A Qualitative Inquiry of Barriers to Lower Voter Turnout among Women, Transgenders and People with Disabilities

A Qualitative Inquiry of Barriers to Lower Voter Turnout among Women, Transgenders and People with Disabilities | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article A Qualitative Inquiry of Barriers to Lower Voter Turnout among Women, Transgenders and People with Disabilities Sarosh Iqbal, Rubeena Zakar, Naveeda Noreen, Asmaa Nouman, Manahil Farhat, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7110944/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Purpose This research explores the reasons for lower voter registration and turnout amongst vulnerable categories, i.e., persons with physical disabilities, women, and transgenders. Materials & Methods This research adapted to a qualitative inquiry, using in-depth interviews with 30 members, including 10 from each category in Lahore (Punjab). The data was transcribed, synthesised and analysed thematically. Results The findings revealed numerous challenges faced by these groups during the election administration. Particularly, it highlighted the lack of infrastructure for people with disabilities and women, and legal concern regarding the social identity of transgenders and their voter registration. It further delves into sociocultural aspects such as social stigmas for marginalized populations, lack of awareness about their electoral rights, limited autonomy, non-availability of facilitators at polling booths, lack of transportation, and mobility issues. Research suggests that these impediments not only marginalize these groups but also weaken the democratic fabric by limiting their political representation. Conclusion The research concludes with policy recommendations that highlight the need for legal changes, societal awareness campaigns, and technology improvements to promote inclusivity and improve voter turnout. This research adds to the growing body of knowledge on electoral inclusion and the empowerment of underrepresented groups in democracies. lower voter turnout women transgenders people-with-disability Pakistan IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION Persons with disabilities, women and transgenders face intersecting barriers to electoral participation, shaped by infrastructural, legal and sociocultural constraints Addressing institutional and physical accessibility at polling stations can promote inclusive democratic engagement and strengthen the civic agency of marginalized groups Targeted awareness-raising campaigns and voter education initiatives may reduce political disengagement among underserved populations Rehabilitation approaches that integrate inclusive policy design and sustained voter outreach efforts can contribute to long-term empowerment of vulnerable communities and ensure the electoral process reflects the diverse needs of all citizens BACKGROUND Democracy is the cornerstone of Pakistan's dynamic electoral landscape, supporting the principles of legitimacy, equal representation, and citizen empowerment. The Pakistan Constitution (1973)’s Chapter II outlines fundamental rights guaranteed to all citizens, including freedom of speech, assembly, and association (Khan, 2019). A democratic system empowers all individuals to hold and represent independent opinions to select their leaders and shape the course of their nation. The pursuit of a more representative democracy is central to Pakistan's Constitution. The country of Pakistan was founded on the principles of inclusion and equal representation. Though the Constitution safeguards voting rights for all segments of the population, the socio-cultural landscape often disregards them, leading to underrepresentation in vital processes (Khan, 2019). Predominately, women, transgenders, and people with disabilities (PWD) encounter several challenges in exercising their fundamental rights in a democratic system with limited electoral participation (Malik, 2020). Pakistan has a history of holding general elections to elect representatives for its national and provincial assemblies. These elections are crucial for shaping the political landscape of the country (Ullah, et al., 2022). The historical trajectories revealed that the country has demonstrated persistent inequality and discrimination against women, transgenders, and PWDs, despite their established constitutional rights. In previous elections, the voter turnout among women and people with disabilities has varied, with percentages often below expectations (Reher, 2020). Though, the General Election 2018 revealed approximately 52% voter turnout against 105.96 million voter registrations, however, significant disparities exist in voter turnout. Statistics informed that 46.89% of registered women voters exercised their right in contrast to 56.02% male voter turnout (Zubair, 2021) A substantial increase in women voter turnout has been observed from the 2013 general election, however more than half of the female population had not participated in electoral process (Cascio, & Shenhav, 2020). Similarly, the statistics of PWDs and transgenders voter turnout and their participation in the electoral process are limited. Despite comprising of substantial segment of the population, these marginalized groups encounter numerous challenges in exercising their voting rights (Parent, 2022). For instance, women face societal limitations and lack autonomy, transgenders confront legal roadblocks and social stigmas, while people with disabilities struggle with inaccessible polling stations and logistical challenges. These challenges originate from systematic marginalization, driven by societal discrimination, insufficient legal frameworks, and a lack of inclusive infrastructure, resulting in the disenfranchisement of these groups (Khan, 2019). More specifically, cultural norms and societal expectations often marginalized women, relegating them to domestic roles, thus limiting their engagement in public affairs. This societal structure perpetuates a lack of awareness and confidence among women regarding their voting rights, leading to lower turnout rates compared to men (Kasungu, 2023). Similarly, transgenders and PWDs suffer discrimination, stigmatization, limited accessibility to polling stations and a lack of support mechanisms that restrict them from fully engaging in the electoral process. Despite the efforts to promote inclusivity in the electoral process, the 2018 general election highlighted the persistent challenges faced by women, transgenders, and PWDs in exercising their fundamental right to vote. Given the context, a significant segment of population, including women, PWDs and transgenders exhibit disproportionately lower level of engagement in democratic electoral process. Existing literature is scarce regarding causes for lower voter registration and turnout amongst these marginalized groups within local settings. Hence, it is imperative to seek acumen into the multifaceted challenges that hinders inclusive political participation of these marginalized groups. Bridging the gap, this research explored the perceptions and experiences leading to lower voter turnout amongst women, transgenders, and PWDs. This research is aimed to generate evidence to develop targeted interventions and policy measures for enhancing voter turnout of deprived segments of society, prompting inclusivity and strengthening the democratic representation in Pakistan. LITERATURE REVIEW Despite positive strides in women's electoral participation, a stark reality still faces Pakistan as this number falls behind the percentage of male electoral participation. A gender gap can clearly be observed more emphasized by urban rural divide. The situation of women in Pakistan presents a paradoxical picture, although there has been an increase in the female literacy and workforce participation rate (Malik, 2020). Amidst this painting of progress there remains the dark stain of patriarchy which is deep seated in the Pakistani Culture. Women living in rural areas that lack literacy and employment opportunities are still confined to domestic chores and their rights, autonomy and independent decision making are still under the control of men (Hoque, 2020). They faced gender-based violence including domestic abuse and honour killings. Additionally, they lack inadequate socialization leading them to lag in terms of knowledge hence creating a power imbalance. Hence men gain control of the decision-making position in the household. This is a consistent problem facing many households (Khan, 2019). Therefore, women often decide about voting on the opinions of the men in the household. This weakens the independent and free participation of women in the electoral process (Bulman-Pozen, & Seifter, 2022). This leads to women undermining their own role as members of the society; hence they experience a certain disenfranchisement with regards to the electoral process. Equal importance is not given to the female vote in the Pakistani society where many women are kept aloof from politics held back by the chains of domestic burdens, societal stigmas and patriarchy (Nwe, 2022). Moreover, women face mobility issues, harassment, and discrimination in polling booths, making it difficult for them to balance their responsibilities at home and social life. These factors hinder their progress towards a more just society, highlighting the need for more efforts to ensure equal access, security, and female empowerment for all women (Davis, & Arrigo, 2021). Status of Transgenders in Pakistan The situation of Trans’ gender individuals in Pakistan however does not contain a scintilla of progress in terms of lived realities. The Trans gender community of Pakistan lives isolated in towns marked by depravity where food, health care and education are scarce (Deol, 2023). They are deprived of economic opportunities thrusting them into petty jobs where they are exploited and abused. This marginalization by the society leaves them vulnerable to crimes and sexual exploitation. Deep-rooted societal stigma continues to fuel discrimination and exclusion. The Trans community is excluded from vital societal processes inclusive of the educational and economic process which hinders their participation in the progression of society (Ali, 2018). These factors contribute to the lower involvement by the Trans community in the electoral processes. In addition to dealing with social stigmas in their day-to-day life they also have to battle discrimination at public offices facing bureaucratic hurdles. They face hurdles in acquiring identity cards, whereby they are not respected as individuals and their right to bodily autonomy and privacy is curbed due to intrusive medical examination. There are also several delays in the process and cumbersome steps that need to be followed (Galvan, & Payne, 2024). Practices vary across provinces, leading to delays and discrimination as even after this their true gender is not represented on the identity cards. Problems with regards to acquiring national identity cards have entirely excluded the Trans community from participating in the electoral process whereby they cannot cast votes without an identity card. Even though these hurdles have been somewhat resolved since 2018, the trans community faces discrimination at public offices and lacks awareness regarding their own rights. They also lack awareness regarding policies made to assist them (Ali, 2018). Most of these policies are not even implemented properly for the Trans community to be able to benefit from them. Also, that they cannot seek legal help because of discrimination by police officials. The Trans community is denied legal protection as citizens of Pakistan. These obstacles make it increasingly hard for Tran’s individuals to play an active role as members of the society leading to lower voter turnout. As they continue to battle social stigmas and social exclusion, lack of education, awareness and legal protection exacerbates the issues depriving the Trans community of their right to vote entirely. Combating deeply ingrained prejudice and giving the trans community an equal position as members of society is imperative to ensure a just system in Pakistan as their inclusion in the electoral process is highly essential (Ali, 2018). Status of people with disabilities in Pakistan People with disabilities make up a significant proportion of Pakistan’s current population estimated at around 7 million individuals. These people with their own unique challenges have their own specific requirements which are disregarded and overlooked in the context of Pakistan (Roberts, 2020). They are faced with a complex reality as the system does not cater to their needs. This translates to higher unemployment rates and limited career prospects, perpetuating economic dependence and marginalization. The education system in Pakistan is not equipped to deal with students with special needs which lead them to be deprived of important educational resources and public awareness (United Nations, 2017). People with hearing disabilities require interpreters to be present in their educational institutes to ensure that the message provided by the teachers reaches them, people with visual disabilities and immobile individuals also require special resources. Educational institutes do not fulfil these requirements leading to PWDs going into special institutes, which in many cases are farther from their home and have higher costs. This lack of resources makes education inaccessible to many individuals. Many PWDs in Pakistan stay unemployed due to their inability to find a place in the job market because it does not cater to them. There are no reforms made on an official level to provide jobs on quotas to PWDs (Khan, 2019). There is a lack of policies to promote workplace accessibility through legal enforcement, financial incentives, and employer awareness programs. Furthermore, inadequate infrastructure and accessibility features in public spaces, buildings, and transportation systems create significant hurdles for PWDs to navigate independently, limiting their mobility and participation in essential activities (Rizvi, 2020). PWDs face several difficulties in raising their voice for their needs. Public offices lack facilitators like interpreters to make communication. Public dealing officers are not trained to deal with individuals with disabilities hence often delays their tasks. This also affects the autonomy of PWDs as they need to take someone else with them to offices to facilitate them. It is very hard for them to navigate things on their own due to a lack of resources on all levels (World Health Organization, 2016). PWDs are not given due representation, they are not included in the bureaucracy or jobs at public offices. There is also a lack of PWDs in the political arena where they are hardly represented and political parties are not inclusive for them. There are no quotas to ensure that PWDs are represented in the parliament to bring necessary reforms to cater to their needs. Political parties are reluctant towards offering seats to PWDs. Moreover, in election campaigns or official speeches by important political figures including the prime minister and president of the nation there are no interpreters to enable official messages to reach people with hearing disabilities. Furthermore, social stigma and discriminatory practices remain deeply ingrained, impacting their daily lives and interactions. PWDs often face exclusion, derogatory terms, and are viewed with pity rather than as individuals with potential (Ahmed, 2018). All these factors lead to a lower voter registration by PWDs in the country. METHODOLOGY This research adopted a qualitative inquiry to explore the perceptions and experiences leading to lower voter turnout amongst three marginalized groups, i.e., women, transgenders and PWDs. Lahore – the capital city of Punjab province was selected for this particular research, which is one of the populous cities in Pakistan with diverse population. In-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted to collect rich data from participants. Adopting purposive sampling technique, a total of 30 participants were interviewed, including 10 from each category in Lahore. A sample of 10 participants from each category was considered adequate for achieving the saturation and ensuring comprehensive exploration of the research objective. Separate semi-structured interview guides were developed for each group participants, considering their diversity and nature of challenges in mind. Data was collected during the month of December 2023 to January 2024, before the general election 2024 to address research objective. Each interview concluded between 30 to 40 minutes. It is pertinent to mention here that the support of interpreter was crucially sought to conduct interviews with PWDs, particularly with deaf and dumb participants. After seeking necessary consent, interviews were recorded, and notes were taken. Each interview was transcribed and coded. Lastly, thematic analysis was performed to identify and analyse emergent themes and sub-themes within the data. Through an iterative approach, recurring patterns and meaningful insights emerged which helped to unfold the underlying meanings and generate rich descriptions of each category of participants’ experiences and perspective. Ethical Considerations This research sought ethical approval from Ethical Review Board (ref # 0506), Department of Public Health, University of the Punjab, Lahore (Pakistan). This research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards and principles of social research, including respect for persons, informed consent, beneficence, confidentiality and anonymity, in accordance with the guidelines of Declaration of Helsinki. Before starting the interviews, the participants were informed about the research purpose, scope and significance. In line with ethical research standards, informed consent was obtained from each participant. Participation was voluntarily, and each participant was informed about his/her rights to decline answering any question or to withdraw from the research at any time, without any consequences. Given the nature of the research population, special attention was paid to ensure that the research environment was respectful, non-discriminatory, inclusive and cultural-sensitive. The interviews were conducted in settings where participants felt safe, and comfortable, and accommodations were made as needed to address mobility, communication or privacy concerns. Further, participants were briefed that collected data would be kept confidential and anonymised to protect their personal information and identity. Data were stored securely and were accessible only to the researchers. Furthermore, this research was guided by ethical principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice, ensuring that participants were not exposed to harm and that their dignity and autonomy were upheld. KEY FINDINGS Participants’ Profile Following table illustrates each participants’ socio-demographic profile, interviewed for the instant research: Participants IDs Category Gender Age Currently Employed or Studying P1 Woman Female 45 Employed P2 Woman Female 47 Employed P3 Woman Female 31 Employed P4 Woman Female 36 Employed P5 Woman Female 41 Unemployed P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17 P18 P19 P20 P21 P22 P23 P24 P25 P26 P27 P28 P29 P30 Woman Woman Woman Woman Woman Transgender Transgender Transgender Transgender Transgender Transgender Transgender Transgender Transgender Transgender PWD PWD PWD PWD PWD PWD PWD PWD PWD PWD Female Female Female Female Female Trans Trans Trans Trans Trans Trans Trans Trans Trans Trans Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Female 43 27 27 28 25 32 32 32 34 36 36 41 42 44 44 26 21 24 19 22 24 20 19 24 30 Unemployed Studying Studying Studying Studying Unemployed Unemployed Unemployed Employed Unemployed Unemployed Unemployed Unemployed Unemployed Employed Employed Studying Studying Studying Studying Studying Studying Studying Studying Studying PWD=Persons with disabilities Challenges contributing to lower voter turnout Analysis informed that participants faced numerous challenges to participating in the electoral process, varying across these marginalized groups. Though the nature of these challenges is unique for each category of participants, however, this research has categorized it into primary and secondary challenges to present a comprehensive analysis. Primary Challenges Findings revealed that socio-cultural norms, and systemic barriers, including the absence of legislative cover for voter registration, inaccessibility, socioeconomic barriers, and limited access to unbiased electoral information are the major primary challenges, faced by women, transgenders, and PWDs. Particularly, patriarchal structures and deep-rooted societal norms and cultural practices limit the involvement of these marginalized groups in the electoral process, due to gender stereotypes and stigma. Discriminatory laws and regulations restrict their participation in the general elections, causing lower voter turnout. The lack of inclusive policies and support mechanisms tailored to their needs further marginalizes them from fully engaging in the electoral process. One of the transgenders participants (P11) stated, “The country lacks inclusive policies for transgenders… In the 2018 general election, we were not privileged to have identification documents as citizens of Pakistan … which excluded us from participating in the civic process like voting. Also, we are not welcomed in public places… People humiliate us and hate us, making it difficult for us to participate in the democratic system”. Further, the inaccessible infrastructure and transportation issues also prevent them, especially PWDs from reaching polling stations. As mentioned by P29 with mobility impairment, “ We don’t have support by family members to mobilize to our designated polling stations or accompany us to exercise our right to vote… the absence of ramps is common at most of the polling stations, limiting us to mobilize”. Furthermore, inadequate civic education, limited access to unbiased information and socioeconomic barriers, such as childcare responsibilities and inability to take time off from domestic workload deter these groups to participate in general elections. Secondary Challenges Coupled with primary challenges, this research identified secondary challenges, restricting these marginalized groups to cast votes. These included educational disparities and inadequate representations of women, transgenders, and PWDs in electoral bodies and decision-making positions that perpetuate their exclusion from the electoral process. Skepticism towards the electoral process, particularly related to its fairness and transparency discouraged participation. A woman (P7) explained in this regard, “I don’t have trust in our electoral process. We have seen promises broken, and our voices silenced. How can we trust a system that fails to address our concerns?” Moreover, voter suppression tactics, such as restrictive voter IDs, security threats and instances of violence during elections deter these marginalized groups from casting their votes, especially in conflicted areas. As commented by a transgender (P17), “ living in fear of violence has become our fate…until we feel safe to exercise our rights to vote without any risk… participation in elections will remain a distant dream”. In addition to this, long lines and waiting times discourage these groups to cast their votes. Following is the thick description of qualitative analysis, distinct to each category of the participants: Voter Registration Obstacles Analysis informed that complicated registration processes, including requirements for specific forms of identification or proof of residency mainly deter eligible voters from registering. Though the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) had initiated the process of online applications for a new computerized national identity card (CNIC) in November 2017, the citizens of Pakistan faced numerous challenges in voter registration due to the new system. As a woman (P8) stated, “Fulfilling voter registration requirements was like jumping through hoops, with inaccessible registration sites, and complex documentation creating unnecessary barriers to participate”. Similarly, a person with a visual impairment (P24) commented, “… multiple times tried and failed to accommodate the needs to get CNIC for voter registration… It was an uphill battle and was an attempt to silence our voices in the democratic process”. Contrarily, transgenders had no right to disclose their gender identity before the 2018 Act. The same has been expressed by P18, “Due to lack of citizenship rights here in the country, we often encountered roadblocks in the voter registration…” Voter Suppression Tactics Results revealed some voter suppression tactics, such as restrictive voter ID laws, non-availability of paper-based voters listing in a particular jurisdiction and discriminatory behaviours disproportionately impact marginalized groups from participating in the electoral process. As remarked by a transgender, “restrictive voter ID laws limit our right to vote”. Further, a woman (P3) highlighted, “my name was not updated in the voter list after marriage, so absence of paper-based voter list restricted me to cast vote…” In case of PWDs, the voter suppressions tactics are not just inconvenient, rather discriminatory, as mentioned by a participant (P28), “…lack of consideration of our accessibility needs at polling stations forces us to forgo our rights to vote altogether”. Barriers to Accessibility and Safety During the interviews, the common barrier identified by many of the participants was inaccessibility. Generally, the mobility of women, PWDs, and transgenders is challenging in Pakistan, stemming from patriarchal norms, cultural practices and safety concerns. A woman (P10) said, “Our independent mobility is often restricted by cultural conventions . I am not allowed by family to leave home unaccompanied” . Another respondent with vision impairment (P9) narrated, “…can’t leave my home alone for a public place… My brother usually doesn’t take me along to cast my vote due to safety issues” . Some of the respondents also highlighted the lack of transportation as a major issue for these groups to exercise their voting rights, as expressed by a woman, “there is no public transport on election day being holiday…” Transgenders reported fear of harassment and humiliation in public places, leading to self-imposed constraints. As stated by a respondent (P18), “humiliating remarks not only impede our ability to freely mobilize in society but also perpetuate our social exclusion”. The findings informed how derogatory comments contribute to stigma and Tran’s phobia, driving isolation and marginalization. Additionally, the restrictions on women’s movement extend beyond physical mobility and safety concerns to encompass societal barriers and cultural norms. Harassment and assault in public areas create a pervasive atmosphere of fear and insecurity, leading women to impose self-limitations on their mobility. In this regard, a woman (P4) reported, “When I was young and unmarried, my father and brothers had never taken me along to cast my votes and considered the polling station an unsafe place for me, crowded with people. Now my husband has the same reservations and asks me to stay at home… Now I lost interest in the electoral process myself”. Lack of Infrastructure Results indicated that the lack of infrastructure and facilitations including limited public transportation, and an absence of wheelchair ramps at polling stations disproportionately affected women, PWDs, and transgenders’ voter turnout. One of the PWDs (P28) remarked, “public venues, including polling stations, lack proper accessibility features for people like us… such as wheelchairs, ramps, handrails or mobility aids to enter… inadequate infrastructure facilities are key challenges which we face”. Another PWD (P30) commented, “crowded polling stations pose challenges for us with mobility issues to navigate and access the voting booth”. Further, a person using a wheelchair (P29) quoted, “with my wheelchair… I often require assistance from others to approach polling stations… which is not possible in most of the cases”. In addition to the above, PWDs also informed about the lack of trained staff at polling stations to assist PWDs, as mentioned by an individual (P24), “polling agents are not trained enough to assist disabled persons, especially with hearing and visual impairment, resulting in delays and difficulties in casting their votes”. This statement informed that polling agents are not aware of the policies designed to assist PWDs, leading to social exclusion. Findings also revealed that registered voters with disabilities may experience uncertainty and discouragement during the voting process, as voter guides in accessible formats, such as Braille or large print are scarce. Visually impaired people thus are unable to make informed decisions, due to this discriminatory practice. Additionally, voting places without sign language interpreters present difficulties for those who are hard of hearing or deaf, impeding their ability to fully participate in the electoral process. Long line and Wait time Lengthy waiting times at polling stations, particularly in densely populated areas or during peak voting hours discourage voters from casting their ballots. The problem is exacerbated by insufficient staffing and inadequate resources. A woman (P3) in this regard stated, “long lines at polling stations burden us, especially juggling work and family responsibilities. When hours of waiting are added to our already hectic schedules, it restricts us to exercise our fundamental right to vote”. Similarly, a PWD (P24) commented, “the prolonged wait times at polling booths cause inconvenience… insufficient staffing and waiting areas increase our difficulty to vote in a timely and dignified manner”. Although the government has provided the measure that PWD need to be accommodated by requiring the polling agents to take their vote separately as soon as they arrive and on the ground floor of the building where voting is taking place. This measure is not in place due to the lack of poling agents that are aware of it a visually impaired PWD (P25) commented, “When I first went to vote I did not know about this measure and had to vote a long time whereby people pushed me to get ahead in line and I was in utter confusion due to my inability to understand instructions. When I got to know about this, I would ask the polling agents myself to accommodate me in this manner, but they would often be skeptical of it being true and took a lot of convincing”. These long waits are discouraging for these individuals and even have health consequences from being pushed around and waiting too long. Women’s Dual Responsibility Analysis informed that the recent era brought about both women’s progress in career development and challenges in Pakistan. Since the patriarchal norms persist, hence women are expected to perform their traditional household responsibilities alongside their professional duties. This ‘double-shift’ phenomenon results in longer workdays, heightened stress, and limited personal time, hindering women’s participation in social activities. The same has been reported by P1, “We don’t find time to engage in the electoral process and even in the social gathering during the election campaign, due to double burden of both the household chores and jobs ”. This finding revealed that women’s 24/7 work routine pushes them into a spiral of trouble, leading to a sense of disconnection from society at large and the general elections in particular. A working respondent (P2) further commented about the difficulty of staying informed about contesting candidates and their election campaigns, while balancing domestic and work-life responsibilities, “How can I come to know about the contesting candidates for national and provincial assembly seats and their election campaigns, when I’m working for 7-8 long shifts at my workplace? How do I even get time to watch the news on TV… when at home as I have to cook for my family and tend to my domestic responsibilities, soon after returning to home? My tough routine has disconnected me from society” . These findings showed that the non-engagement of women often results in a lack of their decision-making autonomy, leading to their under-representation in general elections. In this regard, a respondent (P4) explained, “I don't get time to observe election events or discuss it… my kids and husband are my sources of information, so I support their opinions for voting but in fact I am not aware of the process and uninterested to vote”. Some of the underprivileged domestic working women also highlighted their inability to find time on Election Day due to domestic labour duties and financial constraints. It is evident from a statement of a woman (P1), who said, “I don't have time to go to the polling station as my owner (baji) doesn’t permit me to take off even on public holidays…” Another woman (P2) elaborated, “Earning is more important for me to feed my family rather than waste time to vote when we know that the politicians won’t even support us in any way...” Moreover, the women who are not employed also encounter challenges in finding time to vote, due to childcare responsibilities. As expressed by one respondent (P5), “the responsibility of caring for my young children leaves me insufficient time to participate in the voting process” Summing up, it may infer that the women generally face difficulty to balance their family responsibilities with civic duties like voting. Factors such as demanding employment duties, financial constraints, lack of information about the voting process, limited childcare options, and fixed voting hours further aggravate the women, especially those from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds. These complexities must be recognized and addressed to ensure equitable participation for all women, regardless of their childcare obligations. Balancing Trust and Information Results found that the electoral process in Pakistan lacks inclusivity, particularly for transgenders and differently able individuals, leading to confusion and reliance on inaccurate information. Deprived of independent access to information, often rely on other sources of information, compromising their voting decisions. As stated by a deaf respondent (P20), “We don't know who to ask for information from. We do not have access to information independently, so we have to listen to friends or family… and even when we make our own decision, they give us wrong facts and often exploit our vote”. Many Pakistani residents with impairments struggle to navigate the electoral system due to a lack of assistive devices and insufficient training for election officials. This exclusion denies individuals their rights in the democratic process. Limited resources further worsen the situation for such individuals and increase vulnerability to misinformation and manipulation, resulting in loss of votes and further disenchantment. A participant (P23) narrated “Firstly when I started participating in the electoral process, I used to ask my friends for candidates’ symbols, I wished to vote for… however, they misguided me, so I preferred not to vote for the people they liked instead”. Another female respondent with a physical disability (P30) commented, “when we don't even know ourselves who is right and wrong? then why do we listen to others and waste our vote?”. This statement highlighted the critical need for impartial information for PWDs, enabling them to make informed voting decisions. Analysis revealed that most of the PWDs have been at least once manipulated into casting the vote for the wrong candidates. This theft of fundamental rights and inaccessibility to relevant information often discourages PWDs from participating in the electoral process altogether. It is imperative to address these challenges through easily accessible infrastructure, assistive technologies, and comprehensive training for election officials to ensure an inclusive and representative electoral process in Pakistan. Lack of Legislative Cover Qualitative interviews revealed that transgenders in Pakistan have had a difficult time acquiring computerized national identity cards (CNICs), essential for exercising basic citizenship rights and engaging in public life. Historically, they were excluded and denied rights, as CNICs only offered "male" and "female" options before 2018. The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2018 acknowledged the self-declaration of gender identity on CNICs and provided them with legal cover. Despite this act, social prejudices and bureaucratic hurdles hinder equitable implementation. Although the Supreme Court has reiterated their entitlement to CNICs in recent rulings, persistent obstacles impede the full realization of this fundamental right and equitable participation in the political process. As highlighted by a Trans individual (P12), “No ID card, so no vote” … This statement indicates that denial of identity directly excludes transgenders from the electoral process, posing a significant barrier to their fundamental rights and social inclusion in the country. Absence of a Conducive Environment On the whole, the social exclusion faced by women, PWDs, and transgenders in the country intensifies their economic vulnerability and social marginalization, perpetuating a cycle of exclusion from mainstream society. This exclusion extends to bureaucratic settings, where transgenders and PWDs encounter disrespect and ignorance, leading to significant delays in addressing their issues. As expressed by a transgender (P13), “I took support from an organization to get my ID card, as whenever I visited the NADRA office in the past, the concerned authorities and staff were not aware how to deal with me… so they kept me waiting outside for hours and hours… During these waiting hours, the staff asked me uncomfortable and humiliating questions about my sexuality and my choice of profession as a dancer and sex worker, making this process painful for me …” Another respondent (P15) further added, “when we hear stories of harassment and disrespectful behaviours by public officers to our community, these discourage us…”. Analysis found that lack of conducive environment perpetuates a sense of worthlessness and futility among socially marginalized groups to participating in societal processes like voting or obtaining CNICs, as they perceive little acceptance or acknowledgement of their rights and identities. Limited Decision-making Autonomy Limited decision-making autonomy is evident from analysis across these three marginalized groups, contributing to their disenfranchisement. For instance, gender norms and patriarchal structures limit women’ autonomy in decision-making, including voting. As stated by a respondent (P4), “Family pressures and societal expectations often compel us to support contestants chosen by male members of the family, undermining our ability to make independent choices”. In the patriarchal society of Pakistan, generally, women are not involved in the critical decision-making process, pushing them into a spiral where they always remain dependent on others’ views or directives regarding whom to vote for. In village settings with feudal setups, feudal lords made decisions for all men and women, including their voting rights, which all were expected to oblige. Since women are not facilitated in the electoral process their autonomy is undermined. PWDs often face challenges in accessing political information due to the absence of interpreters in political campaigns and official speeches. A respondent (P21) commented, “Lack of resources limits our thirst for knowledge… because of our educational institutes with qualified interpreters, now we too have access to the requisite information… people who still don't have access to the personal interpreters’ face difficulty to make informed decisions and forced to comply to others’ decisions . ” Similarly, marginalization and exclusion from mainstream society limit transgender individuals’ access to political information and representation. Due to a lack of resources and representation, transgenders usually rely on community opinions for decision-making. As one of the transgenders (P19) remarked, “I don’t have interest in politics, due to our lower representation in electoral process… whatever perception I have about political leaders is based on my self-gathered research”. Disinterest is exacerbated by the lack of transgenders representation in political parties and governmental organizations. Another transgender individual (P17) said, “We rarely are the focus of election campaigns or political parties’ manifestos… our political and economic marginalization impede us to decide on vote casting”. Lack of Awareness and Socialization The lack of awareness and socialization is a fundamental barrier leading to lower registration among women, PWDs, and transgenders. Particularly women are often excluded from political discussions within their families and communities, contributing to their apolitical attitudes. A respondent (P8) stated, “Growing up, I was never included in political discussions within my family. It wasn’t until after I got married that I realized I had the right to vote… My lack of awareness about politics is a reflection of gendered divisions of roles within my household, where men engaged in political debates while women were left out…” Transgenders and PWDs also face similar challenges due to limited socialization and access to education, which hinders their understanding of politics and voter registration processes. Discrimination, and social exclusion further isolate these groups from participating in electoral process, perpetuating their marginalization. It is evident from a statement by transgender (P16), who said, “Being transgender, I’ve always felt excluded from mainstream society. Without access to proper education and socialization, I and my transgenders community had a limited understanding of politics and our voting rights…”. Likewise, a PWD with hearing impairment remarked, “Communication barriers and social exclusion have isolated me from important discussions about civic rights and responsibilities. My disability often led my family to believe that participation in politics was too complicated for me… without proper education and support, many disabled persons like me remain unable to exercise their voting rights”. Political Disengagement and Apathy Findings also showed that women, transgenders, and PWDs experience political disenfranchisement. Widespread disillusionment with the political process, driven by the perception of corruption, kinship, lack of meaningful representation, and partisan gridlock causes voter apathy. Most of the participants felt that their votes did not make any difference, as one participant (P8) stated, “Our electoral system is inherently flawed with kinship dominating the political landscape. Same families continue to hold power, perpetuating a cycle of nepotism and exclusion for marginalized groups”. Regarding political disenfranchisement, a woman (P9) highlighted, “As a woman, I often feel marginalized and excluded from the political process, as voices of women like me are ignored leading to a sense of powerlessness amongst us… Also, it is disheartening to see the same families holding power and ruling time and again”. PWDs also feel excluded from political processes due to the lack of inclusive measures and representation in political agendas. They often encounter difficulties accessing political rallies and engaging with political leaders, who fail to prioritize their issues. One of the PWDs (P25) said, “Our voices are silenced as the disabled community is overlooked at large in political agendas… Due to a lack of meaningful representation, political parties have failed to prioritize our rights and concerns…Also, exploitation of the voting system demotivates us to participate in elections” Similarly, transgenders find themselves underrepresented in the political sphere, with little to no political representation and exclusion from party manifestos addressing their rights and concerns. As commented by a transgender (P22), “Political disengagement is a harsh reality for many transgenders like myself… when our civic rights are continuously disregarded, so no wonder that our voter turnout will remain low” DISCUSSION In the present study, we were interested in understanding the experience of women, transgenders and PWDs regarding the voter turnout process and the obstacles they encountered hindering their participation in the electoral process. During the interviews, we thoroughly examined the participants' voting experiences, including their first interactions with the procedure and the elements that influenced their comprehension and participation. Our analysis delved deep into the multi-layered challenges that they faced such as institutional impediments, gendered norms, familial expectations, and political disenfranchisement hence shedding light on the intricate web of factors that influences each voter’s unique voting experience. We also evaluated the social behaviours that influence them, through their lens as they talked about their experiences. Moreover, during our interviews, we carefully investigated the interactions between many society sectors, such as governments, families, and community norms, to reveal how their combined impact affects how inclusive and accessible the election process is for transgender women and individuals with disabilities while participating in elections. We also examined the enabling factors present in society that aided these individuals in terms of family support or information provision roles. Conclusively, the participants were also asked for their awareness regarding available policy measures and what changes they wished to bring to the system in order to make the voting process more inclusive to them. Pakistani women exhibit significantly lower voter turnout despite comprising nearly half of the population. This discrepancy stems from a multitude of factors encompassing social, cultural, logistical, and political realms (Hussain, 2021 ). Deep-rooted patriarchy confines women to domestic spheres, impeding their involvement in public life like voting. Limited awareness of rights and procedures, along with societal pressures and fear of harassment, further deter participation. Logistical challenges such as inaccessible polling stations, and travel restrictions, coupled with inconsistent identification requirements serve as additional barriers. Political underrepresentation of women and prevalent apathy also contribute to their disengagement from the electoral process. Economic reliance on male family members and lower literacy rates among women indirectly hinder their ability to make independent choices and fully grasp the electoral process (Malik, 2020 ). Transgender individuals in Pakistan face systemic discrimination across various sectors, particularly in education. They are often marginalized to hujras (small communal places), where economic struggle, lack of educational opportunities, and social exclusion prevail. Society restricts them to stereotypical roles, diminishing their significance in politics. Social stigmas and predefined societal roles hinder their engagement in social discourse and aware raising efforts (Noor, 2024). Legislative barriers, such as difficulty in obtaining identity cards and voter registration, further disenfranchise them. The economic marginalization and social exclusion contribute to illiteracy and hinders their active participants in society. Furthermore, they face harassment and discouragement making their access to the polling stations challenging, as societal prejudice and threat to their security persist. Similar to women and transgenders, the people with disabilities also face several obstacles, primarily stemming from societal exclusion and underestimation of their capabilities. Limited awareness of their issues, coupled with educational disparities and lack of tailored support hinders their ability to participate in discussions and make independent decisions (Kates et al, 2018 ). Furthermore, inadequate facilitation in understanding the electoral process and mobility barriers at polling booths exacerbate their challenges, contributing to their overall lack of representation and societal integration. CONCLUSION In conclusion, this research emphasized the critical barriers that women, transgender individuals and people with disabilities encounter in the electoral process in Pakistan. Despite their substantial presence in the population, these groups face systemic challenges that impede their meaningful participation in democracy. The findings highlight an urgent need for targeted interventions including legal reforms, societal awareness initiatives and technological advancements to enhance electoral inclusivity. By addressing these obstacles, policymakers can foster an environment that not only encourages voter registration and participation but also strengthens the overall democratic fabric of the nation. This research proposes several recommendations to enhance electoral inclusion for women, transgenders and people with disabilities in Pakistan. Firstly, in collaboration with community organizations nationwide awareness campaigns are essential to educate the public about the rights of underrepresented groups and the importance of voting. Accessibility improvement at polling stations is crucial, ensuring they are physically accommodating for individuals with disabilities and providing voting material in various formats, such as braille and audio. Furthermore, the development of user-friendly online voter registration platforms can facilitate easier process, alongside exploring mobile voting options and electronic machines designed with accessibility features. Training sessions for election officials on inclusivity will help address the specific challenges faced by marginalized groups, while empowering community leaders to advocate for their rights can further facilitate participation. Lastly, encouraging on-going research and data collection will allow for a better understanding of the barriers to voter registration and turnout, enabling the identification of areas for improvement. There is also a dire need to introduce rehabilitation approaches that integrate inclusive policy design and sustained voter outreach efforts can contribute to long-term empowerment of vulnerable communities and ensure the electoral process reflects the diverse needs of all citizens. These recommendations will serve as a roadmap for enhancing the electoral process and ensuring that all voices are represented in the democratic discourse. Declarations Funding The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Declaration of conflicting interest The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Data availability statement The data that supports the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, [SK], upon reasonable request. Ethical declaration This research sought ethical approval from Ethical Review Board (ref # 0506), Department of Public Health, University of the Punjab, Lahore (Pakistan). Consent to participate Informed written consent was obtained for participation in the research. Consent for publication Consent was obtained from the study participants for publication of the research. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank all the research participants for their assistance for this research. Disclosure Statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Authors’ Contributions SI conceptualized the research, led the research design and coordinated data collection. RZ contributed to the development of the interview protocol and assisted in data analysis. NN conducted interviews and supported transcription and thematic coding. AN contributed to literature review and drafting the background section. MF reviewed and edited the results and discussion sections critically for intellectual content. SAK provided overall supervision, ensured methodological rigor and contributed to final manuscript revision. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. References Ahmed, S. (2018). Challenges faced by persons with disabilities in Pakistan. Journal of Disability Studies, 10(2), 145-162. Ali, S. (2018). Transgender social exclusion in Pakistan. Journal of Gender Studies, 22(4), 455-468. Anthony, G. M. N., & Arslan, M. (2020). Effectiveness of local government systems, pro-poor budgeting, and policies for marginalized communities. Augan, M., & Alipbayev, A. (2023). Issues of competitiveness of the transport and logistics system of Kazakhstan. KazNU Bulletin. 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Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, 29(2), 232-244. Sarvesh, T. (2024). Impact of protracted conflict on women in Kashmir: Tracking multidimensional exclusions within social and political institutions. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 12(1), 45-65. Sellers, M. D. (2018). Absent inclusion policies: Problems facing homeless transgender youth. Public Integrity, 20(6), 625-639. Stern, E., van Der Heijden, I., & Dunkle, K. (2020). How people with disabilities experience programs to prevent intimate partner violence across four countries. Evaluation and Program Planning, 79, 101770. Trust for Democratic Education and Accountability (TDEA). (2023, January 11). Challenges to political and electoral participation of women. Free and Fair Election Network. https://fafen.org/women-as-voters/ Zubair, M. (2021). Causes of low women political participation: A case study of Dhurnal, Dholar (Chakwal) and Laliani (Sargodha). Pakistan Review of Social Sciences (PRSS), 2(1), 37-69. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7110944","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":497232421,"identity":"f750e1f3-d93d-47ba-bdc6-be9fb0f2392f","order_by":0,"name":"Sarosh Iqbal","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Forman Christian College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sarosh","middleName":"","lastName":"Iqbal","suffix":""},{"id":497232422,"identity":"fbeec20f-02ae-42cc-9c8a-02a859d07c37","order_by":1,"name":"Rubeena Zakar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of the Punjab","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rubeena","middleName":"","lastName":"Zakar","suffix":""},{"id":497232423,"identity":"21ad5d13-9578-4b87-bde6-cc7376a37a06","order_by":2,"name":"Naveeda Noreen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Management and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Naveeda","middleName":"","lastName":"Noreen","suffix":""},{"id":497232424,"identity":"0a186a80-c4a3-40a6-b932-3bff229d15cc","order_by":3,"name":"Asmaa Nouman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Management and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Asmaa","middleName":"","lastName":"Nouman","suffix":""},{"id":497232425,"identity":"c854d2ca-bb0d-46cf-ae5a-fd5ae30586bc","order_by":4,"name":"Manahil Farhat","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Forman Christian College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Manahil","middleName":"","lastName":"Farhat","suffix":""},{"id":497232426,"identity":"efebcddb-72b6-4d00-bd0e-c626994e9ed5","order_by":5,"name":"Shariq Ali Khan","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Federation University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shariq","middleName":"Ali","lastName":"Khan","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-13 03:38:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7110944/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7110944/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":92610532,"identity":"89c29be2-ca45-4bab-880b-cd7851554d0e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-01 16:16:45","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":832310,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7110944/v1/1224b160-a2c6-4041-8047-54ce50967e2e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"A Qualitative Inquiry of Barriers to Lower Voter Turnout among Women, Transgenders and People with Disabilities","fulltext":[{"header":"IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION ","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePersons with disabilities, women and transgenders face intersecting barriers to electoral participation, shaped by infrastructural, legal and sociocultural constraints\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAddressing institutional and physical accessibility at polling stations can promote inclusive democratic engagement and strengthen the civic agency of marginalized groups\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTargeted awareness-raising campaigns and voter education initiatives may reduce political disengagement among underserved populations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRehabilitation approaches that integrate inclusive policy design and sustained voter outreach efforts can contribute to long-term empowerment of vulnerable communities and ensure the electoral process reflects the diverse needs of all citizens\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"BACKGROUND","content":"\u003cp\u003eDemocracy is the cornerstone of Pakistan\u0026apos;s dynamic electoral landscape, supporting the principles of legitimacy, equal representation, and citizen empowerment. The Pakistan Constitution (1973)\u0026rsquo;s Chapter II outlines fundamental rights guaranteed to all citizens, including freedom of speech, assembly, and association (Khan, 2019). A democratic system empowers all individuals to hold and represent independent opinions to select their leaders and shape the course of their nation. The pursuit of a more representative democracy is central to Pakistan\u0026apos;s Constitution.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe country of Pakistan was founded on the principles of inclusion and equal representation. Though the Constitution safeguards voting rights for all segments of the population, the socio-cultural landscape often disregards them, leading to underrepresentation in vital processes (Khan, 2019). Predominately, women, transgenders, and people with disabilities (PWD) encounter several challenges in exercising their fundamental rights in a democratic system with limited electoral participation (Malik, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePakistan has a history of holding general elections to elect representatives for its national and provincial assemblies. These elections are crucial for shaping the political landscape of the country\u0026nbsp;(Ullah, et al., 2022). The historical trajectories revealed that the country has demonstrated persistent inequality and discrimination against women, transgenders, and PWDs, despite their established constitutional rights. In previous elections, the voter turnout among women and people with disabilities has varied, with percentages often below expectations (Reher, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThough, the General Election 2018 revealed approximately 52% voter turnout against 105.96 million voter registrations, however, significant disparities exist in voter turnout. Statistics informed that 46.89% of registered women voters exercised their right in contrast to 56.02% male voter turnout\u0026nbsp;(Zubair, 2021) A substantial increase in women voter turnout has been observed from the 2013 general election, however more than half of the female population had not participated in electoral process (Cascio, \u0026amp; Shenhav, 2020). Similarly, the statistics of PWDs and transgenders voter turnout and their participation in the electoral process are limited.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite comprising of substantial segment of the population, these marginalized groups encounter numerous challenges in exercising their voting rights (Parent, 2022). For instance, women face societal limitations and lack autonomy, transgenders confront legal roadblocks and social stigmas, while people with disabilities struggle with inaccessible polling stations and logistical challenges. These challenges originate from systematic marginalization, driven by societal discrimination, insufficient legal frameworks, and a lack of inclusive infrastructure, resulting in the disenfranchisement of these groups (Khan, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMore specifically, cultural norms and societal expectations often marginalized women, relegating them to domestic roles, thus limiting their engagement in public affairs. This societal structure perpetuates a lack of awareness and confidence among women regarding their voting rights, leading to lower turnout rates compared to men (Kasungu, 2023). Similarly, transgenders and PWDs suffer discrimination, stigmatization, limited accessibility to polling stations and a lack of support mechanisms that restrict them from fully engaging in the electoral process. Despite the efforts to promote inclusivity in the electoral process, the 2018 general election highlighted the persistent challenges faced by women, transgenders, and PWDs in exercising their fundamental right to vote.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven the context, a significant segment of population, including women, PWDs and transgenders exhibit disproportionately lower level of engagement in democratic electoral process. Existing literature is scarce regarding causes for lower voter registration and turnout amongst these marginalized groups within local settings. Hence, it is imperative to seek acumen into the multifaceted challenges that hinders inclusive political participation of these marginalized groups. Bridging the gap, this research explored the perceptions and experiences leading to lower voter turnout amongst women, transgenders, and PWDs. This research is aimed to generate evidence to develop targeted interventions and policy measures for enhancing voter turnout of deprived segments of society, prompting inclusivity and strengthening the democratic representation in Pakistan.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"LITERATURE REVIEW ","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite positive strides in women\u0026apos;s electoral participation, a stark reality still faces Pakistan as this number falls behind the percentage of male electoral participation. A gender gap can clearly be observed more emphasized by urban rural divide. \u0026nbsp;The situation of women in Pakistan presents a paradoxical picture, although there has been an increase in the female literacy and workforce participation rate (Malik, 2020). \u0026nbsp;Amidst this painting of progress there remains the dark stain of patriarchy which is deep seated in the Pakistani Culture. Women living in rural areas that lack literacy and employment opportunities are still confined to domestic chores and their rights, autonomy and independent decision making are still under the control of men (Hoque, 2020). They faced gender-based violence including domestic abuse and honour killings. Additionally, they lack inadequate socialization leading them to lag in terms of knowledge hence creating a power imbalance. Hence men gain control of the decision-making position in the household. This is a consistent problem facing many households (Khan, 2019). Therefore, women often decide about voting on the opinions of the men in the household. This weakens the independent and free participation of women in the electoral process (Bulman-Pozen, \u0026amp; Seifter, 2022). This leads to women undermining their own role as members of the society; hence they experience a certain disenfranchisement with regards to the electoral process. Equal importance is not given to the female vote in the Pakistani society where many women are kept aloof from politics held back by the chains of domestic burdens, societal stigmas and patriarchy\u0026nbsp;(Nwe, 2022). Moreover, women face mobility issues, harassment, and discrimination in polling booths, making it difficult for them to balance their responsibilities at home and social life. These factors hinder their progress towards a more just society, highlighting the need for more efforts to ensure equal access, security, and female empowerment for all women (Davis, \u0026amp; Arrigo, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatus of Transgenders in Pakistan\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe situation of Trans\u0026rsquo; gender individuals in Pakistan however does not contain a scintilla of progress in terms of lived realities. The Trans gender community of Pakistan lives isolated in towns marked by depravity where food, health care and education are scarce\u0026nbsp;(Deol, 2023). They are deprived of economic opportunities thrusting them into petty jobs where they are exploited and abused. This marginalization by the society leaves them vulnerable to crimes and sexual exploitation. Deep-rooted societal stigma continues to fuel discrimination and exclusion. The Trans community is excluded from vital societal processes inclusive of the educational and economic process which hinders their participation in the progression of society (Ali, 2018). These factors contribute to the lower involvement by the Trans community in the electoral processes. In addition to dealing with social stigmas in their day-to-day life they also have to battle discrimination at public offices facing bureaucratic hurdles. They face hurdles in acquiring identity cards, whereby they are not respected as individuals and their right to bodily autonomy and privacy is curbed due to intrusive medical examination. There are also several delays in the process and cumbersome steps that need to be followed (Galvan, \u0026amp; Payne, 2024). Practices vary across provinces, leading to delays and discrimination as even after this their true gender is not represented on the identity cards. Problems with regards to acquiring national identity cards have entirely excluded the Trans community from participating in the electoral process whereby they cannot cast votes without an identity card. Even though these hurdles have been somewhat resolved since 2018, the trans community faces discrimination at public offices and lacks awareness regarding their own rights. They also lack awareness regarding policies made to assist them (Ali, 2018). Most of these policies are not even implemented properly for the Trans community to be able to benefit from them. Also, that they cannot seek legal help because of discrimination by police officials. The Trans community is denied legal protection as citizens of Pakistan. These obstacles make it increasingly hard for Tran\u0026rsquo;s individuals to play an active role as members of the society leading to lower voter turnout. As they continue to battle social stigmas and social exclusion, lack of education, awareness and legal protection exacerbates the issues depriving the Trans community of their right to vote entirely. Combating deeply ingrained prejudice and giving the trans community an equal position as members of society is imperative to ensure a just system in Pakistan as their inclusion in the electoral process is highly essential (Ali, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatus of people with disabilities in Pakistan\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeople with disabilities make up a significant proportion of Pakistan\u0026rsquo;s current population estimated at around 7 million individuals. These people with their own unique challenges have their own specific requirements which are disregarded and overlooked in the context of Pakistan (Roberts, 2020). They are faced with a complex reality as the system does not cater to their needs. This translates to higher unemployment rates and limited career prospects, perpetuating economic dependence and marginalization. The education system in Pakistan is not equipped to deal with students with special needs which lead them to be deprived of important educational resources and public awareness (United Nations, 2017). People with hearing disabilities require interpreters to be present in their educational institutes to ensure that the message provided by the teachers reaches them, people with visual disabilities and immobile individuals also require special resources. Educational institutes do not fulfil these requirements leading to PWDs going into special institutes, which in many cases are farther from their home and have higher costs. This lack of resources makes education inaccessible to many individuals. Many PWDs in Pakistan stay unemployed due to their inability to find a place in the job market because it does not cater to them. There are no reforms made on an official level to provide jobs on quotas to PWDs (Khan, 2019). There is a lack of policies to promote workplace accessibility through legal enforcement, financial incentives, and employer awareness programs. Furthermore, inadequate infrastructure and accessibility features in public spaces, buildings, and transportation systems create significant hurdles for PWDs to navigate independently, limiting their mobility and participation in essential activities (Rizvi, 2020). PWDs face several difficulties in raising their voice for their needs. Public offices lack facilitators like interpreters to make communication. Public dealing officers are not trained to deal with individuals with disabilities hence often delays their tasks. This also affects the autonomy of PWDs as they need to take someone else with them to offices to facilitate them. It is very hard for them to navigate things on their own due to a lack of resources on all levels (World Health Organization, 2016). PWDs are not given due representation, they are not included in the bureaucracy or jobs at public offices. There is also a lack of PWDs in the political arena where they are hardly represented and political parties are not inclusive for them. There are no quotas to ensure that PWDs are represented in the parliament to bring necessary reforms to cater to their needs. Political parties are reluctant towards offering seats to PWDs. Moreover, in election campaigns or official speeches by important political figures including the prime minister and president of the nation there are no interpreters to enable official messages to reach people with hearing disabilities. \u0026nbsp;Furthermore, social stigma and discriminatory practices remain deeply ingrained, impacting their daily lives and interactions. PWDs often face exclusion, derogatory terms, and are viewed with pity rather than as individuals with potential (Ahmed, 2018). All these factors lead to a lower voter registration by PWDs in the country.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research adopted a qualitative inquiry to explore the perceptions and experiences leading to lower voter turnout amongst three marginalized groups, i.e., women, transgenders and PWDs. Lahore \u0026ndash; the capital city of Punjab province was selected for this particular research, which is one of the populous cities in Pakistan with diverse population. In-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted to collect rich data from participants. Adopting purposive sampling technique, a total of 30 participants were interviewed, including 10 from each category in Lahore. A sample of 10 participants from each category was considered adequate for achieving the saturation and ensuring comprehensive exploration of the research objective.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeparate semi-structured interview guides were developed for each group participants, considering their diversity and nature of challenges in mind. Data was collected during the month of December 2023 to January 2024, before the general election 2024 to address research objective. Each interview concluded between 30 to 40 minutes. It is pertinent to mention here that the support of interpreter was crucially sought to conduct interviews with PWDs, particularly with deaf and dumb participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter seeking necessary consent, interviews were recorded, and notes were taken. Each interview was transcribed and coded. Lastly, thematic analysis was performed to identify and analyse emergent themes and sub-themes within the data. Through an iterative approach, recurring patterns and meaningful insights emerged which helped to unfold the underlying meanings and generate rich descriptions of each category of participants\u0026rsquo; experiences and perspective.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research sought ethical approval from Ethical Review Board (ref # 0506), Department of Public Health, University of the Punjab, Lahore (Pakistan). This research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards and principles of social research, including respect for persons, informed consent, beneficence, confidentiality and anonymity, in accordance with the guidelines of Declaration of Helsinki. Before starting the interviews, the participants were informed about the research purpose, scope and significance. In line with ethical research standards, informed consent was obtained from each participant. Participation was voluntarily, and each participant was informed about his/her rights to decline answering any question or to withdraw from the research at any time, without any consequences.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven the nature of the research population, special attention was paid to ensure that the research environment was respectful, non-discriminatory, inclusive and cultural-sensitive. The interviews were conducted in settings where participants felt safe, and comfortable, and accommodations were made as needed to address mobility, communication or privacy concerns.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurther, participants were briefed that collected data would be kept confidential and anonymised to protect their personal information and identity. Data were stored securely and were accessible only to the researchers. Furthermore, this research was guided by ethical principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice, ensuring that participants were not exposed to harm and that their dignity and autonomy were upheld.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"KEY FINDINGS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u0026rsquo; Profile\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing table illustrates each participants\u0026rsquo; socio-demographic profile, interviewed for the instant research:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"656\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants IDs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 145px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCategory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCurrently Employed or Studying\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 145px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 145px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 145px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 145px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 145px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 145px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransgender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePWD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTrans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmployed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudying\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePWD=Persons with disabilities\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChallenges contributing to lower voter turnout\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis informed that participants faced numerous challenges to participating in the electoral process, varying across these marginalized groups. Though the nature of these challenges is unique for each category of participants, however, this research has categorized it into primary and secondary challenges to present a comprehensive analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrimary Challenges\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings revealed that socio-cultural norms, and systemic barriers, including the absence of legislative cover for voter registration, inaccessibility, socioeconomic barriers, and limited access to unbiased electoral information are the major primary challenges, faced by women, transgenders, and PWDs. Particularly, patriarchal structures and deep-rooted societal norms and cultural practices limit the involvement of these marginalized groups in the electoral process, due to gender stereotypes and stigma. Discriminatory laws and regulations restrict their participation in the general elections, causing lower voter turnout. The lack of inclusive policies and support mechanisms tailored to their needs further marginalizes them from fully engaging in the electoral process. One of the transgenders participants (P11) stated,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The country lacks inclusive policies for transgenders\u0026hellip; In the 2018 general election, we were not privileged to have identification documents as citizens of Pakistan \u0026hellip; which excluded us from participating in the civic process like voting. Also, we are not welcomed in public places\u0026hellip; People humiliate us and hate us, making it difficult for us to participate in the democratic system\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurther, the inaccessible infrastructure and transportation issues also prevent them, especially PWDs from reaching polling stations. As mentioned by P29 with mobility impairment, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWe don\u0026rsquo;t have support by family members to mobilize to our designated polling stations or accompany us to exercise our right to vote\u0026hellip; the absence of ramps is common at most of the polling stations, limiting us to mobilize\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eFurthermore, inadequate civic education, limited access to unbiased information and socioeconomic barriers, such as childcare responsibilities and inability to take time off from domestic workload deter these groups to participate in general elections.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSecondary Challenges\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoupled with primary challenges, this research identified secondary challenges, restricting these marginalized groups to cast votes. These included educational disparities and inadequate representations of women, transgenders, and PWDs in electoral bodies and decision-making positions that perpetuate their exclusion from the electoral process. Skepticism towards the electoral process, particularly related to its fairness and transparency discouraged participation. A woman (P7) explained in this regard, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I don\u0026rsquo;t have trust in our electoral process. We have seen promises broken, and our voices silenced. How can we trust a system that fails to address our concerns?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, voter suppression tactics, such as restrictive voter IDs, security threats and instances of violence during elections deter these marginalized groups from casting their votes, especially in conflicted areas. As commented by a transgender (P17), \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eliving in fear of violence has become our fate\u0026hellip;until we feel safe to exercise our rights to vote without any risk\u0026hellip; participation in elections will remain a distant dream\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eIn addition to this, long lines and waiting times discourage these groups to cast their votes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing is the thick description of qualitative analysis, distinct to each category of the participants:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVoter Registration Obstacles\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis informed that complicated registration processes, including requirements for specific forms of identification or proof of residency mainly deter eligible voters from registering. Though the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) had initiated the process of online applications for a new computerized national identity card (CNIC) in November 2017, the citizens of Pakistan faced numerous challenges in voter registration due to the new system. \u0026nbsp;As a woman (P8) stated, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Fulfilling voter registration requirements was like jumping through hoops, with inaccessible registration sites, and complex documentation creating unnecessary barriers to participate\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eSimilarly, a person with a visual impairment (P24) commented, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip; multiple times tried and failed to accommodate the needs to get CNIC for voter registration\u0026hellip; It was an uphill battle and was an attempt to silence our voices in the democratic process\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eContrarily, transgenders had no right to disclose their gender identity before the 2018 Act. The same has been expressed by P18, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Due to lack of citizenship rights here in the country, we often encountered roadblocks in the voter registration\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVoter Suppression Tactics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults revealed some voter suppression tactics, such as restrictive voter ID laws, non-availability of paper-based voters listing in a particular jurisdiction and discriminatory behaviours disproportionately impact marginalized groups from participating in the electoral process. \u0026nbsp;As remarked by a transgender, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;restrictive voter ID laws limit our right to vote\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eFurther, a woman (P3) highlighted, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;my name was not updated in the voter list after marriage, so absence of paper-based voter list restricted me to cast vote\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eIn case of PWDs, the voter suppressions tactics are not just inconvenient, rather discriminatory, as mentioned by a participant (P28), \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;lack of consideration of our accessibility needs at polling stations forces us to forgo our rights to vote altogether\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBarriers to Accessibility and Safety\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the interviews, the common barrier identified by many of the participants was inaccessibility. Generally, the mobility of women, PWDs, and transgenders is challenging in Pakistan, stemming from patriarchal norms, cultural practices and safety concerns. A woman (P10) said, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Our independent mobility is often restricted by cultural conventions\u003c/em\u003e.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;I am not allowed by family to leave home unaccompanied\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e. Another respondent with vision impairment (P9) narrated, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;can\u0026rsquo;t leave my home alone for a public place\u0026hellip; My brother usually doesn\u0026rsquo;t take me along to cast my vote due to safety issues\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e. Some of the respondents also highlighted the lack of transportation as a major issue for these groups to exercise their voting rights, as expressed by a woman, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;there is no public transport on election day being holiday\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTransgenders reported fear of harassment and humiliation in public places, leading to self-imposed constraints. As stated by a respondent (P18), \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;humiliating remarks not only impede our ability to freely mobilize in society but also perpetuate our social exclusion\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThe findings informed how derogatory comments contribute to stigma and Tran\u0026rsquo;s phobia, driving isolation and marginalization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the restrictions on women\u0026rsquo;s movement extend beyond physical mobility and safety concerns to encompass societal barriers and cultural norms. Harassment and assault in public areas create a pervasive atmosphere of fear and insecurity, leading women to impose self-limitations on their mobility. In this regard, a woman (P4) reported,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;When I was young and unmarried, my father and brothers had never taken me along to cast my votes and considered the polling station an unsafe place for me, crowded with people. Now my husband has the same reservations and asks me to stay at home\u0026hellip; Now I lost interest in the electoral process myself\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLack of Infrastructure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults indicated that the lack of infrastructure and facilitations including limited public transportation, and an absence of wheelchair ramps at polling stations disproportionately affected women, PWDs, and transgenders\u0026rsquo; voter turnout. One of the PWDs (P28) remarked, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;public venues, including polling stations, lack proper accessibility features for people like us\u0026hellip; such as wheelchairs, ramps, handrails or mobility aids to enter\u0026hellip; inadequate infrastructure facilities are key challenges which we face\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eAnother PWD (P30) commented, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;crowded polling stations pose challenges for us with mobility issues to navigate and access the voting booth\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eFurther, a person using a wheelchair (P29) quoted, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;with my wheelchair\u0026hellip; I often require assistance from others to approach polling stations\u0026hellip; which is not possible in most of the cases\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to the above, PWDs also informed about the lack of trained staff at polling stations to assist PWDs, as mentioned by an individual (P24), \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;polling agents are not trained enough to assist disabled persons, especially with hearing and visual impairment, resulting in delays and difficulties in casting their votes\u0026rdquo;. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThis statement informed that polling agents are not aware of the policies designed to assist PWDs, leading to social exclusion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings also revealed that registered voters with disabilities may experience uncertainty and discouragement during the voting process, as voter guides in accessible formats, such as Braille or large print are scarce. Visually impaired people thus are unable to make informed decisions, due to this discriminatory practice. Additionally, voting places without sign language interpreters present difficulties for those who are hard of hearing or deaf, impeding their ability to fully participate in the electoral process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLong line and Wait time\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLengthy waiting times at polling stations, particularly in densely populated areas or during peak voting hours discourage voters from casting their ballots. The problem is exacerbated by insufficient staffing and inadequate resources. A woman (P3) in this regard stated, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;long lines at polling stations burden us, especially juggling work and family responsibilities. When hours of waiting are added to our already hectic schedules, it restricts us to exercise our fundamental right to vote\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eSimilarly, a PWD (P24) commented, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;the prolonged wait times at polling booths cause inconvenience\u0026hellip; insufficient staffing and waiting areas increase our difficulty to vote in a timely and dignified manner\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eAlthough the government has provided the measure that PWD need to be accommodated by requiring the polling agents to take their vote separately as soon as they arrive and on the ground floor of the building where voting is taking place. This measure is not in place due to the lack of poling agents that are aware of it a visually impaired PWD (P25) commented, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;When I first went to vote I did not know about this measure and had to vote a long time whereby people pushed me to get ahead in line and I was in utter confusion due to my inability to understand instructions. When I got to know about this, I would ask the polling agents myself to accommodate me in this manner, but they would often be skeptical of it being true and took a lot of convincing\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThese long waits are discouraging for these individuals and even have health consequences from being pushed around and waiting too long.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWomen\u0026rsquo;s Dual Responsibility\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis informed that the recent era brought about both women\u0026rsquo;s progress in career development and challenges in Pakistan. Since the patriarchal norms persist, hence women are expected to perform their traditional household responsibilities alongside their professional duties. This \u0026lsquo;double-shift\u0026rsquo; phenomenon results in longer workdays, heightened stress, and limited personal time, hindering women\u0026rsquo;s participation in social activities. The same has been reported by P1, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We don\u0026rsquo;t find time to engage in the electoral process and even in the social gathering during the election campaign, due to double burden of both the household chores and jobs\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;. This finding revealed that women\u0026rsquo;s 24/7 work routine pushes them into a spiral of trouble, leading to a sense of disconnection from society at large and the general elections in particular.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA working respondent (P2) further commented about the difficulty of staying informed about contesting candidates and their election campaigns, while balancing domestic and work-life responsibilities,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;How can I come to know about the contesting candidates for national and provincial assembly seats and their election campaigns, when I\u0026rsquo;m working for 7-8 long shifts at my workplace? How do I even get time to watch the news on TV\u0026hellip; when at home as I have to cook for my family and tend to my domestic responsibilities, soon after returning to home? My tough routine has disconnected me from society\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings showed that the non-engagement of women often results in a lack of their decision-making autonomy, leading to their under-representation in general elections. In this regard, a respondent (P4) explained,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I don\u0026apos;t get time to observe election events or discuss it\u0026hellip; my kids and husband are my sources of information, so I support their opinions for voting but in fact I am not aware of the process and uninterested to vote\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSome of the underprivileged domestic working women also highlighted their inability to find time on Election Day due to domestic labour duties and financial constraints. It is evident from a statement of a woman (P1), who said, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I don\u0026apos;t have time to go to the polling station as my owner (baji) doesn\u0026rsquo;t permit me to take off even on public holidays\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eAnother woman (P2) elaborated,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026ldquo;Earning is more important for me to feed my family rather than waste time to vote when we know that the politicians won\u0026rsquo;t even support us in any way...\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e Moreover, the women who are not employed also encounter challenges in finding time to vote, due to childcare responsibilities. As expressed by one respondent (P5), \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;the responsibility of caring for my young children leaves me insufficient time to participate in the voting process\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSumming up, it may infer that the women generally face difficulty to balance their family responsibilities with civic duties like voting. Factors such as demanding employment duties, financial constraints, lack of information about the voting process, limited childcare options, and fixed voting hours further aggravate the women, especially those from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds. These complexities must be recognized and addressed to ensure equitable participation for all women, regardless of their childcare obligations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBalancing Trust and Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults found that the electoral process in Pakistan lacks inclusivity, particularly for transgenders and differently able individuals, leading to confusion and reliance on inaccurate information. Deprived of independent access to information, often rely on other sources of information, compromising their voting decisions. As stated by a deaf respondent (P20),\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We don\u0026apos;t know who to ask for information from. We do not have access to information independently, so we have to listen to friends or family\u0026hellip; and even when we make our own decision, they give us wrong facts and often exploit our vote\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMany Pakistani residents with impairments struggle to navigate the electoral system due to a lack of assistive devices and insufficient training for election officials. This exclusion denies individuals their rights in the democratic process. Limited resources further worsen the situation for such individuals and increase vulnerability to misinformation and manipulation, resulting in loss of votes and further disenchantment. A participant (P23) narrated \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Firstly when I started participating in the electoral process, I used to ask my friends for candidates\u0026rsquo; symbols, I wished to vote for\u0026hellip; however, they misguided me, so I preferred not to vote for the people they liked instead\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eAnother female respondent with a physical disability (P30) commented, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;when we don\u0026apos;t even know ourselves who is right and wrong? then why do we listen to others and waste our vote?\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThis statement highlighted the critical need for impartial information for PWDs, enabling them to make informed voting decisions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis revealed that most of the PWDs have been at least once manipulated into casting the vote for the wrong candidates. This theft of fundamental rights and inaccessibility to relevant information often discourages PWDs from participating in the electoral process altogether. It is imperative to address these challenges through easily accessible infrastructure, assistive technologies, and comprehensive training for election officials to ensure an inclusive and representative electoral process in Pakistan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLack of Legislative Cover\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQualitative interviews revealed that transgenders in Pakistan have had a difficult time acquiring computerized national identity cards (CNICs), essential for exercising basic citizenship rights and engaging in public life. Historically, they were excluded and denied rights, as CNICs only offered \u0026quot;male\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;female\u0026quot; options before 2018. The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2018 acknowledged the self-declaration of gender identity on CNICs and provided them with legal cover. Despite this act, social prejudices and bureaucratic hurdles hinder equitable implementation. Although the Supreme Court has reiterated their entitlement to CNICs in recent rulings, persistent obstacles impede the full realization of this fundamental right and equitable participation in the political process. As highlighted by a Trans individual (P12), \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;No ID card, so no vote\u0026rdquo; \u0026hellip;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThis statement indicates that denial of identity directly excludes transgenders from the electoral process, posing a significant barrier to their fundamental rights and social inclusion in the country.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbsence of a Conducive Environment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn the whole, the social exclusion faced by women, PWDs, and transgenders in the country intensifies their economic vulnerability and social marginalization, perpetuating a cycle of exclusion from mainstream society. This exclusion extends to bureaucratic settings, where transgenders and PWDs encounter disrespect and ignorance, leading to significant delays in addressing their issues. As expressed by a transgender (P13),\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I took support from an organization to get my ID card, as whenever I visited the NADRA office in the past, the concerned authorities and staff were not aware how to deal with me\u0026hellip; so they kept me waiting outside for hours and hours\u0026hellip; During these waiting hours, the staff asked me uncomfortable and humiliating questions about my sexuality and my choice of profession as a dancer and sex worker, making this process painful for me\u003c/em\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother respondent (P15) further added, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;when we hear stories of harassment and disrespectful behaviours by public officers to our community, these discourage us\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eAnalysis found that lack of conducive environment perpetuates a sense of worthlessness and futility among socially marginalized groups to participating in societal processes like voting or obtaining CNICs, as they perceive little acceptance or acknowledgement of their rights and identities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimited Decision-making Autonomy\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLimited decision-making autonomy is evident from analysis across these three marginalized groups, contributing to their disenfranchisement. \u0026nbsp;For instance, gender norms and patriarchal structures limit women\u0026rsquo; autonomy in decision-making, including voting. As stated by a respondent (P4), \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Family pressures and societal expectations often compel us to support contestants chosen by male members of the family, undermining our ability to make independent choices\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the patriarchal society of Pakistan, generally, women are not involved in the critical decision-making process, pushing them into a spiral where they always remain dependent on others\u0026rsquo; views or directives regarding whom to vote for. In village settings with feudal setups, feudal lords made decisions for all men and women, including their voting rights, which all were expected to oblige. Since women are not facilitated in the electoral process their autonomy is undermined.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePWDs often face challenges in accessing political information due to the absence of interpreters in political campaigns and official speeches. A respondent (P21) commented,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Lack of resources limits our thirst for knowledge\u0026hellip; because of our educational institutes with qualified interpreters, now we too have access to the requisite information\u0026hellip; people who still don\u0026apos;t have access to the personal interpreters\u0026rsquo; face difficulty to make informed decisions and forced to comply to others\u0026rsquo; decisions\u003c/em\u003e.\u003cem\u003e\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, marginalization and exclusion from mainstream society limit transgender individuals\u0026rsquo; access to political information and representation. Due to a lack of resources and representation, transgenders usually rely on community opinions for decision-making. As one of the transgenders (P19) remarked, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I don\u0026rsquo;t have interest in politics, due to our lower representation in electoral process\u0026hellip; whatever perception I have about political leaders is based on my self-gathered research\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eDisinterest is exacerbated by the lack of transgenders representation in political parties and governmental organizations. Another transgender individual (P17) said, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We rarely are the focus of election campaigns or political parties\u0026rsquo; manifestos\u0026hellip; our political and economic marginalization impede us to decide on vote casting\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLack of Awareness and Socialization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lack of awareness and socialization is a fundamental barrier leading to lower registration among women, PWDs, and transgenders. Particularly women are often excluded from political discussions within their families and communities, contributing to their apolitical attitudes. A respondent (P8) stated,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Growing up, I was never included in political discussions within my family. It wasn\u0026rsquo;t until after I got married that I realized I had the right to vote\u0026hellip; My lack of awareness about politics is a reflection of gendered divisions of roles within my household, where men engaged in political debates while women were left out\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTransgenders and PWDs also face similar challenges due to limited socialization and access to education, which hinders their understanding of politics and voter registration processes. Discrimination, and social exclusion further isolate these groups from participating in electoral process, perpetuating their marginalization. It is evident from a statement by transgender (P16), who said, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Being transgender, I\u0026rsquo;ve always felt excluded from mainstream society. Without access to proper education and socialization, I and my transgenders community had a limited understanding of politics and our voting rights\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eLikewise, a PWD with hearing impairment remarked,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Communication barriers and social exclusion have isolated me from important discussions about civic rights and responsibilities. My disability often led my family to believe that participation in politics was too complicated for me\u0026hellip; without proper education and support, many disabled persons like me remain unable to exercise their voting rights\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePolitical Disengagement and Apathy\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings also showed that women, transgenders, and PWDs experience political disenfranchisement. Widespread disillusionment with the political process, driven by the perception of corruption, kinship, lack of meaningful representation, and partisan gridlock causes voter apathy. Most of the participants felt that their votes did not make any difference, as one participant (P8) stated, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Our electoral system is inherently flawed with kinship dominating the political landscape. Same families continue to hold power, perpetuating a cycle of nepotism and exclusion for marginalized groups\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding political disenfranchisement, a woman (P9) highlighted,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;As a woman, I often feel marginalized and excluded from the political process, as voices of women like me are ignored leading to a sense of powerlessness amongst us\u0026hellip; Also, it is disheartening to see the same families holding power and ruling time and again\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePWDs also feel excluded from political processes due to the lack of inclusive measures and representation in political agendas. They often encounter difficulties accessing political rallies and engaging with political leaders, who fail to prioritize their issues. One of the PWDs (P25) said,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Our voices are silenced as the disabled community is overlooked at large in political agendas\u0026hellip; Due to a lack of meaningful representation, political parties have failed to prioritize our rights and concerns\u0026hellip;Also, exploitation of the voting system demotivates us to participate in elections\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, transgenders find themselves underrepresented in the political sphere, with little to no political representation and exclusion from party manifestos addressing their rights and concerns. As commented by a transgender (P22), \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Political disengagement is a harsh reality for many transgenders like myself\u0026hellip; when our civic rights are continuously disregarded, so no wonder that our voter turnout will remain low\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, we were interested in understanding the experience of women, transgenders and PWDs regarding the voter turnout process and the obstacles they encountered hindering their participation in the electoral process. During the interviews, we thoroughly examined the participants' voting experiences, including their first interactions with the procedure and the elements that influenced their comprehension and participation. Our analysis delved deep into the multi-layered challenges that they faced such as institutional impediments, gendered norms, familial expectations, and political disenfranchisement hence shedding light on the intricate web of factors that influences each voter\u0026rsquo;s unique voting experience. We also evaluated the social behaviours that influence them, through their lens as they talked about their experiences. Moreover, during our interviews, we carefully investigated the interactions between many society sectors, such as governments, families, and community norms, to reveal how their combined impact affects how inclusive and accessible the election process is for transgender women and individuals with disabilities while participating in elections. We also examined the enabling factors present in society that aided these individuals in terms of family support or information provision roles. Conclusively, the participants were also asked for their awareness regarding available policy measures and what changes they wished to bring to the system in order to make the voting process more inclusive to them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePakistani women exhibit significantly lower voter turnout despite comprising nearly half of the population. This discrepancy stems from a multitude of factors encompassing social, cultural, logistical, and political realms (Hussain, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Deep-rooted patriarchy confines women to domestic spheres, impeding their involvement in public life like voting. Limited awareness of rights and procedures, along with societal pressures and fear of harassment, further deter participation. Logistical challenges such as inaccessible polling stations, and travel restrictions, coupled with inconsistent identification requirements serve as additional barriers. Political underrepresentation of women and prevalent apathy also contribute to their disengagement from the electoral process. Economic reliance on male family members and lower literacy rates among women indirectly hinder their ability to make independent choices and fully grasp the electoral process (Malik, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTransgender individuals in Pakistan face systemic discrimination across various sectors, particularly in education. They are often marginalized to hujras (small communal places), where economic struggle, lack of educational opportunities, and social exclusion prevail. Society restricts them to stereotypical roles, diminishing their significance in politics. Social stigmas and predefined societal roles hinder their engagement in social discourse and aware raising efforts (Noor, 2024). Legislative barriers, such as difficulty in obtaining identity cards and voter registration, further disenfranchise them. The economic marginalization and social exclusion contribute to illiteracy and hinders their active participants in society. Furthermore, they face harassment and discouragement making their access to the polling stations challenging, as societal prejudice and threat to their security persist.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilar to women and transgenders, the people with disabilities also face several obstacles, primarily stemming from societal exclusion and underestimation of their capabilities. Limited awareness of their issues, coupled with educational disparities and lack of tailored support hinders their ability to participate in discussions and make independent decisions (Kates et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, inadequate facilitation in understanding the electoral process and mobility barriers at polling booths exacerbate their challenges, contributing to their overall lack of representation and societal integration.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, this research emphasized the critical barriers that women, transgender individuals and people with disabilities encounter in the electoral process in Pakistan. Despite their substantial presence in the population, these groups face systemic challenges that impede their meaningful participation in democracy. The findings highlight an urgent need for targeted interventions including legal reforms, societal awareness initiatives and technological advancements to enhance electoral inclusivity. By addressing these obstacles, policymakers can foster an environment that not only encourages voter registration and participation but also strengthens the overall democratic fabric of the nation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research proposes several recommendations to enhance electoral inclusion for women, transgenders and people with disabilities in Pakistan. Firstly, in collaboration with community organizations nationwide awareness campaigns are essential to educate the public about the rights of underrepresented groups and the importance of voting. Accessibility improvement at polling stations is crucial, ensuring they are physically accommodating for individuals with disabilities and providing voting material in various formats, such as braille and audio. Furthermore, the development of user-friendly online voter registration platforms can facilitate easier process, alongside exploring mobile voting options and electronic machines designed with accessibility features. Training sessions for election officials on inclusivity will help address the specific challenges faced by marginalized groups, while empowering community leaders to advocate for their rights can further facilitate participation. Lastly, encouraging on-going research and data collection will allow for a better understanding of the barriers to voter registration and turnout, enabling the identification of areas for improvement. There is also a dire need to introduce rehabilitation approaches that integrate inclusive policy design and sustained voter outreach efforts can contribute to long-term empowerment of vulnerable communities and ensure the electoral process reflects the diverse needs of all citizens. These recommendations will serve as a roadmap for enhancing the electoral process and ensuring that all voices are represented in the democratic discourse.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDeclaration of conflicting interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData availability statement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that supports the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, [SK], upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEthical declaration\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research sought ethical approval from Ethical Review Board (ref # 0506), Department of Public Health, University of the Punjab, Lahore (Pakistan).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConsent to participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed written consent was obtained for participation in the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent was obtained from the study participants for publication of the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank all the research participants for their assistance for this research.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDisclosure Statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; Contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSI conceptualized the research, led the research design and coordinated data collection. RZ contributed to the development of the interview protocol and assisted in data analysis. NN conducted interviews and supported transcription and thematic coding. AN contributed to literature review and drafting the background section. MF reviewed and edited the results and discussion sections critically for intellectual content. SAK provided overall supervision, ensured methodological rigor and contributed to final manuscript revision. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAhmed, S. (2018). Challenges faced by persons with disabilities in Pakistan. Journal of Disability Studies, 10(2), 145-162.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAli, S. (2018). Transgender social exclusion in Pakistan. Journal of Gender Studies, 22(4), 455-468.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAnthony, G. M. N., \u0026amp; Arslan, M. (2020). 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Evaluation and Program Planning, 79, 101770.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTrust for Democratic Education and Accountability (TDEA). (2023, January 11). Challenges to political and electoral participation of women. Free and Fair Election Network. https://fafen.org/women-as-voters/\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZubair, M. (2021). Causes of low women political participation: A case study of Dhurnal, Dholar (Chakwal) and Laliani (Sargodha). Pakistan Review of Social Sciences (PRSS), 2(1), 37-69.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"lower voter turnout, women, transgenders, people-with-disability, Pakistan","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7110944/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7110944/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePurpose\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research explores the reasons for lower voter registration and turnout amongst vulnerable categories, i.e., persons with physical disabilities, women, and transgenders.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaterials \u0026amp; Methods\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research adapted to a qualitative inquiry, using in-depth interviews with 30 members, including 10 from each category in Lahore (Punjab). The data was transcribed, synthesised and analysed thematically.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eResults\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed numerous challenges faced by these groups during the election administration. Particularly, it highlighted the lack of infrastructure for people with disabilities and women, and legal concern regarding the social identity of transgenders and their voter registration. It further delves into sociocultural aspects such as social stigmas for marginalized populations, lack of awareness about their electoral rights, limited autonomy, non-availability of facilitators at polling booths, lack of transportation, and mobility issues. Research suggests that these impediments not only marginalize these groups but also weaken the democratic fabric by limiting their political representation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConclusion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The research concludes with policy recommendations that highlight the need for legal changes, societal awareness campaigns, and technology improvements to promote inclusivity and improve voter turnout. This research adds to the growing body of knowledge on electoral inclusion and the empowerment of underrepresented groups in democracies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A Qualitative Inquiry of Barriers to Lower Voter Turnout among Women, Transgenders and People with Disabilities","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-08 05:54:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7110944/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e43531b8-d9f1-4069-9792-4561e5d12552","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-01T16:08:38+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-08 05:54:02","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7110944","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7110944","identity":"rs-7110944","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}