4a31-a645-c470a25f2964","order_by":1,"name":"Ugpi’ganjig","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"","middleName":"","lastName":"Ugpi’ganjig","suffix":""},{"id":267478014,"identity":"cb9f2b4d-d7bd-4e1d-8bd8-67a24994990b","order_by":2,"name":"Carole-Anne Gillis","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAtElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACxsYDDwwY5BiYSdDScCDBgMGYFC0MDAcSGBgSG4hWzt+/GGhLQV36fHfeYxIMNTaEtUjceAhy2OHcjYf50iQYjqUR1mIgcRCk5UDuxmYeMwnGhsNEa6lLNyReC38jSAtzgjwzsVokboAD+bDhBmYeY4sEYvzC33/84YMPf+rk5fvPGN74QEyIMUgkQF14AEgkEKEBaM0BCC3fQJTyUTAKRsEoGIkAAPWtOk55b+QqAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3374-5856","institution":"Gespe'gewa'gi Institute of Natural Understanding","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Carole-Anne","middleName":"","lastName":"Gillis","suffix":""},{"id":267478092,"identity":"145fe4d4-43c3-40b5-ab50-2680c4b7ad1e","order_by":3,"name":"Billie Chiasson","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Gespe'gewa'gi Institute of Natural Understanding","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Billie","middleName":"","lastName":"Chiasson","suffix":""},{"id":267478158,"identity":"453fa373-c2ac-4a90-8a95-27b6713bf921","order_by":4,"name":"Catherine-Alexandra Gagnon","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4947-8876","institution":"Gespe'gewa'gi Institute of Natural Understanding","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Catherine-Alexandra","middleName":"","lastName":"Gagnon","suffix":""},{"id":267478207,"identity":"ab8479ba-3077-4b0b-9b9d-bb9ec3118857","order_by":5,"name":"Pascale Gosselin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Gespe'gewa'gi Institute of Natural Understanding","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pascale","middleName":"","lastName":"Gosselin","suffix":""},{"id":267478285,"identity":"30a64896-e1a5-42db-80b9-ef693d0e69d3","order_by":6,"name":"Lloyd Arsenault","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Gespe'gewa'gi Institute of Natural Understanding","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lloyd","middleName":"","lastName":"Arsenault","suffix":""},{"id":267478404,"identity":"0382afd2-08cc-4030-b384-e656e7d957b6","order_by":7,"name":"John Murvin Vicaire","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Gespe'gewa'gi Institute of Natural Understanding","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"John","middleName":"Murvin","lastName":"Vicaire","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-16 18:26:14","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3870664/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3870664/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":49740104,"identity":"3ae87202-48ad-4388-a620-ba24bf4a4390","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-17 08:52:07","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":235330,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGespe’gewa’gi, the seventh and largest district of Mi’gma’gi - the Mi’gmaw Territory, that includes Mawipoqtapei (the Chaleur Bay) and the Mi’gmaw communities of Listuguj, Gesgapegiag, Ugpi’ganjiq (Eel River Bar) and Oinpegitjoig L’Noeigati (Pabineau).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3870664/v1/bcd8f5336845870aa74e7ec8.png"},{"id":49740103,"identity":"a97c4150-2342-4ca9-a382-e8fe60bca2ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-17 08:52:07","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":930196,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBathymetric representation of Mawipoqtapei (Chaleur Bay, Eastern Canada). Observations collected via interviews with knowledge holders and geolocated pictures of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003ebycatches shared by participating Mi’gmaw fishers.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3870664/v1/a4e1ce00cd074284ae28c385.png"},{"id":49740105,"identity":"bb34ede9-87f6-4b2a-89cc-0eafb8927bd3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-17 08:52:07","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2213108,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImages taken or collected during the \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003eTwo-Eyed seeing project in 2021 and 2022: (a) Elder Earl Labillois discussing \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e (abundance, distribution and etc.), local knowledge and other fisheries interactions, during boat outings with GINU staff; (b) Geolocated picture shared by Mi’gmaw fisher and showing a male \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003ethat was just released from a lobster trap; (c) and (d) juvenile \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003ephotographed among kelp. Images published with consent from individuals shown or having shared the photographs. Photo credits: (a) Craig Isaac (b) Russell Simonson, (c) and (d) Mario Longpré.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3870664/v1/0cd446122fd3f220a44dcd97.png"},{"id":49740262,"identity":"ebf96d52-1733-463f-9f3f-8f437d684227","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-17 09:00:07","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":232497,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDaily average water temperature (\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC) recorded near the Inch Arran lighthouse, Mawipoqtapei (Chaleur Bay, Eastern Canada), at three meters from the bottom, from June to the end of September in both 2021(a) and 2022(b).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3870664/v1/530d259780281a12050421fe.jpeg"},{"id":49740108,"identity":"12652888-0cb4-4041-a226-6525dc6407f0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-17 08:52:07","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4307624,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIllustrations developed as part of the Gespe’gewa’gi Institute of Natural Understanding awareness campaign to encourage fishers helping restore the endangered\u003cem\u003e Gumegwsis \u003c/em\u003e(Common Lumpfish).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3870664/v1/fc4bf58a4dbc97e7354f0589.png"},{"id":49740107,"identity":"106da1ec-0a3a-4105-a52c-01f43d5575c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-17 08:52:07","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":703835,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIllustration of the various contributions of Mi’gmaw and Western knowledge to the understanding of the ecology and local importance of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003ein inner Mawipoqtapei. Referring to the braided sweetgrass, the figure (by John M. Vicaire) illustrates how when weaved together, Mi’gmaw and Western knowledge are stronger\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003ethan their single strand alone.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3870664/v1/b1666d886fe4ff94f0e45862.jpeg"},{"id":49740572,"identity":"b3472d7c-db7a-4693-a463-f7e4bcdc265e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-01-17 09:08:13","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5581139,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3870664/v1/d1a91997-d3c7-46c1-80a6-2c3d9b01f84a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA Two-Eyed Seeing approach to describe \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGumegwsis (Cyclopterus lumpus)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e ecology and fisheries interactions in the inner Mawipoqtapei (Chaleur Bay), Canada\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCoastal and marine ecosystems are globally facing major challenges, including an increasing competition for resources, coupled with issues related to biodiversity loss and climate change (Armitage et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Canadian marine and coastal areas are no exception: take, for example, the continued decline of the collapsed Atlantic Cod (Neuenhoff et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) or the declines in wild Pacific Salmon (Price et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Price et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Since Canada is the country with the longest coastline in the world, advancing knowledge and management of coastal areas and fisheries resources is crucial given their important role in the well-being and vitality of a multitude of communities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith respect to governing the coastal ecosystems and associated fisheries, several case studies tend to show that \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;more scientific data''\u003c/em\u003e is not always the key to successful management (Berkes \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Berkes \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Co-management approaches based on a partnership of different actors with different sources of knowledge (e.g., Indigenous knowledge, local knowledge, western knowledge) can in fact yield higher success (Berkes \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It is important for fisheries scientists to use the best tools and knowledge available, regardless of their origin or perceived objectivity. This will help rectify uneven power relations, knowledge inequalities, and racially linked and unjust dynamics in fisheries research and management. It will also serve decolonial and reconciliatory efforts (TallBear \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Held \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Latulippe and Klenk \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In this regard, the potential contributions of Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) are substantial (Alexander et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Weaving ILK and western knowledge can improve collective knowledge of social-ecological inter-dependencies, promote innovation and help determine sustainable future directions (Teng\u0026ouml; et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Aminpour et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Reid et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Knowledge partnerships, as a process, can also help build trust in relationships and decision making and, not the least, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eserve decolonial and reconciliatory efforts that help rectify uneven power relations, knowledge inequalities, and other racially linked and unjust dynamics in fisheries\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Reid et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) (see also: Held \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Latulippe and Klenk \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ljubicic et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite these benefits, obstacles to the interweaving of Indigenous and western knowledge for fisheries management remain numerous. They include, among others, the challenges of establishing dialogues between cultures and worldviews while respecting the integrity and context of different sources of Knowledge. They also include a remaining skepticism among scientists and decision-makers about the legitimacy of non-western knowledge to inform management. Therefore, while there has been an expanding body of literature related to environmental research and management that weaves multiple knowledge systems (Alexander et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Henri et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), important gaps remain. Even in areas where the importance of ILK has been reflected in legislation, such as in the case of endangered species in Canada, Indigenous knowledge is sometimes left aside.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis was the case for \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e, (Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw language), listed as threatened for which documented knowledge and management has so far been exclusively based on Western knowledge. \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e, also known as the Common Lumpfish (\u003cem\u003eCyclopterus lumpus\u003c/em\u003e, Linnaeus 1758) is a cold-water dwelling fish that roams the North Atlantic Ocean (Kennedy et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Canada 2019 Feb 14). Only representative of the genus \u003cem\u003eCyclopterus (\u003c/em\u003efamily Cyclopteridae), \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e stands out because of its unusual physical appearance characterized by a round and short \u0026ldquo;ball-shaped\u0026rdquo; body, a thick scaleless skin covered with tubercles, and a ventral suction cup, also earning it the name of \u0026ldquo;lumpsucker\u0026rdquo; (Simpson et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;5).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e is a sexually dimorphic species. Males are smaller than females and present a red coloration during spawning as opposed to pale blue for females ou(Goulet et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Deparment of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2016; COSEWIC \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Hvas et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). For most of the year, \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e reside in pelagic habitats, until it undertakes its migrations to shallow coastal waters for spawning. Males migrate to these waters in early spring to prepare nesting sites awaiting females to deposit their eggs in or on rocky substrates (Daborn and Gregory \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Blacker \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Hvas et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Powell et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Females generally deposit egg masses (e.g., 10 000 to 200 000 eggs) in crevices or rock depressions. Eggs and small \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e are then guarded and cared for by males for a period of 60 days or more, while females return to deeper waters (Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHistorically, \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e were used as bait for other Canadian fisheries such as lobster (COSEWIC \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Beginning in the late 1960\u0026rsquo;s, female lumpfish were also targeted across the Atlantic waters when a fishery for \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e roe was developed off Newfoundland as a substitute for depleted sturgeon (\u003cem\u003eAcipenseridae\u003c/em\u003e) caviar (COSEWIC \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Powell et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In the 1980s and 1990s, Canada became the world leader in \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e roe exportations. Nowadays, mature lumpfish are also captured and used to generate hatchery-reared populations which, in turn, are used to control sea lice in salmon aquaculture sites (Kennedy et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite high market demand, sharp declines in commercial fishing landings of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e were observed since 2005. Scientific surveys performed in the core part of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;s Canadian range subsequently corroborated this decline, documenting a fall in abundance of about 58% in the last 15\u0026ndash;20 years. In 2017, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada therefore designated \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e as a Threatened Species (COSEWIC \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Mortalities occurring from gillnet fisheries and as bycatch in other commercial fisheries (e.g., Atlantic Cod, Atlantic Halibut, Monkfish), change in habitat and seismic exploration were identified as potential threats to the species (COSEWIC \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Amongst other threats, ever growing populations of Grey Seals (\u003cem\u003eHalichoerus grypus\u003c/em\u003e, Fabricis 1791) from the Gulf of St. Lawrence are also known to take advantage of aggregations of lumpfish that are found close to shore in high numbers during spawning (Benoit and Bowen \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Simpson et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), but the overall impact of this predation remains unknown (Simpson et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Canada, the species at risk act (SARA) recognizes that \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003ethe traditional knowledge of the Aboriginal Peoples of Canada should be considered in the assessment of which species may be at risk and in developing and implementing recovery measures\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Her Majesty the queen in right of Canada 2003). Aside from creating COSEWIC, the committee responsible for evaluating and assessing the status of species, Section 18(1) of the act also created the Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge Subcommittee (ATK-SC) on Species at Risk, the mandate of which is to provide expertise on Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge in the incorporation of this knowledge into COSEWIC\u0026rsquo;s species status assessment and classification processes. In the case of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e, the original unedited 2017 COSEWIC report stipulated \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThere are no indications of any ceremonial uses of Lumpfish in Canada and there is no ATK (Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge) information available\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e. Knowing that Mi'gmaq have fostered a relationship with this species since time immemorial, GINU reached out to COSEWIC and the report (COSEWIC \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) was consequently updated to: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eNo specific Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge (ATK) was available for this species. In Mi'gmaq, this fish is called: Gumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2018, members of the Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw community of Ugpi\u0026rsquo;ganjig (New Brunswick, Canada, Fig.\u0026nbsp;1) voiced concerns regarding fisheries interactions and bycatch of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e during the spawning season. Moreover, the fact that the species had a Mi'gmaw name was an indicator of the knowledge and relationship that the Nation has with the species. As a response, the Gespe\u0026rsquo;gewa\u0026rsquo;gi Institute of Natural Understanding (GINU; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://ginu.co/about-us/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e; see Methods\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e, a Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw non-profit organization focusing on aquatic research, co-developed a two-eyed seeing project about the species. Two-eyed seeing, also referred to as \u003cem\u003eEtuaptmumk\u003c/em\u003e (Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw language), is a concept championed by Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw Elders Albert and Murdena Marshall which refers to \u0026ldquo;learning to see from one eye with the strengths of Indigenous ways of knowing and from the other eye with the strengths of Western ways of knowing and to using both of these eyes together, for the benefit of all\u0026rdquo; (Bartlett et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, p. 335). In this project, we viewed Two-eyed seeing as a concept and a method to address community concerns in a positive manner. This approach could contribute to the ethical co-creation of knowledge and complementarity in knowledge generation, which in turn could improve our overall understanding of the ecology and threats for \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e in Mawipoqtapei. For example, Indigenous knowledge can help us in many ways: Indigenous knowledge can improve fisheries selectivity and sustainability, enhance sea state forecasting, reverse declines in exploited species abundance and size, provide missing baseline information through inaccessible ecological insights, and aid in fisheries policy improvement and adherence (Reid et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Leonard et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy collecting both western and Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw Knowledge (MK), we aimed to \u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e) document MK about the species, \u003cem\u003eii\u003c/em\u003e) to determine potential spawning ground locations and other critical habitats for \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis and\u003c/em\u003e lastly, \u003cem\u003eiii)\u003c/em\u003e to provide information towards protection measures to limit fisheries interactions and promote species recovery. Since there is actually minimal data published on \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e in the Chaleur Bay, and there are no surveys that have targeted this species in the area (N.B.; Fig.\u0026nbsp;2), this project fills an important geographical gap in information regarding the species. Most importantly, this project aims to contribute to the ongoing discussion about the space to be given to Indigenous knowledge for the understanding and conservation of declining aquatic biodiversity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy area\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis project was conducted in the Chaleur Bay, an arm of the Gulf of St. Lawrence surrounded by the Northeastern coast of New Brunswick and the Southeastern part of Quebec, in Eastern Canada (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). Measuring approximately 145 km long by 20\u0026ndash;50 km wide, the Chaleur Bay, known as Mawipoqtapei in the Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw language, is the largest bay in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, leading to its western end into the estuary of the Restigouche River, a world-renowned Atlantic salmon river. The bay is also known for its lobster and shellfish fishing activities. The largest cities around the bay are Campbellton (pop. approx. 6900) and Bathurst (pop. approx. 12,000), New Brunswick, and Carleton-sur-Mer (pop. approx. 4 000) in Qu\u0026eacute;bec. As noted previously, no scientific surveys for Lumpfish were ever conducted west of the New Brunswick town of Belledune (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMawipoqtapei is at the heart of Gespe\u0026rsquo;gewa\u0026rsquo;gi, the seventh and largest district of Mi\u0026rsquo;gma\u0026rsquo;gi (the Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw Territory) that includes what is now known as the Gasp\u0026eacute; Peninsula, parts of mainland Qu\u0026eacute;bec, Maine, and northeastern New Brunswick (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). In the past, Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw family groups traveled annually over Gespe\u0026rsquo;gewa\u0026rsquo;gi. They came to the coast in early spring to harvest from rivers and the ocean, and then back inland to spend fall and winter on hunting territories. According to McMillan and Prosper (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), it is estimated that up to 90% of the traditional Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw diet was derived from rivers and the ocean. Muin\u0026rsquo;iskw and Crowfeather (2016) have described traditional Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw fishing activities:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEarly in the year, the Mi\u0026rsquo;kmaq lived on shallow-water fish, such as the flounder, which lives on mudflats in the low-tide zone and in the mouths of rivers and estuaries where it can be speared, caught on hooked lines or trapped in weirs.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn the middle of March, fish would begin to spawn, often so abundantly that everything swarmed with them. First smelt, then herring, then sturgeon and salmon would make their spawning runs, so that the people were assured of food from March through until September, when the Mi'kmaq's favourite fish, the eel, would begin to run.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(Muin\u0026rsquo;iskw and Crowfeather 2016)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMawipoqtapei has been Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw traditional territory since time immemorial, it is now also home to four Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw communities located near or on its shores. These include Listuguj, Gesgapegiag, Ugpi\u0026rsquo;ganjig (Eel River Bar) and Winpegijuig (Pabineau). Fisheries remain an essential part of the Mi\u0026rsquo;qmaw culture. Today, the bay remains vital to the Mi'gmaw communities that surround it. It is a food source for traditional fisheries and provides economic prosperity through community-owned commercial licenses. The Mi'gmaw use the bay all year round to fish for eels, smelts, clams, salmon, lobster, trout, and more. Those interactions and how they interact form the basis of their culture. Relationships to the land and waters have been maintained and knowledge passed down from generation to generation despite colonial pressures and exclusion from the fisheries by the settler state, also known as Canada.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA Two-Eyed Seeing Approach to study lumpfish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs mentioned, this project grew out of Ugpi\u0026rsquo;ganjig fishers\u0026rsquo; concerns about the status of the fish, their decline and fisheries interactions of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e. In response, the Gespe\u0026rsquo;gewa\u0026rsquo;gi Institute of Natural Understanding (GINU), located in Listuguj, QC, decided to lead a research project on the species in order to collect more information about \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e and address the concerns of its member communities. GINU works collaboratively with First Nation governments, other Indigenous organizations, and public and private stakeholders to provide applied scientific and Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw knowledge concerning aquatic species and their habitat. GINU is also involved in community outreach and public education efforts. Each project that is overseen by GINU is conducted following the Two-Eyed seeing approach.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn accordance, GINU puts efforts to deploy aquatic research projects based on the latest scientific methods, while putting equivalent efforts in collecting and sharing Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw Knowledge (MK). With regards to MK, the process by which information is gathered and shared by GINU follows the organizations\u0026rsquo; own ethical research protocol with respect to the First Nations principles of ownership, control, access, and possession, also known as OCAP\u0026reg; (a registered trademark of the First Nations Information Governance Centre (FNIGC); \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://fnigc.ca/ocap-training/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). OCAP\u0026reg; principles assert that First Nations \u0026ldquo;have control over data collection processes, and that they own and control how this information can be used\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo; (FNIGC \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, GINU developed forms that guarantee the informed consent and protection of the identity of all participants in their studies. All interview data collected through GINU\u0026rsquo;s projects are stored on a local server, within the community of Listuguj. \u003cem\u003eA posteriori\u003c/em\u003e access to the data depends on the sharing rules agreed upon through the informed consent form. The GINU\u0026rsquo;s Board of Directors is the entity managing requests for data access, but the organization is working on establishing a MK advisory committee that will eventually overlook and regulate every data access request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGathering of Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw Knowledge (MK) about Gumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs part of the \u003cem\u003eEtuaptmumk\u003c/em\u003e approach, an important part of the project involved the gathering of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e-related MK. Since the project was rooted in community concerns, GINU provided information about the project, methods, and objectives through an information campaign on social networks aimed at its member communities. Aligning with GINU protocols and principles, individuals with knowledge regarding \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e were identified following recommendations from community members. A total of 10 experienced fishers, who also harvest yearly from May to June (the season when \u003cem\u003eGumegwsi\u003c/em\u003es are likely to be observed), were identified as participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSemi-structured interviews were chosen as the most appropriate method (Huntington \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) to gather \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e-related MK. Semi-structured interviews are guided discussions during which the interviewer triggers the conversation but allows the participants to follow their train of thought and make their own associations in the course of the discussion. Semi-structured interviews typically involve using a list of topics identified by the interviewer that are used as a guide for the interview, but not as a fixed questionnaire. With consent, semi-structured interviews were scheduled with key individuals and held over six months (May \u0026ndash; October 2021). One interview was conducted on land, but the others were planned in a more immersive setting, on fisher\u0026rsquo;s boats while navigating in areas where \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e were previously observed. Performing interviews while traveling in boats was a great way to engage in conversation about the species and to allow the interviewers to grasp a better understanding of the physicality of some aspects regarding the possible habitats available to \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEvery interview started with the reading and signature of the consent form, allowing participants to decide how they would like the interview to be conducted and recorded (i.e., written, audio or visual recording) and to decide whether their identity could be revealed. For every interview, the interviewer was accompanied by a note taker, whose task was to focus on recording information while the interviewer focused on the storytelling and knowledge transfer. A total of five key knowledge holders accepted to be interviewed for the project. Interviews lasted between one and three hours. One interview was video recorded while the others were recorded through note taking.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor GINU, community members, particularly fishers, are considered active partners of every project. GINU encourages the participation of fishers through sharing their knowledge and ways of knowing. In the case of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e, their collaboration was key in collecting geolocated photos when the fish was caught as bycatch. Thirteen fishers therefore partook in the project by sharing (approx. 27) geolocated pictures of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e that were caught as bycatch during the fishing seasons of 2021 and 2022. Moreover, 12 individuals contributed information about the species through informal discussions that took place during the 2021 Ugpi\u0026rsquo;Ganjig Pow-Wow, where GINU had set up an information table about the project.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the interview process, information was analyzed and organized according to emerging themes, using both predefined and inductive (defined a posteriori) coding (Miles et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). All spatial information provided through both interviews and through the sharing of geolocated pictures as well as past distribution and abundance were compiled to produce a comprehensive map. Although we collected precise information of bycatch locations from Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw fishers, we consciously removed these points from our maps to respect the principles of OCAP and preserve data safeguarding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter the interviews, GINU staff kept in contact with the interviewees through ongoing discussions that allowed them to clarify results. GINU staff responsible for the project also returned by boat with three of the five interviewed knowledge holders (three outings with each one of them, for a total of nine outings) to, again, informally discuss about \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e. Aligning with GINU\u0026rsquo;s principles, it was imperative that the information collected through the interviews be presented properly and with consent before being distributed publicly. Preliminary results were presented and validated with the community (Creswell and Poth \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) during an information session held in Ugpi\u0026rsquo;Ganjig on February 3, 2023. Twenty-three community members attended, including the knowledge holders interviewed for the project. The informal discussions held after the interviews and during the information session allowed us to evaluate the congruence of information gathered using different approaches (Creswell and Poth \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIdentification of suitable spawning habitat\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith the arrival of early spring, male \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e are known to undertake a migration to shallow coastal waters in order to prepare nesting sites along rocky substrates for spawning (Daborn and Gregory \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Hvas et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Powell et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). From our MK interviews, we have learned that, following ice out in Mawipoqtapei, the east winds facilitate the migration of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e to the inner sections of the bay. Egg masses (e.g., 10 000 to 200 000 eggs) are generally deposited in a crevice or depression on rocks by the female.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWater temperatures recordings\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs described in the scientific literature, \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e eggs are suggested to hatch between 11.0 and 14 ⁰C (Goulet et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). Otherwise, the temperature preferences for \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e range between \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.9\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC to 12\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for both juvenile and adults (COSEWIC \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). To determine water temperature in habitats identified as potential spawning sites, and to link this temperature to potential hatching time, a VR2Tx receiver was installed near the Dalhousie lighthouse (48\u0026deg;03'39.7\"N 66\u0026deg;21'04.5''W; Fig.\u0026nbsp;1) at a depth of three meters from the bottom. In-situ water temperature (⁰C) was collected on a half-hourly basis from the beginning of June to the end of September in 2021 and 2022, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThroughout the interviews with key knowledge holders, we were able to collect a wide range of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e related MK such as relationships with other fish species present in Mawipoqtapei, communities and culture, the timing of migrations, life history, spawning and rearing habitats, prevalence of bycatch and fisheries interactions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll knowledge holders interviewed knew and had interacted with \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e through their fishing activities, past and present. Terminology used to refer to the species included the term \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e, but also the French term \u0026ldquo;Poule de mer '' and the English terms \u0026ldquo;Lumpfish\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Pulley Mayor\u0026rdquo;. According to one informant \u0026ldquo;Pulley Mayor\u0026rdquo; (Poule de mer with an English accent) is a term that speaks to the prevalence of French and Acadians harvesting \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e centuries ago. \u0026ldquo;This is what they would name it locally and the Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaq would utilize this word for trade and barter\u0026rdquo; (Knowledge holder #01).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy its peculiar appearance, sometimes described as an \u0026ldquo;ugly looking fish\u0026rdquo; (Knowledge holder #02) that \u0026ldquo;sticks\u0026rdquo; everywhere, this species seems to have marked the memories of several informants. Knowledge holders mentioned that Elders and grandparents use to eat \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e quite often in the past (1900\u0026ndash;1980 period). Known as a slowly moving fish, \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e were said to be easy to spear, one informant recalling using a spear made by his dad, similar to an eel spear, to fish for it (Knowledge holder #03\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e. In general, \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e was not a species that was targeted for harvesting, but when they did catch them, Elders would prefer eating the males. As a food fish, \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e was described as being very tasty, with a salty meat.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA woman Elder taught me how to clean it. Cut top fin, pectoral fin, cut the head, and then you have 2 filets. Looks like jelly/jello when you cook, it's white. Oily like eel. Chicken of the sea.\u003c/em\u003e (Knowledge holder #04)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother knowledge holder insisted that \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e are best to eat when in full color (spawning), not when their belly is black and white. While some fishers readily use \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e as lobster bait (renowned to be excellent), others refused to:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e[We] never used [Gumegwsis] as bait, too tasty for that! Grandmother loved the taste and would frown upon wasting it that way.\u003c/em\u003e (Knowledge holder #05)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNowadays, it is mainly the adults \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e that are observed during fishing. Since Mi'gmaw fishers use lobster traps or nets with fairly large meshes, juvenile \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e are too small to be captured. In the past however, Elders used to spread kelp on the salmon that had been caught to help keep them cool. It is while handling the kelp that some remembered it was common to observe a quantity of small \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e that were attached to the kelp with their suction cups. They would pull them and put them back in the water. \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e were known to stick to anything, and kids would play with them, sticking them to side of boats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSmall \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e were therefore known to utilize kelp as a forest for refuge, to feed and grow (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3d). It was suggested that juveniles would adhere to kelp to save on energy and use it as an advantage due to their lower swimming capacity. According to the knowledge holders, kelp forests are not as abundant as they used to be in Mawipoqtapei. Combined with the decrease of sea urchins and starfish, this disappearance is, according to knowledge holders, another indicator of the broad changes taking place in the bay's ecosystem. Finally, Red (male) \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e were known to be smaller than females (blue). Males were also known to arrive sooner than females in the bay, earliest reports of bycatch occurring in May.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll knowledge holders agreed that they observed a decline in \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e abundance was observed over their lifetime of fishing. Knowledge holder (#01) recalled that \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e used to be frequently caught in salmon nets, a long time ago. Historical observations from the 1980s suggest lumpfish would migrate and utilize coastal habitats further upstream, as far as Mcleods (NB) Knowledge holder #06. Earlier reports confirm Listuguj used to observe and harvest them near the community, but changes in silt loadings and construction of bridges displaced the lumpfish further east (Knowledge holder #07). Red (male) \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e were also said to be common bycatch during mackerel fishing in the late 1980s, era early 1990s near Ugpi\u0026rsquo;Ganjig and Charlo (Knowledge holder #08). Nowadays however, the \u0026ldquo;Poules de mer'' are said to be very rare. Nevertheless, \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e bycatch observations and potential spawning habitats were reported by participants, either through interviews or bycatch pictures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). Considering that the species is dimorphic, observations were most of the time specific as for the sex of the captured fish.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThreats that could explain why \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e is not as abundant as in the past were put forward by the participants. These included an observed increase in the number of seals in Mawipoqtapei. One knowledge holder mentioned that seals are potential predators for the \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e, especially near seal rocks, where both species co-occur (Knowledge holder #03). Another mentioned the warming of the waters. According to one knowledge holder, warmer waters have caused an increased presence of jellyfish in Mawipoqtapei but are also likely to be affecting all aquatic species in the area (see above-mentioned declines in kelp and other species). Finally, the fact that bycatches of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e are often recycled as bait across all lobster fisheries in the Atlantic is perceived as the major threat to the species. On that matter, Elder Earl Labillois even suggested that GINU should expand its outreach activities to mitigate fisheries interactions throughout the commercial lobster fishery (Atlantic wide).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComprehensive map\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe mapped all the shared geolocated pictures of lumpfish bycatch, locations of firsthand recent past observations as well as historical presence and abundance of lumpfish through storytelling. This data is not shared in this paper, but we carried out a comprehensive map on our secure in-community server and analyzed overlap of these locations with habitat features in relation to time of year. The result is that all species occurrences in early spring overlap with the entire infralittoral zone of Mawipoqtapei at a depth between 0 and 12 meters (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWater temperature\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn both years, waters around the Inch Arran lighthouse reached the ideal temperature range for the hatching of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e eggs (11\u0026ndash;14℃) on several occasions and for several days during each season (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). Water temperature reached 11℃ for the first time on July 2nd in 2021, and on June 4th in 2022. Throughout the 2021 season, water temperatures mostly fell within the preferred temperature range for juvenile and adult \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e. However, in 2022, water temperatures were considerably warmer and often exceeded the ideal temperature range.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eknowledge and relationship\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study brings to light a relationship between Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw communities and \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003ethat until now was unsuspected. Knowledge holders interviewed and encountered during the project spent many years on the waters of Mawipoqtapei fishing, observing, and hearing stories from their Elders, building hands-on and meticulous knowledge about the waters and animals of the bay. Our results show that although not specifically targeted in Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw fisheries, \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e is a fish whose taste was appreciated, and about which community members have developed knowledge, and therefore relationship. While official reports questioned the existence of Indigenous knowledge on \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e (COSEWIC 2017), this project shed light on a breadth of MK related to the species, ranging from stories to cultural use to potential rearing and spawning sites, changes in abundance, and, above all, a desire to care for the People-\u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003erelationship.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the objectives of this community-led project was to determine potential spawning and rearing ground locations for the threatened \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e. According to several Knowledge holders, kelp forests are important habitats for young \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e. Fishers recalled juveniles being observed attached to kelp harvested to keep salmon cool, and kelp forests were hypothesized as being a good refuge for juveniles to feed and grow, especially considering their low swimming capacities. These observations and hypotheses are congruent with field observations and sampling of intertidal pools in Maine, USA, where Moring (1989) identified an association between juvenile \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003eand algae of the genus Laminaria spp. (kelp). To explain this association, the author brought forward hypotheses similar to those mentioned by Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw fishers, i.e., that kelp provides a refuge from predation and wave actions and a good feeding habitat due to the high presence of invertebrates (Moring 1989). Both knowledge systems therefore point to the importance of kelp for juvenile \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on both fishers\u0026rsquo; observations as well as geolocated pictures, MK indicated a high probability of spawning and rearing sites for \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e in Mawipoqtapei in the infralittoral zone 0-12 m (Fig. 2). Temperature sampling also indicated that the waters of Mawipoqtapei did reach, in the summers of 2021 and 2022, the temperature range suitable for the hatching of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e eggs, although temperatures sometimes exceeded the range in 2022 (see below). The knowledge provided by fishers, points to the importance of identifying key functional habitats for this species in Mawipoqtapei, most notably spawning grounds and juvenile rearing habitats necessary for species recovery. The decline in abundance of kelp mentioned by the knowledge holders also highlights the importance to set up a monitoring of kelp forests in the bay, and to establish a protocol to monitor juvenile \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e populations that are potentially associated with them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to observations reported by the knowledge holders, the abundance of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003ehas also greatly decreased in Mawipoqtapei since the last decades, as is observed elsewhere in its range (Simpson et al. 2016; COSEWIC 2017). This decline has been a source of concern for some Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw fishers. Along the Canadian Atlantic coast, most of the literature on \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003edescribes their presence in areas such as Newfoundland (Goulet et al. 1986), the Bay of Fundy (New Brunswick; Daborn and Gregory 1983) and the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Deparment of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2016). While there has been reported observations of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e made in Northeastern New Brunswick (N.B.), there was so far very little information available on the species in within Mawipoqtapei (Able and Irion 1985; Fr\u0026eacute;chet et al. 2012; Deparment of Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2016). Considering the lack of information about \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e in the region, MK here contributes to expand the geographical range of information available about the species, confirming past and actual occurrence in Mawipoqtapei, and another evidence of a decline in abundance in the area. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThreats identified through MK that are contributing to declines in \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e include an increase in the seal population in the bay. In the Northwest Atlantic, both gray seals (\u003cem\u003eHalichoerus grypus\u003c/em\u003e) and harp seals (\u003cem\u003ePagophilus groenlandicus\u003c/em\u003e) are known to prey upon adult \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003e(Benoit and Bowen 1990; Hammill and Stenson 2000; Stenson et al. 2009). Grey Seal populations, in particular, have also greatly increased in size since the mid-1980s (Hammill et al. 2014). If predation by gray seals is known to cause important mortality in fish species such as the Atlantic Cod and White hake (Hammill et al. 2014), the exact effect of seal predation on \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e remains unknown (Simpson et al. 2016; COSEWIC 2017). However, both MK and scientific studies point to the fact it may be a factor locally limiting population productivity. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall changes in habitat conditions observed in Mawipoqtapei over the past decades, including warmer waters and their ensuing consequences, were another threat to \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e identified by knowledge holders. Although our study did not provide long-term data on water temperatures, recorded temperatures in the summer 2022 were considerably warmer than in 2021, while the 2021 May-November averaged monthly sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of St. Lawrence were already considered higher than average (Galbraith et al. 2022). While several fish species will likely suffer the negative impacts of increasing water temperatures, this is especially critical for species dependent upon narrow temperature ranges (Free et al. 2019). It is therefore possible that warming water temperatures may have affected \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003epopulations, considering that the species and its different life stages demonstrate specific temperature preferences (4 to 12\u0026ordm;C for larvae and young of the year and -1.9\u0026ordm;C to 12\u0026ordm;C for both juveniles and adults; COSEWIC 2017). Concerns regarding potential ecological mismatches due to shifting thermal regimes in critical habitats have been expressed by community members. Moreover, rising water temperatures have been associated with declines in kelp beds (Simonson et al. 2015), perhaps explaining declines in kelp beds needed for young of the year lumpfish nursery habitat as reported through MK in Mawipoqtapei. Given the anticipated ongoing increase in temperatures for both deep and surface waters, leading to potential impacts on fish and their environments, it remains crucial for Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw fishers to serve as vital observers, documenting firsthand and throughout the year the various changes taking place. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, the last threat identified by knowledge holders, which originally triggered this project, are the non-targeted bycatch during lobster fishing. Fishing, both directed and indirect (as bycatch), has been recognized as one of the potential threats to \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e of Canada (Simpson et al. 2016; COSEWIC 2017). Of all fisheries mortality, the selective fishing of large gravid \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e females, for their roe, is thought to be the one with the greatest impact. Yet, bycatch of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e (discarded at sea) has been observed in a variety of fisheries (Simpson et al. 2016). However, these figures exclude bycatch during lobster fishing, for which there is little data (see Boudreau and Hanley 2023). The observations and geo-located photos provided through this project provide further evidence that \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003eis captured in lobster traps and that the impacts of this fisheries interaction may warrant outreach and best practices for mitigating the effects of bycatch for an effective species recovery plan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe way ahead: knowledge and stewardship\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe foundation of this project was above all rooted in a desire by Mi\u0026apos;gmaw fishers to care for \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e. In the Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw culture, the ways of knowing, living and being are not separated. Instead, they are encompassed in a holistic understanding of the cultural and spiritual relations between people, species, and the land (Prosper et al. 2011). These relations and connections are captured in the complex cultural concept of \u003cem\u003eNetukulimk\u003c/em\u003e. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThis culturally rooted concept operates as a guide to responsible co-existence and interdependence with natural resources, each other and other than human entities. It is considered as a body of living knowledge, which underpins the moral and ethical relationships that explains their world in the past and provides for the present by sustaining the future. (Prosper et al. 2011, p. 3)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe history of this project shows that even a modest resource, in comparison with more emblematic species, holds significance in the Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw culture, and therefore shall be cared for (Prosper 2009; Prosper et al. 2011). If the desire to take care of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e was first expressed by fishers, the intention was immediately embodied by GINU. Not only did GINU set up this research project, but it also started an awareness and outreach program with its member communities to encourage lobster fishers to release \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e that are caught as bycatch (Fig. 5). GINU also led the writing of a children\u0026apos;s book to teach the younger generations about \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e. Further, Elder Earl Labillois suggested expanding the outreach program to mitigate fisheries interactions throughout the commercial lobster fisheries (Atlantic wide). Taking the advice seriously, GINU decided in 2022 to expand the outreach program beyond the regional level, to eventually reach the Atlantic wide region. We also participated in Season 2 of Gespe\u0026rsquo;gewa\u0026rsquo;qi the Last Land, produced by Rezolution Pictures for the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network in Canada featuring GINU and elder Earl Labillois to carry the knowledge more broadly. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith centuries of colonization, Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaq relationships to the land, waters and other life forms have been greatly altered, with consequences for the capacity to live according to customary laws and values, such as Nekutulimk. Our project is part of this approach, where the acquisition of knowledge is not detached from a process related to the stewardship of \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e, to ultimately honor the values of Netukulimk. Two-eyed seeing goes beyond braiding knowledge systems for studying a species, but rather moves towards a co-governance model that includes various ways of knowing and relating to the environment. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRecommendations for Management actions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile official reports concluded on the absence of Indigenous knowledge concerning \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis \u003c/em\u003e(COSEWIC 2017), our study revealed a breadth of MK about the species. Using a Two-Eyed Seeing approach, our study contributed to fill a gap in ecological and cultural knowledge about the species in Mawipoqtapei, pointing to the necessity to engage in the identification and monitoring of functional habitat, spawning and rearing sites in the area. Further, our project contributed to address a regional priority threat: fisheries interactions, by recommending measures to limit mortalities due to bycatch during lobster fishing. Finally, our project continues to promote the relationship with \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e, its conservation and recovery, showing that conservation actions can be based on Indigenous knowledge and values, or a resurgence of these values (Fig. 6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur case study strongly encourages COSEWIC and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) Canada to investigate the interdisciplinary, cross-cultural and pluralistic nature of Two-Eyed Seeing (Reid et al. 2021) as a basis to consider Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw knowledge in Aquatic Species at Risk recovery strategies and policies. The time is now. Giles (2014) did identify several places and stages within the COSEWIC and Species at Risk Act processes where IKS could be incorporated, such as the recovery potential assessment, consultations and socio-economic analysis. Her study emphasizes the potential for including more Indigenous individuals into these processes through advisory committees, highlighting the success of certain advisory boards in establishing positive co-governance relationships and understanding between governmental bodies and Indigenous communities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs seen in this research, Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw communities have already adapted management and communication practices in response to observed decline in \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e. These adaptations have been developed from a community standpoint and work at the local scale in accordance with local relationships with \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e. They are well attuned to a recent study on Common lumpfish genetic structures showing natal homing behaviors within the species (Jansson et al. 2023). From the study, we conclude that fine scale management strategies are needed to account for localized populations, including Mawipoqtapei, an area the study had not sampled. As in many fish species, one size fits all recovery strategies do not seem well-adapted to protect local populations and run the risk of excluding and failing to consider the relationships between Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaq and other Indigenous communities, and fish. Thus, the necessity to embrace both IKS and WS to develop strategies and different scales supported by various values.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmidst our rapidly changing Earth, humanity has a duty to utilize insights inclusive of all sources of knowledge to enhance its understanding of changing ecosystems and advance sustainable resources management (Chapin et al. 2011; Teng\u0026ouml; et al. 2014). On that matter, both the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and the IPBES have recognized that respect for Indigenous Knowledge, practices, values and beliefs can contribute to the sustainable and equitable protection of the environment (D\u0026iacute;az et al. 2018). In Canada, if there has been a recent push for research practices that make space for Indigenous knowledge (Alexander et al. 2019; M\u0026rsquo;sɨt No\u0026rsquo;kmaq et al. 2021; Henri et al. 2021; Leonard et al. 2022), the consideration for Indigenous values in the management of ecosystems remains elusive (Warrior et al. 2022). We hope that our project will inspire others to pursue and include Two-eyed seeing approaches for monitoring of environmental changes, as well as a deep dialogue on how to embrace Indigenous values to realign our relationship with the ocean.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA new study on Common lumpfish genetic structures revealed natal homing behaviors (Jansson et al. 2023). Therefore, fine scale management strategies must account for localized populations found in Mawipoqtapei, an area this study has not sampled. One size fits all recovery strategies are not well-adapted and exclusionary to the relationships between Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw communities, and fish. \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWela\u0026rsquo;lin (thank you) to each of the knowledge holders who generously shared their time, experiences, knowledge, and stories throughout the project. Thank you to Jaclyn Hill for help with Fig. 4, and Madeleine-Zo\u0026eacute; Corbeil-Robitaille for the graphic design of Fig. 6. Thank you to the Atlantic Salmon Federation for the water temperature data recorded with their equipment. This research was funded by Aboriginal Fund for Species at Risk, New Brunswick (AFSAR NB).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData presented in this manuscript are subject to the OCAP\u003csup\u003e\u0026reg;\u003c/sup\u003e principles and data is not made public.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical considerations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Gespe\u0026rsquo;gewa\u0026rsquo;gi Institute of Natural Understanding (GINU) co-produced this study with Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw knowledge holders. With regards to the knowledge, the process by which information was gathered by GINU are in accordance with the ethical research protocol and standards of the institute and with respect to the First Nations principles of ownership, control, access, and possession, also known as OCAP\u003csup\u003e\u0026reg;\u003c/sup\u003e (a registered trademark of the First Nations Information Governance Centre (FNIGC); https://fnigc.ca/ocap-training/). OCAP\u003csup\u003e\u0026reg;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eprinciples assert that First Nations \u0026ldquo;have control over data collection processes, and that they own and control how this information can be used\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;(FNIGC 2023). Furthermore, the written informed consent was obtained from all the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAble KW, Irion W (1985) Distribution and reproductive seasonality of snailfishes and lumpfishes in the St. Lawrence River estuary and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Can J Zool 63(7):1622\u0026ndash;1628. https://doi.org/10.1139/z85-240\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlexander SM, Provencher JF, Henri DA, Taylor JJ, Lloren JI, Nanayakkara L, Johnson JT, Cooke SJ (2019) Bridging Indigenous and science-based knowledge in coastal and marine research, monitoring, and management in Canada. 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Mi\u0026rsquo;kmaw daily life - hunting and fishing [Online]. Available: https://www.muiniskw.org/pgCulture1c.htm. Accessed 20 Feb 2023\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNeuenhoff RD, Swain DP, Cox SP, McAllister MK, Trites AW, Walters CJ, Hammill MO (2019) Continued decline of a collapsed population of Atlantic cod (\u003cem\u003eGadus morhua\u003c/em\u003e) due to predation-driven Allee effects. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 76(1):168\u0026ndash;184. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2017-0190\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePowell A, Pooley C, Scolamacchia M, Garcia de Leaniz C (2018) Cleaner fish biology and aquaculture applications (Ed. Jim Treasurer) - Chapter 6. Review of lumpfish biology.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePrice MHH, Darimont CT, Temple NF, MacDuffee SM (2008) Ghost runs: management and status assessment of Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) returning to British Columbia\u0026rsquo;s central and north coasts. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 65(12):2712\u0026ndash;2718. https://doi.org/10.1139/F08-174\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePrice MHH, English KK, Rosenberger AG, MacDuffee M, Reynolds JD (2017) Canada\u0026rsquo;s Wild Salmon Policy: an assessment of conservation progress in British Columbia. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 74(10):1507\u0026ndash;1518. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfas-2017-0127\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProsper K (2009) Netukulimk: A circular relationship in shifting ideologies: An investigation into the altered and realigned spiritual and cultural connection shared by moose and Mi\u0026rsquo;kmaq. Honours anthropology thesis, St. Fancis Xavier University\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eProsper K, McMillan LJ, Davis AA, Moffitt M (2011) Returning to Netukulimk: Mi\u0026rsquo;kmaq cultural and spiritual connections with resource stewardship and self-governance. iipj 2(4). https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2011.2.4.7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eReid AJ, Eckert LE, Lane J, Young N, Hinch SG, Darimont CT, Cooke SJ, Ban NC, Marshall A (2021) \u0026ldquo;Two‐Eyed Seeing\u0026rdquo;: An Indigenous framework to transform fisheries research and management. Fish and Fisheries 22(2):243\u0026ndash;261. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12516\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSimonson E, Scheibling R, Metaxas A (2015) Kelp in hot water: I. Warming seawater temperature induces weakening and loss of kelp tissue. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 537:89\u0026ndash;104. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps11438\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSimpson M, Gauthier J, Beno\u0026icirc;t HP, MacDonald D, Hedges K, Collins R, Mello L, Miri C (2016) A pre-COSEWIC assessment of the Common Lumpfish (Cyclopterus lumpus, Linnaeus 1758) in Canadian Atlantic and Arctic waters. Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStenson GB, Koen-Alonso M, Buren AD (2009) Recent Research on the Role of Seals in the Northwest Atlantic Ecosystem. North Atlantic Fisheries Organization\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTallBear K (2014) Indigenous Bioscientists Constitute Knowledge across Cultures of Expertise and Tradition : An Indigenous Standpoint Research Project. The Hugo Valentin Centre, Uppsala University, pp 173\u0026ndash;191\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTeng\u0026ouml; M, Brondizio ES, Elmqvist T, Malmer P, Spierenburg M (2014) Connecting Diverse Knowledge Systems for Enhanced Ecosystem Governance: The Multiple Evidence Base Approach. AMBIO 43(5):579\u0026ndash;591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0501-3\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWarrior M, Fanning L, Metaxas A (2022) Indigenous peoples and marine protected area governance: A Mi\u0026rsquo;kmaq and Atlantic Canada case study. FACETS 7:1298\u0026ndash;1327. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2021-0128\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Indigenous Knowledge, Two-Eyed Seeing, Mi’gmaw knowledge, Fisheries, Common Lumpfish, Cyclopterus lumpus","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3870664/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3870664/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe integration of diverse knowledge systems, encompassing Indigenous, local, and Western perspectives, is gaining traction in Canadian scientific research for coastal areas and fisheries. Despite proven successes, skepticism persists among scientists and decision-makers, leading to ineffective recovery measures for endangered aquatic species. Responding to concerns from Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw fishers in Ugpi\u0026rsquo;ganjiq, the Gespe\u0026rsquo;gewa\u0026rsquo;gi Institute of Natural Understanding (GINU) initiated a collaborative project focused on the threatened \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e (Common lumpfish) in Chaleur Bay, Eastern Canada. Employing a Two-eyed seeing approach, the study combined interviews, mapping, and temperature monitoring, uncovering \u003cem\u003eGumegwsis\u003c/em\u003e life history, its significance to local fishers, behavioral changes, and critical spawning and nursery habitats. In contrast to prior assessments, which dismissed ceremonial and Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge (ATK) uses, our study highlighted the unique insights of Mi\u0026rsquo;gmaw fishers, emphasizing the importance of embracing diverse knowledge for species ecology and habitat understanding. This underscores the need for collaborative species recovery strategies, advocating for the co-creation of solutions and fostering cooperation in fisheries research.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A Two-Eyed Seeing approach to describe Gumegwsis (Cyclopterus lumpus) ecology and fisheries interactions in the inner Mawipoqtapei (Chaleur Bay), Canada","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-01-17 08:52:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3870664/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a5ecd6b6-b96e-4e3f-8a63-985a6807b15b","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 17th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":28181256,"name":"Conservation Biology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-01-17T08:52:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-01-17 08:52:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3870664","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3870664","identity":"rs-3870664","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}