Essential oils vs. Synthetic insecticides: Evaluating field performance, profitability, and environmental impact in Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) management

Essential oils vs. Synthetic insecticides: Evaluating field performance, profitability, and environmental impact in Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) management | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Essential oils vs. Synthetic insecticides: Evaluating field performance, profitability, and environmental impact in Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) management Mahfoud Babaousmail This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6202729/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study evaluated the efficacy, environmental impact, and economic feasibility of essential oils (EOs) as biopesticides for controlling Tuta absoluta (tomato leaf miner). Laboratory bioassays were conducted to assess the larvicidal effects of four essential oils: peppermint, clove, basil, and lemongrass. Among them, peppermint EO demonstrated the highest potency (LC₅₀: 59.79 ppm, LC₉₀: 2431.24 ppm) and the fastest action (LT₅₀: 9.83 hours, LT₉₀: 22.37 hours). Given its strong larvicidal performance, peppermint EO was further evaluated under field conditions. Field trials were conducted on two tomato farms using a completely randomized design (CRD). Each site (S1 and S2) consisted of 18 plots, divided into three treatments: TEO (essential oil), TIS (synthetic pesticide), and T0 (untreated control), with five replicates per treatment. Foliar and fruit damage assessments revealed that in S1, TEO reduced foliar damage from 8.82 ± 0.91 (T0) to 4.62 ± 0.67 by the second observation and from 34.86 ± 8.54 (T0) to 21.42 ± 5.19 by the sixth observation. Fruit damage was also significantly reduced, from 38.16 ± 7.32 (T0) to 10.36 ± 2.35 in S1 and from 44.95 ± 8.84 (T0) to 12.70 ± 1.87 in S2. Economic analysis, based on profit percentage from yield, showed that TEO achieved an average profit rate of 26%, significantly higher than T0 (1%) and comparable to TIS (30%). Additionally, the Environmental Impact Quotient Field Use Rating (EIQ-FUR) was calculated to assess environmental impact. TEO demonstrated a low environmental footprint, with an FUR of 1.3 compared to 29.31 for chemical pesticides. These findings highlight the potential of peppermint EO as a safer, environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic insecticides. Further studies are needed to optimize formulation and application strategies. Agronomy Agroecology Horticulture Green pesticides Essential oil Sustainability Tomato pinworm Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction The tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is one of the most destructive pests of tomato crops, capable of causing up to 100% yield loss without effective control (Desneux et al. 2010 ). This pest also infests other solanaceous crops, such as eggplant, potato, and pepper, posing a significant threat to vegetable production globally (Samir Abd El-Rahman Salama et al. 2015 ). Native to Peru, T. absoluta was first identified in Spain in 2006 (Urbaneja et al. 2007 ) and has since spread across the Mediterranean Basin and beyond, with reports of its presence in over 100 countries (Bavithra et al. 2024 ). Chemical control remains the primary method for managing T. absoluta , but reduced effectiveness often leads to increased dosages (Pandey et al. 2023 ). Resistance to 18 active ingredients, including Avermectins, Pyrethroids, and Spinosyns, has become a significant challenge (Guedes and Picanc 2012; IRAC,2025; Siqueira et al. 2000). This resistance undermines the efficacy of chemical treatments and raises concerns about their long-term sustainability. Additionally, pheromone-based strategies have been ineffective due to the pest's parthenogenetic reproduction (Caparros Megido et al. 2012 ). In response to these challenges, plant-based preparations have emerged as promising alternatives, particularly essential oils (EOs), which target multiple life stages of the pest (Alam et al. 2017 ; Chegini and Abbasipour,2017). EOs offer potential advantages, including a reduced likelihood of resistance compared to synthetic insecticides, due to their complex chemical compositions and possible synergistic effects (Dayan et al. 2009 ; Gnankiné and Bassolé, 2017 ). Despite these advantages, transitioning essential oils from laboratory successes to effective, field-ready biopesticides remains a major challenge. Several factors complicate the practical application of EOs, including cost-effectiveness, variability in performance across diverse environmental conditions, and the need for thorough ecological impact assessments (Stevenson et al., 2020 ; Isman 2023 ). This study aims to evaluate the efficacy, environmental impact, and economic feasibility of essential oils as biopesticides for controlling T. absoluta . We hypothesize that EOs will demonstrate significant biopesticidal activity against T. absoluta , performing as well as or better than synthetic insecticides in laboratory bioassays and field trials. Additionally, we expect EOs to have a lower environmental impact, offering benefits for non-target organisms and soil health in semi-arid ecosystems. Finally, we aim to assess whether EO application is economically viable, providing a sustainable and competitive alternative for farmers. This study will offer valuable insights into the potential of EOs as an environmentally friendly and practical solution to pest management, while addressing the challenges of scaling from laboratory success to market-ready applications Material and methods The research methodology is summarized in Fig. 1 . Initially, commercial essential oils were selected based on their market availability and previous proven insecticidal activity. These oils were then tested in laboratory conditions, and the most effective one was advanced to field trials. In the field, we evaluated its insecticidal efficacy, economic feasibility, and estimated their environmental impact compared to commercial chemical insecticides. 1. Selection process To address potential scarcity and ensure sufficient quantities of essential oils for large-scale field applications, a comprehensive selection process was conducted based on the following criteria: (a) market availability and the feasibility of large-scale production for insecticidal purposes, (b) quality assurance where essential oils of unknown origin were excluded, and (c) existing studies confirming the insecticidal properties of the oils. Based on these criteria, four essential oils of the following plants were selected : (Peppermint Mentha ×piperita , Clove Syzygium aromaticum , Cymbopogon citratus , Basil Ocimum basilicum ) 2. Laboratory toxicity bioassay: Tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum cv. Salima) plants were cultivated in a greenhouse (25 ± 5°C) in plastic pots (25 cm diameter * 30 cm height) filled with loam and grown under a 16L: 8D photoperiod. The larvae (third instar) of T. absoluta were first collected in October 2022 from a private tomato farm (Al jahfa, El Oued, Algeria, 33°17'47.6"N 6°29'05.2"E). The T. absoluta colony was subsequently maintained on tomato plants in 45 × 45 × 45 cm net, 25 ± 2°C, 60–70% RH, and 16:8-h light: dark photoperiod. For the toxicity bioassays, third instar larvae were sampled from the rearing cage and placed individually on tomato leaflets, which were set on moistened filter paper in 60 mm Petri dishes. Each treatment used 25 larvae, with four concentrations of essential oils (500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 ppm) emulsified in water with Tween 80 (1:1). The larvae were treated using a hand sprayer with the essential oils, while distilled water was used as a control. To estimate LC₅₀ and LC₉₀, larval mortality was recorded at intervals within 48 hours post-treatment. LT₅₀ and LT₉₀ were determined at 5,000 ppm by recording mortality every 6 hours over a 48-hour period 3. Field experiment 3.1. Site conditions and experimental design: The experiments were conducted on two private tomato farms in El Oued, Algeria. Site 1 (S1) was located in Al Jahfa (33°17'47.6"N, 6°29'05.2"E) while Site 2 (S2) was situated in Hassani Abdelkarim (33°29'48.5"N, 6°52'52.6"E). The study took place from early September to mid-February, corresponding to the end of the crop harvesting season. The region experiences a semi-arid climate, with a mean annual temperature of 21.6°C, average annual evaporation of 65 mm, and annual precipitation ranging from 65 to 575 mm. A completely randomized design (CRD) was employed in the experiment. Each site (S1 and S2) was divided into 18 plots, consisting of three treatments with five replicates per treatment. Each plot measured 8 meters in length and 5 meters in width, containing 45 tomato plants spaced at 0.5 m intervals. To minimize treatment drift, a 1.5 m wide path with palm fences separated the plots. 3.2. Trial set up: The study was carried out on tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L.), which is the preferred host of T. absoluta . The hybrid cultivar ”Salima F1, Clause®” was selected because it is the mostly cultivated by the farmers of EL Oued region in open fields. Before planting, the field was ploughed once and treated with cow manure at the rate of 25 t per Ha. Transplanting was carried out using 30 days old seedlings and the plots were mulched with Polyethylene black plastic film. Apart from insecticide application which varied according to the studied treatments, other practices like irrigation, weeding, fertilizer, and fungicide application were carried out uniformly in all plots. The trials relied on natural infestation by T. absoluta (Sohrabi et al. 2017) due to its abundance in the area of study. 3.3. Treatments application: The treatments were : Essential oil of peppermint Mentha × piperita , Chemical insecticides and control. The dosages and intervals of treatments are shown in Table 1 . The treatments began ten days after transplanting, with 10 applications for the chemical insecticides. In contrast, the essential oil was limited to four applications to stay within a reasonable budget. Treatments were applied during the evening hours, slightly before sunset, to avoid the harmful effects of sunlight, using a 16L back sprayer. Continuous agitation was done during treatment application to prevent precipitation. 3.4. Foliar and fruit damage evaluation Leaf damage was assessed as the percentage of leaves mined by Tuta absoluta. Data were collected from five plants located at the center of each plot, and averages per plant were computed. Observations started two weeks after transplanting and were conducted biweekly, totaling six observations. In parallel, fruit damage was evaluated by assessing the percentage of non-marketable tomatoes affected by Tuta absoluta . This was calculated by weighing the damaged fruit and dividing it by the total harvested weight from each plot. A total of four harvests were performed. 3.5. Economic feasibility evaluation To compare the profitability of different treatments, the profit percentage based on revenue is calculated utilizing the following formula: Profit percentage = (Profit / Revenue) × 100 where profit is determined as the difference between total revenue and total production cost. Revenue represents the total income generated from the sale of harvested tomatoes under each treatment, while total production cost encompasses all expenses such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, labor, irrigation, and transportation. By applying this calculation to different treatment groups, we can assess their economic efficiency and determine which treatment yields the highest profit margin. 3.6. Environmental impact All the pesticides used during the experiment were evaluated for their environmental impact using the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) model, developed by Kovach et al. ( 1992 ). This model offers a standardized method to assess the environmental effects of pesticides by considering their toxicity to consumers, pickers, terrestrial and aquatic organisms, and overall ecological components. The EIQ values for various pesticides are available through the New York State Integrated Pest Management ( https://cals.cornell.edu/new-york-state-integrated-pest-management/risk-assessment/eiq/eiq-pesticide-values . The EIQ values of the active ingredients were further evaluated under field conditions using the EIQ Field Use Rating (EIQ-FUR or field EIQ), which takes into account the percentage of active ingredient, application frequency, and the pesticide application rate. EIQ Field Use Rating (EIQ FUR) = EIQ x % Active Ingredient x Rate Peppermint oil is generally regarded as safe for humans at low concentrations (Nair, 2001 )., and it is commonly used in food, cosmetics, and natural medicine. However, peppermint oil exhibits both repellent and toxic effects on non-target organisms such as bees and parasitoids. Since the EIQ model was originally developed for synthetic pesticides, and published EIQ values for peppermint oil are missing, we have used the EIQ of tea oil (EIQ = 26) as a proxy (Cornell University, 2025). This approach is justified by the similar overall environmental impact of both oils, as indicated in comparative studies (Shetta et al. 2019 ; Paichitrojjana and Chalermchai 2023 ). Both peppermint oil and tea oil exhibit low environmental persistence but pose potential risks to non-target organisms. We recognize that this proxy has limitations. However, it provides a reasonable basis for comparative analysis within the EIQ framework. 4. Statistical analyses The toxicity bioassay data were subjected to log and probit analysis (LDP) according to Finney ( 1952 ) to determine the lethal concentrations (LC 50 and LC 90 ) and lethal times (LT 50 and LT 90 ) of the essential oils against third instar larvae. Mortality data were corrected using Abbott’s formula (1925) if control mortality occurred, and probit transformation was applied to linearize the dose-response relationship. A probit regression model was fitted to the data, with log concentrations as the independent variable and probit mortality as the dependent variable. The model's goodness-of-fit was assessed using the chi-square test, and lethal concentrations (LC 50 and LC 90 ) with their 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Similarly, time-mortality data were analyzed to estimate LT 50 and LT 90 values. Abbot’s formula: $$\:Corrected\:Mortality\:\left(\%\right)=\frac{Observed\:Mortality\:\left(\%\right)-Control\:Mortality\:\left(\%\right)}{100\:-Control\:Mortality\:\left(\%\right)}\times\:100$$ For the field experiment results, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate the impact of the treatments (T0, TIS and TEO) on the studied variables. When ANOVA indicated significant differences among treatments (p < 0.05), Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test was used as a post-hoc analysis to compare and separate the means of statistically different treatments. All statistical analyses were performed using the R statistical software (version 4.4.2, R Core Team, 2024). Results 1. Laboratory toxicity bioassay The graph in Fig. 2 displays the mortality rates of 20 insects exposed to four treatments peppermint (PM), lemongrass (LG), basil (BS), and clove (CL) essential oils across concentrations from 0 to 10000 PPM. The control treatment 0 PPM resulted in minimal mortality with only one dead insect. By 500 PPM, PM caused 75% mortality (15 dead insects), while LG remained ineffective (1 dead insect), and BS and CL showed intermediate responses with 30% (6 dead insects) and 40% (8 dead insects) mortality, respectively. At 1000 PPM, PM achieved 95% mortality (19 dead insects), and BS and CL reached 70% (14 dead insects) and 80% (16 dead insects) mortality, respectively. By 5000 PPM, PM and BS approached 100% mortality (20 and 18 dead insects), and CL achieved 90% mortality (18 dead insects). At 10,000 PPM, all treatments except LG achieved complete mortality (20 dead insects), with LG reaching 90% mortality (18 dead insects). The results of the larvicidal toxicity bioassay shown in Table 1 reveals the distinct toxicity profiles among the tested oils. Peppermint oil emerges as the most potent with the lowest LC 50 and LC 90 values 59.79 ppm and 2431.24 ppm, respectively, indicating its remarkable toxicity at low concentrations. Clove oil ranked second in toxicity with an LC 50 of 627.13 ppm and LC 90 of 5805.95 ppm, followed by Basil oil (LC 50 : 938.57 ppm, LC 90 : 6046.86 ppm), which exhibited moderate toxicity. Lemon Grass oil showed the lowest toxicity, requiring significantly higher concentrations (LC 50 : 3231.98 ppm, LC 90 : 11131.66 ppm) to achieve similar effects. The dose-response analysis revealed variability in slope values, with Lemon Grass (slope: 2.40) showing the steepest response and Peppermint (slope: 0.78) the least. Chi-square values (< 1 for all oils) indicated a good fit for the dose-response models. The time-dependent toxicity of the four essential oils was assessed through LT 50 and LT 90 values (Table 2 ). Peppermint oil demonstrated the highest efficacy, with the shortest LT 50 (9.83 hours) and LT 90 (22.37 hours), indicating its rapid action. Clove oil ranked second with LT50 and LT90 values of 28.34 hours and 104.06 hours, respectively, followed by Basil (LT 50 : 23.86 hours, LT 90 : 143.52 hours) and Lemon Grass (LT 50 : 134.36 hours, LT 90 : 570.82 hours). These differences highlight the varied lethality rates among the oils. Table 1 Toxicity comparison between essential oils expressed by LC 50 and LC 90 after 48 Hours. LC50 Lower Upper LC90 Lower Upper Slope SE Chi square Peppermint 59.79 12.79 279.60 2431.24 519.89 11369.61 0.78 0.34 0.98 Lemon grass 3231.98 1981.20 5272.41 11131.66 6823.70 18159.34 2.40 0.11 0.45 Basil 938.57 484.96 1816.47 6046.86 3124.43 11702.80 1.59 0.15 0.74 Clove 627.13 284.77 1381.11 5805.95 2636.36 12786.19 1.33 0.17 0.78 Table 2 Toxicity comparison between essential oils expressed by LT 50 and LT 90 at the concentration 5000 ppm. LT50 Lower Upper LT90 Lower Upper Slope SE Chi square Peppermint 9.83 7.61 12.71 22.37 17.31 28.91 3.68 0.06 0.56 Lemon grass 134.36 84.32 214.10 570.82 358.23 909.58 2.10 0.10 0.91 Basil 23.86 16.16 35.23 143.52 97.21 211.89 1.69 0.09 0.96 Clove 28.34 21.39 37.56 104.06 78.53 137.90 2.44 0.06 0.87 Slope values, which reflect the steepness of the time-response curves, ranged from 1.69 (Basil) to 3.68 (Peppermint), with higher slopes indicating faster mortality. Peppermint had the steepest slope, confirming its fast-acting nature, while Lemon Grass, with the shallowest slope (2.10), demonstrated slower action over time. Chi-square values (< 1 for all oils) indicated good model fit for the data. Standard errors were low across all oils, reflecting the precision of slope estimates. 2. Foliar and fruit damage of field experiment The Fig. 3 illustrates the average of leaf damage caused by the tomato leaf miner Tuta absoluta in plots under the treatments, untreated (T0), essential oil (TEO), and chemical insecticide (TIS) across two sites (S1 and S2). The evaluation shows also the progression of the damage during the experiment. In S1, significant differences among treatments became evident starting in observation 2, with ANOVA p-values < 0.0001 for all comparisons (Table 3 ). The TIS and TEO treatments significantly reduced leaf damage compared to T0, with TIS consistently showing the lowest damage. For instance, in observation 2, the mean damage for TIS was 2.94 ± 0.50, compared to 4.62 ± 0.67 for TEO and 8.82 ± 0.91 for T0. By observation 6, the differences were still pronounced (T0: 34.86 ± 8.54, TEO: 21.42 ± 5.19, TIS: 17.64 ± 3.52; p = 0.0406). The grouping analysis reinforces this trend, where TIS consistently fell into a lower damage group ("b") compared to T0 ("a"). Table 3 ANOVA results for foliar damage caused by Tuta absoluta in two experimental sites (S1 and S2). Mean damage scores (± SE) are provided for each treatment, with statistical groupings and p-values indicating significant differences. Site 1 (S1) Site 2 (S2) Observation Treatment Mean ± SE Group ANOVA p-value Mean ± SE Group ANOVA p-value O1 T0 2.66 ± 0.99 a 0.5212 2.26 ± 0.96 a 0.3446 TEO 3.88 ± 1.75 a 0.5212 2.72 ± 0.47 a 0.3446 TIS 3.92 ± 1.77 a 0.5212 4.56 ± 1.63 b 0.3446 O2 T0 8.82 ± 0.91 a 0.0001 11.24 ± 2.40 a 0.0026 TEO 4.62 ± 0.67 b 0.0001 2.84 ± 0.47 b 0.0026 TIS 2.94 ± 0.50 b 0.0001 3.46 ± 0.71 b 0.0026 O3 T0 16.10 ± 2.94 a 0.0001 13.36 ± 1.74 a 0.0111 TEO 5.46 ± 0.57 b 0.0001 7.44 ± 2.09 b 0.0111 TIS 5.04 ± 1.58 b 0.0001 4.92 ± 1.01 b 0.0111 O4 T0 21.70 ± 3.02 a 0.0001 15.16 ± 2.39 a 0.0895 TEO 12.18 ± 2.06 b 0.0001 9.36 ± 2.06 b 0.0895 TIS 9.52 ± 1.90 b 0.0001 6.76 ± 2.95 b 0.0895 O5 T0 26.04 ± 3.89 a 0.0016 29.86 ± 3.69 a 0.0646 TEO 16.24 ± 2.29 ab 0.0016 16.80 ± 4.23 b 0.0646 TIS 13.58 ± 3.47 b 0.0016 16.60 ± 4.29 b 0.0646 O6 T0 34.86 ± 8.54 a 0.0406 41.22 ± 8.53 a 0.1319 TEO 21.42 ± 5.19 ab 0.0406 25.44 ± 6.86 b 0.1319 TIS 17.64 ± 3.52 b 0.0406 21.70 ± 3.71 b 0.1319 In S2, significant differences among treatments also emerged from observation 2, with p-values ranging from 0.0026 to 0.1319. TEO and TIS both significantly reduced damage compared to T0, but their relative effectiveness varied slightly. For example, in observation 2, TEO showed better performance (2.84 ± 0.47) than TIS (3.46 ± 0.71). However, in subsequent observation s, TIS consistently outperformed TEO, particularly by observation 6, where the mean damage for TIS was 21.70 ± 3.71 compared to 25.44 ± 6.86 for TEO. In both sites, the untreated control plots showed an increase in damage over time, with T0 in observation 6 showing approximately double the damage observed in TEO and TIS. The Fig. 4 illustrates data on fruit damage caused by Tuta absoluta at two sites (S1 and S2) under three treatments: untreated control (T0), essential oil (TEO), and chemical insecticide (TIS) across four harvests assessments (Y1 toY4). In both sites, T0 consistently exhibited the highest mean yield loss, with values increasing from Y1 (S1: 23.11 ± 3.33, S2: 20.96 ± 1.76) to Y4 (S1: 38.16 ± 7.32, S2: 44.95 ± 8.84). As shown in Table 4 , statistical analysis revealed significant differences among treatments (ANOVA p-values < 0.05 in all cases). Table 4 ANOVA results for fruit damage due to Tuta absoluta in two experimental sites (S1 and S2). Mean fruit damage (± SE) is presented for each treatment, with statistical comparisons across four harvests. Site 1 (S1) Site 2 (S2) Harvest Treatment Mean ± SE Group ANOVA p-value Mean ± SE Group ANOVA p-value Y1 T0 23.11 ± 3.33 a 0.0013 20.96 ± 1.76 a 0.0021 TEO 7.77 ± 1.61 b 0.0013 14.87 ± 2.31 ab 0.0021 TIS 8.81 ± 2.37 b 0.0013 11.01 ± 2.45 b 0.0021 Y2 T0 28.29 ± 3.76 a 0.0008 25.52 ± 1.94 a 0.0001 TEO 12.77 ± 1.83 b 0.0008 9.75 ± 1.89 b 0.0001 TIS 10.13 ± 2.66 b 0.0008 7.85 ± 1.86 b 0.0001 Y3 T0 26.65 ± 2.51 a 0.0001 41.02 ± 8.87 a 0.0001 TEO 12.15 ± 2.50 b 0.0001 10.13 ± 1.33 b 0.0001 TIS 7.88 ± 1.62 b 0.0001 8.78 ± 1.53 b 0.0001 Y4 T0 38.16 ± 7.32 a 0.0002 44.95 ± 8.84 a 0.0001 TEO 10.36 ± 2.35 b 0.0002 12.70 ± 1.87 b 0.0001 TIS 9.76 ± 1.87 b 0.0002 9.73 ± 1.65 b 0.0001 In S1, both TEO and TIS significantly reduced yield loss compared to T0. For instance, in Y2, mean yield loss for TEO (12.77 ± 1.83) and TIS (10.13 ± 2.66) was substantially lower than T0 (28.29 ± 3.76, p = 0.0008). A similar trend was observed in Y4, with TEO (10.36 ± 2.35) and TIS (9.76 ± 1.87) achieving significantly lower losses than T0 (38.16 ± 7.32, p = 0.0002). In S2, TIS consistently resulted in the lowest yield loss, particularly in Y4 (9.73 ± 1.65), followed closely by TEO (12.70 ± 1.87), both of which were significantly different from T0 (44.95 ± 8.84, p = 0.0001). Notably, in early assessments (Y1 and Y2), TEO and TIS performance was comparable in both sites, but TIS showed slightly better results in later assessments. 3. Economic analysis The ANOVA results show that treatment choice significantly impacts profit (p < 0.0001), with TIS, TEO, and T0 having markedly different effects on profitability. In contrast, the site of the experience does not significantly influence profitability (p = 0.60), and there is no significant interaction between site and treatment (p = 0.47), indicating that treatment effects are consistent across both sites. The Tukey HSD post hoc test reveals that TEO and TIS consistently yield higher profitability than T0 across both Site S1 and Site S2. In both sites, TEO (p = 0.0036 in S1; p = 0.0003 in S2) and TIS (p < 0.0001 in both sites) result in significantly greater profits than T0. While TIS emerges as the most profitable option, TEO demonstrates strong and consistent performance, making it a viable and effective alternative (Fig. 5 ). The Table 5 demonstrates that across both sites, TIS was highly effective in maximizing returns on investment and generated the highest average profits: 122 q/ha of tomatoes with a profit rate of 29.69% in Site S1, and 133 q/ha with a profit rate of 31.57% in Site S2. TEO also showed promising results, generating an average profit of 89 q/ha and a profit rate of 24.58% in Site S1, and 108 q/ha with a profit rate of 28.28% in Site S2. Although not as profitable as TIS, TEO still provided a considerable improvement over the control treatment (T0), which resulted in an average profit of only 10 q/ha and a profit rate of 3.57% in Site S1, while in Site S2, it led to an average loss of 3 q/ha and a negative profit rate of -1.25%. This highlights the economic risks of not using any treatment for Tuta absoluta attack. Table 5 Profit rate analysis of pest control treatments across two sites. Revenue, costs, and profit values are presented in quintals per hectare (q/ha), with profit rates (%) calculated for each treatment. Site Treatment Revenue Costs Profit Profit Rate (%) (q/ha of tomato) S1 T0 269 259 10 3.57 TEO 361 273 89 24.58 TIS 410 288 122 29.69 S2 T0 256 259 -3 -1.25 TEO 380 273 108 28.28 TIS 421 288 133 31.57 Overall, while TIS is the most profitable treatment, TEO proves to be a highly effective and economically beneficial alternative across both sites. Its consistent performance underscores its value as a reliable option for improving profitability in tomato cultivation, particularly when compared to the risks associated with no treatment (T0). The similar trends observed in both sites further emphasize the robustness of these findings. 4. Environmental impact The Table 6 compares the environmental impact quotient (EIQ) and field use rating (FUR) of plots treated with chemical insecticides (TIS) and a peppermint essential oil treatment (TEO) applied over 140 days to manage Tuta absoluta . The chemical insecticides used include several active ingredients such as chlorantraniliprole, abamectin, spinosad, lambda-cyhalothrin, and others, with differing EIQ and FUR values. Peppermint essential oil, applied as an alternative treatment on specific days, showed consistently lower EIQ values (26) and moderate FUR (1.3), reflecting reduced environmental impact compared to most chemical pesticides. Table 6 Comparison of Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) and Field Use Rating (FUR) between chemical pesticides plots (TIS) and peppermint essential oil plots (TEO). The table presents active ingredients, concentrations, and EIQ/FUR values across different application days. Chemical synthetic pesticides (TIS) Essential oil (TEO) Days Trade name Active ingredient % Active Ingredient Concentration EIQ EIQ FUR Active ingredient % Active Ingredient Concentration EIQ EIQ FUR 10 Coragen® SC Chlorantraniliprole 20 50 ml/hl 42.00 1.44 Vapcomic® CE Abamectin 1.8 75 ml/hl 108.16 0.50 20 Coragen® SC Chlorantraniliprole 20 50 ml/hl 42.00 1.44 Peppermint 50 40 ml/hl 26 1.3 Vapcomic® CE Abamectin 1.8 75 ml/hl 108.16 0.50 35 Tracer ® Spinosad 24 60 ml/hl 68.33 3.37 Vapcomic® CE Abamectin 1.8 75 ml/hl 108.16 0.50 50 Ampligo® ZC Chlorantraniliprol 20 100 ml/hl 42.00 1.44 Peppermint 50 40 ml/hl 26 1.3 Lambda-Cyhalothrin 5 100 ml/hl 69.83 1.19 Vertimec® CE Abamectin 1.8 75 ml/hl 108.16 0.50 65 ProAct® CE Emamectin benzoate 5 200 ml/hl 64.00 2.19 Etoxa® SC Etoxazole 11 150 ml/hl 36.66 2.07 80 Axam® WP Thiamitoxam 25 50 g/hl 34.33 0.32 Vertimec® CE Abamectin 1.8 75 ml/hl 108.16 0.50 95 Coragen® SC Chlorantraniliprole 20 150 ml/hl 42.00 4.31 Peppermint 50 40 ml/hl 26 1.3 Vapcomic® CE Abamectin 1.8 75 ml/hl 108.16 0.50 110 ACEPLAN 20 SP Acetamiprid 20 20 g/hl 37.67 0.11 Etoxa® SC Etoxazole 11 150 ml/hl 36.67 2.07 125 ACEPLAN 20 SP Acetamiprid 20 20 g/hl 37.67 0.11 Peppermint 50 40 ml/hl 26 1.3 Blazo® CE Bifenthrin 10 25 ml/hl 69.50 0.59 140 Trivap® WP cyromazine 75 20 g/hl 61.83 0.68 Vapcomic® CE Abamectin 18 75 ml/hl 108.16 4.99 1441.61 29.31 ### 5.20 Among the chemical pesticides, abamectin-based products (e.g., Vapcomic® and Vertimec®) consistently displayed the highest EIQ values (108.16) across all days, indicating significant environmental risks despite their relatively low FUR values (e.g., 0.50 on day 10). In contrast, chlorantraniliprole-based products (e.g., Coragen® SC and Ampligo® ZC) exhibited moderate EIQ values (42.00) and relatively low FUR values (1.44), signifying a better balance between efficacy and environmental safety. Lambda-cyhalothrin and bifenthrin treatments had higher EIQ values (69.83 and 69.50, respectively), suggesting greater environmental impact. Overall, the total EIQ value for chemical pesticides across the treatment period was 1441.61, with a FUR of 29.31, highlighting the cumulative environmental burden of these treatments. Discussion 1. Laboratory toxicity bioassay The current study provides an evaluation of the larvicidal and time-dependent toxicity of four essential oils: Peppermint, clove, basil, and lemon grass. The results revealed clear differences in efficacy, highlighting peppermint oil as the most potent insecticidal agent, followed by clove and Basil oils, while lemon grass oil exhibited weaker toxicity Peppermint oil demonstrated the highest potency among the oils tested, with the lowest LC 50 (59.79 ppm) and LC 90 (2431.24 ppm) values, which indicates its remarkable toxicity even at low concentrations. The same trend was found in a recent study of Prasannakumar et al. ( 2023 ) that compared peppermint and clove essential oils against T. absoluta . The peppermint EO showed highest mortality (100%) of T. absoluta with LC 50 1.78 µl/ml due to alloaromadendrene (27.99%), levomenthol (18.31%) and santolina triene (9.78%). The O. basilicum EO also had significant but a lower mortality (90%) effect with LC 50 3.58 µl/ml due to humulene (32.31%), alpha farnesense (27.22%), estragole (19.24%) and 4-cerene (10.61%). Many studies have established that peppermint oil as an effective insecticide against a variety of pests, particularly lepidopteran larvae (Afiunizadeh et al. 2022 ; Altaf et al. 2024 ). The high content of menthol and menthone in peppermint oil is likely responsible for its enhanced efficacy (Kour et al. 2021; Kadoglidou et al. 2023). The steep dose-response curve (slope: 0.78) further supports the idea of its fast-acting nature, making it a strong candidate for use in pest management strategies. In contrast, lemon grass oil exhibited the lowest toxicity (LC50: 3231.98 ppm, LC90: 11131.66 ppm), which reflects its primarily repellent rather than insecticidal properties. This result is contrary to a study in which lemon grass and peppermint essential oils showed similar effects in reducing the total longevity of the mango red spider mite Oligonychus mangiferus females compared to the control group (Ahmed and Abdelwines 2024) The differential toxicity profiles of clove and basil EOs indicate moderate insecticidal activity, with clove EO being more potent than basil EO. Contrarily, literature reports suggest that these oils exhibit strong insecticidal activity in other cases. For instance, Clove oil demonstrated strong contact toxicity against the summerform adults of Cacopsylla chinensis (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), with LD₅₀ values of 0.730, 0.673, and 0.708 µg/adult. Its major constituent, eugenol (88.61%), is likely responsible for its high efficacy (Tian et al. 2015 ). Similarly, basil EO ( Ocimum basilicum ) significantly reduced Tuta absoluta oviposition behavior on tomato plants, with estragole (73.8%) identified as the main chemical compound (Yarou et al., 2018 ). Other basil species, Ocimum gratissimum and Ocimum kilimandscharicum , also exhibited strong repellent activity against Tuta absoluta (Essoung et al. 2020 ). The variability in the time-dependent toxicity of the oils, reflected in their LT 50 and LT 90 values. Peppermint oil acted the fastest (LT 50 : 9.83 hours), followed by Clove (LT 50 : 28.34 hours) and Basil (LT 50 : 23.86 hours). Lemon grass oil demonstrated the slowest action (LT 50 : 134.36 hours), which is consistent with its lower toxicity and repellent action. These differences underscore the need to consider both the speed of action and the concentration required when selecting essential oils for pest management. Laboratory bioassays highlighted the potential of essential oils, particularly peppermint, as alternatives to synthetic insecticides. The observed differences in toxicity among tested oils emphasize the importance of selecting the most effective one for field applications. Based on these results, peppermint oil was tested under field conditions to assess its efficacy. 2. Foliar and fruit damage of field experiment In the field, despite the frequency of chemical insecticide applications being more than twice that of peppermint oil treatments, both approaches demonstrated comparable effectiveness. In Site 1, TIS-treated fields exhibited a Tuta absoluta foliar damage rate of 17.64 ± 3.52% by observation 6, while TEO-treated fields recorded 21.42 ± 5.19% (p = 0.0406). In S2, TEO initially performed better (2.84 ± 0.47% vs. 3.46 ± 0.71% for TIS in observation 2), but TIS ultimately outperformed TEO by observation 6 (21.70 ± 3.71% vs. 25.44 ± 6.86%). Similarly, both treatments significantly reduced yield loss compared to untreated controls. In S1 (Y4), TIS and TEO resulted in 9.76 ± 1.87% and 10.36 ± 2.35% yield loss, respectively, while in S2 (Y4), TIS (9.73 ± 1.65%) slightly outperformed TEO (12.70 ± 1.87%). These findings align with previous research, confirming the insecticidal potential of peppermint oil in field conditions (El-Samahy et al., 2015 ; Singh and Pandey, 2018 ). The high toxicity of peppermint oil against Tuta absoluta is attributed to its rich composition of monoterpenoids, known for their neurotoxic effects on insects. These compounds act on multiple targets in the insect nervous system, including acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, positive modulation of GABA receptors, and octopamine receptor activation (Enan, 2001 ; Price 2006 ; Jankowska et al. 2017 ). Menthol and menthone, the primary bioactive components, are potent AChE inhibitors, disrupting neural function (Kennedy et al., 2018 ; Wu et al., 2023 ). Additionally, menthol may act as an octopamine receptor agonist, mimicking octopamine’s action in insect neuromodulation (Jankowska et al., 2019 ; Xing et al., 2023 ). Beyond neurotoxicity, peppermint oil induces oxidative stress, enhancing its insecticidal efficacy. Studies on Sitophilus oryzae and Tribolium castaneum show that peppermint oil increases superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity while decreasing catalase (CAT) activity, leading to heightened oxidative stress and reduced insect defense capacity (Rajkumar et al. 2019 ). This dual-action mechanism; combining oxidative stress and neurotoxicity; positions peppermint oil as a potent alternative to conventional insecticides, explaining its comparable efficacy to chemical insecticides observed in our field experiment. Unlike single-target chemical insecticides, its multifaceted mode of action lowers the risk of resistance development, reinforcing its potential for sustainable pest management. 1. Economic analysis A major challenge in transitioning botanical pesticides from research to practical use is the lack of evidence on their economic feasibility (Grzywacz et al., 2014 ; Isman, 2020 ). Our research demonstrates that essential oil (EO)-based treatments offer financial returns comparable to chemical treatments. Profitability can be further enhanced by increasing application frequency, especially since EO treatments in our study were more cost-effective than chemical options. Our findings indicate that the EO treatments were insufficient for complete Tuta absoluta control. However, increasing the frequency of applications could potentially improve plant yield beyond our observed results. While chemical treatments were applied until full recovery, EO treatments did not reach this stage, making it difficult to directly compare their production and revenue outcomes. Extending EO treatments until full recovery might further enhance production, positioning them as a more viable alternative to chemical options. The availability of commercial formulations containing peppermint oil, such as Ecotec® and Clean Green®, highlights significant opportunities for expanding peppermint EO-based solutions in the pesticide industry. In our experiment, we used EO with only emulsifiers added; however, their efficacy could potentially be improved by incorporating other co-formulants such as stickers, stabilizers, and synergists (Sarmah et al. 2014; Kordy at al. 2025). Optimizing these formulations could reduce costs while enhancing their efficacy in pest management (Lengai et al., 2020 ). Further advancements in peppermint EO formulations may improve cost-effectiveness, potentially increasing net profits beyond those observed in our current findings. 1. Environmental impact While peppermint EO is an effective biopesticide, its environmental impact must be carefully considered. Several studies have indicated that peppermint oil exhibits moderate toxicity to certain non-target organisms. The ecotoxicological profile of peppermint oil was assessed in comparison to Synthetic chemical insecticides used in this experiment such as Emamectin Benzoate, Abamectin, Bifenthrin, and Thiamethoxam, focusing on its impact on aquatic organisms ( Daphnia magna ), pollinators ( Apis mellifera ), and beneficial insects ( Aphidius rhopalosiphi ). The results highlight significant differences in toxicity levels, positioning peppermint oil as a potential safer alternative in pest management strategies. In terms of aquatic toxicity, peppermint oil demonstrated a moderate acute EC₅₀ of 2.7 mg/L for Daphnia magna . This value is significantly higher than the highly toxic synthetic insecticides bifenthrin (0.00011 mg/L) and emamectin benzoate (0.001 mg/L), indicating that peppermint oil is less hazardous to aquatic invertebrates. However, peppermint oil exhibited greater toxicity compared to thiamethoxam and cyromazine, both of which had EC₅₀ values exceeding 100 mg/L, suggesting that its use may still pose some risks to aquatic ecosystems. For honeybee toxicity, peppermint oil (menthol) showed an acute LD₅₀ of 5.67 µg/bee, which places it within the moderately toxic range. When compared to the synthetic insecticides emamectin benzoate (0.0036 µg/bee) and bifenthrin (0.016 µg/bee), which are highly toxic to honeybees, peppermint oil appears to be a safer option. However, it is slightly more toxic than chlorantraniliprole (LD₅₀ >4 µg/bee). These findings suggest that while peppermint oil poses a reduced risk to pollinators compared to certain synthetic alternatives, its potential impacts on bee populations require careful consideration in agricultural applications. Data on the effects of peppermint oil on Aphidius rhopalosiphi is currently unavailable in PPDB, preventing direct comparisons. Peppermint essential oil inhibits Drosophila suzukii emergence but reduces Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae parasitism rates (Gowton et al. 2020 ). Among the synthetic insecticides, bifenthrin and tebufenpyrad demonstrated relatively high toxicity, with LR₅₀ values of 8.415 g/ha and 7.3 g/ha, respectively. Chlorantraniliprole, by contrast, had an LR₅₀ exceeding 750 g/ha, suggesting lower toxicity to beneficial insects. The lack of data for peppermint oil highlights a gap in understanding its broader ecological impacts, particularly on non-target beneficial organisms, which necessitates further research. When it comes to the impact on human health, peppermint essential oils Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the FDA, when used in food [21 CFR 184.20]. Peppermint and peppermint oil’s major components are not classified as carcinogenic by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 2014). They are not listed as known carcinogens (Cal-EPA 1997); and do not appear on the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) Basis of OSHA Carcinogens (US EPA 2015). Moreover peppermint oil is used as a natural herbal remedy as aromatherapy agent and to heal gastic irregularities, according to Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB). Conclusion Peppermint essential oil shows strong potential as a green insecticide for managing Tuta absoluta , offering a balance between efficacy, economic feasibility, and environmental sustainability. Its lower environmental impact compared to synthetic pesticides makes it a valuable tool for sustainable agriculture. 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Ind Crops Prod 199:116801.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.116801 Yarou BB, Bawin T, Boullis A, et al (2018) Oviposition deterrent activity of basil plants and their essential oils against Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 25:29880-29888. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9795-6 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6202729","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":427210914,"identity":"32dba1ad-1d58-44b1-8cc4-8f8e2c375b43","order_by":0,"name":"Mahfoud Babaousmail","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3510-3707","institution":"University of EL Oued","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mahfoud","middleName":"","lastName":"Babaousmail","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-11 12:05:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6202729/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6202729/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":78419869,"identity":"a4abc09e-6ef4-4175-96ee-7928b2d6e64e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-13 05:32:26","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":83259,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic representation of the experimental methodology: Essential oil selection, laboratory toxicity bioassays, field experiment for efficacy, and environmental and economic assessment.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6202729/v1/148f1b085f97737c128e9861.png"},{"id":78420799,"identity":"1593c0a5-671f-487a-9c8b-28e0abb3c1b1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-13 05:40:26","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":90372,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMortality of \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e in toxicity bioassays using peppermint (PM), lemongrass (LG), basil (BS), and clove (CL) essential oils. Left: Mortality progression of 20 \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e larvae over 48 hours at 5000 ppm. Right: Cumulative mortality after 48 hours at four concentrations (0, 500, 1000, and 10000 ppm).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6202729/v1/a552fd6dd0739230ea64ec2e.png"},{"id":78419871,"identity":"95c65897-1173-4ffd-b79f-11de50e582ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-13 05:32:26","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49872,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFoliar damage of tomato plants caused by \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e across six observations in site 1 and site 2 under different treatments: Untreated control (T0), essential oil (TEO), and chemical insecticide (TIS).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6202729/v1/358502a560d376c0b8565bcb.png"},{"id":78419873,"identity":"c524469e-a65c-45f6-9c24-e701d85ff8ce","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-13 05:32:26","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":38421,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage of non-marketable fruit due to \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e damage across Site 1 and Site 2 over four harvests under different treatments: Untreated control (T0), essential oil (TEO), and chemical insecticide (TIS).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6202729/v1/42c208f94cc25bd6529e84c6.png"},{"id":78423194,"identity":"2facb926-c643-40f1-ba2a-eee359a0a72d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-13 06:04:50","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":66285,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProfit rate across Site 1 and Site 2 under different treatments: Untreated control (T0), essential oil (TEO), and chemical insecticide (TIS).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6202729/v1/14af032428c37c0be7fe3249.png"},{"id":78424358,"identity":"302ccf13-3fae-4847-ad0e-2d5ca72fb5f6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-13 06:12:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1511027,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6202729/v1/672b3556-37bd-44ec-8bab-b5e48a2607bb.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEssential oils vs. Synthetic insecticides: Evaluating field performance, profitability, and environmental impact in \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTuta absoluta \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) management\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe tomato leaf miner, \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is one of the most destructive pests of tomato crops, capable of causing up to 100% yield loss without effective control (Desneux et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). This pest also infests other solanaceous crops, such as eggplant, potato, and pepper, posing a significant threat to vegetable production globally (Samir Abd El-Rahman Salama et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Native to Peru, \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e was first identified in Spain in 2006 (Urbaneja et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) and has since spread across the Mediterranean Basin and beyond, with reports of its presence in over 100 countries (Bavithra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical control remains the primary method for managing \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, but reduced effectiveness often leads to increased dosages (Pandey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Resistance to 18 active ingredients, including Avermectins, Pyrethroids, and Spinosyns, has become a significant challenge (Guedes and Picanc 2012; IRAC,2025; Siqueira et al. 2000). This resistance undermines the efficacy of chemical treatments and raises concerns about their long-term sustainability. Additionally, pheromone-based strategies have been ineffective due to the pest's parthenogenetic reproduction (Caparros Megido et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn response to these challenges, plant-based preparations have emerged as promising alternatives, particularly essential oils (EOs), which target multiple life stages of the pest (Alam et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Chegini and Abbasipour,2017). EOs offer potential advantages, including a reduced likelihood of resistance compared to synthetic insecticides, due to their complex chemical compositions and possible synergistic effects (Dayan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Gnankin\u0026eacute; and Bassol\u0026eacute;, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Despite these advantages, transitioning essential oils from laboratory successes to effective, field-ready biopesticides remains a major challenge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral factors complicate the practical application of EOs, including cost-effectiveness, variability in performance across diverse environmental conditions, and the need for thorough ecological impact assessments (Stevenson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Isman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to evaluate the efficacy, environmental impact, and economic feasibility of essential oils as biopesticides for controlling \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. We hypothesize that EOs will demonstrate significant biopesticidal activity against \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, performing as well as or better than synthetic insecticides in laboratory bioassays and field trials. Additionally, we expect EOs to have a lower environmental impact, offering benefits for non-target organisms and soil health in semi-arid ecosystems. Finally, we aim to assess whether EO application is economically viable, providing a sustainable and competitive alternative for farmers. This study will offer valuable insights into the potential of EOs as an environmentally friendly and practical solution to pest management, while addressing the challenges of scaling from laboratory success to market-ready applications\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe research methodology is summarized in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Initially, commercial essential oils were selected based on their market availability and previous proven insecticidal activity. These oils were then tested in laboratory conditions, and the most effective one was advanced to field trials. In the field, we evaluated its insecticidal efficacy, economic feasibility, and estimated their environmental impact compared to commercial chemical insecticides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1. Selection process\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address potential scarcity and ensure sufficient quantities of essential oils for large-scale field applications, a comprehensive selection process was conducted based on the following criteria: (a) market availability and the feasibility of large-scale production for insecticidal purposes, (b) quality assurance where essential oils of unknown origin were excluded, and (c) existing studies confirming the insecticidal properties of the oils. Based on these criteria, four essential oils of the following plants were selected : (Peppermint \u003cem\u003eMentha \u0026times;piperita\u003c/em\u003e, Clove \u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCymbopogon citratus\u003c/em\u003e, Basil \u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2. Laboratory toxicity bioassay:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTomato (\u003cem\u003eLycopersicon esculentum\u003c/em\u003e cv. Salima) plants were cultivated in a greenhouse (25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;C) in plastic pots (25 cm diameter * 30 cm height) filled with loam and grown under a 16L: 8D photoperiod. The larvae (third instar) of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e were first collected in October 2022 from a private tomato farm (Al jahfa, El Oued, Algeria, 33\u0026deg;17'47.6\"N 6\u0026deg;29'05.2\"E). The \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e colony was subsequently maintained on tomato plants in 45 \u0026times; 45 \u0026times; 45 cm net, 25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026deg;C, 60\u0026ndash;70% RH, and 16:8-h light: dark photoperiod.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the toxicity bioassays, third instar larvae were sampled from the rearing cage and placed individually on tomato leaflets, which were set on moistened filter paper in 60 mm Petri dishes. Each treatment used 25 larvae, with four concentrations of essential oils (500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 ppm) emulsified in water with Tween 80 (1:1). The larvae were treated using a hand sprayer with the essential oils, while distilled water was used as a control. To estimate LC₅₀ and LC₉₀, larval mortality was recorded at intervals within 48 hours post-treatment. LT₅₀ and LT₉₀ were determined at 5,000 ppm by recording mortality every 6 hours over a 48-hour period\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3. Field experiment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Site conditions and experimental design:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiments were conducted on two private tomato farms in El Oued, Algeria. Site 1 (S1) was located in Al Jahfa (33\u0026deg;17'47.6\"N, 6\u0026deg;29'05.2\"E) while Site 2 (S2) was situated in Hassani Abdelkarim (33\u0026deg;29'48.5\"N, 6\u0026deg;52'52.6\"E). The study took place from early September to mid-February, corresponding to the end of the crop harvesting season. The region experiences a semi-arid climate, with a mean annual temperature of 21.6\u0026deg;C, average annual evaporation of 65 mm, and annual precipitation ranging from 65 to 575 mm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA completely randomized design (CRD) was employed in the experiment. Each site (S1 and S2) was divided into 18 plots, consisting of three treatments with five replicates per treatment. Each plot measured 8 meters in length and 5 meters in width, containing 45 tomato plants spaced at 0.5 m intervals. To minimize treatment drift, a 1.5 m wide path with palm fences separated the plots.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.2. Trial set up:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was carried out on tomato (\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e L.), which is the preferred host of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. The hybrid cultivar \u0026rdquo;Salima F1, Clause\u0026reg;\u0026rdquo; was selected because it is the mostly cultivated by the farmers of EL Oued region in open fields. Before planting, the field was ploughed once and treated with cow manure at the rate of 25 t per Ha. Transplanting was carried out using 30 days old seedlings and the plots were mulched with Polyethylene black plastic film. Apart from insecticide application which varied according to the studied treatments, other practices like irrigation, weeding, fertilizer, and fungicide application were carried out uniformly in all plots. The trials relied on natural infestation by \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Sohrabi et al. 2017) due to its abundance in the area of study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Treatments application:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe treatments were : Essential oil of peppermint \u003cem\u003eMentha \u0026times; piperita\u003c/em\u003e, Chemical insecticides and control. The dosages and intervals of treatments are shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The treatments began ten days after transplanting, with 10 applications for the chemical insecticides. In contrast, the essential oil was limited to four applications to stay within a reasonable budget. Treatments were applied during the evening hours, slightly before sunset, to avoid the harmful effects of sunlight, using a 16L back sprayer. Continuous agitation was done during treatment application to prevent precipitation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.4. Foliar and fruit damage evaluation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeaf damage was assessed as the percentage of leaves mined by Tuta absoluta. Data were collected from five plants located at the center of each plot, and averages per plant were computed. Observations started two weeks after transplanting and were conducted biweekly, totaling six observations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn parallel, fruit damage was evaluated by assessing the percentage of non-marketable tomatoes affected by \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. This was calculated by weighing the damaged fruit and dividing it by the total harvested weight from each plot. A total of four harvests were performed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e3.5. Economic feasibility evaluation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo compare the profitability of different treatments, the profit percentage based on revenue is calculated utilizing the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfit percentage = (Profit / Revenue) \u0026times; 100\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere profit is determined as the difference between total revenue and total production cost. Revenue represents the total income generated from the sale of harvested tomatoes under each treatment, while total production cost encompasses all expenses such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, labor, irrigation, and transportation. By applying this calculation to different treatment groups, we can assess their economic efficiency and determine which treatment yields the highest profit margin.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6. Environmental impact\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll the pesticides used during the experiment were evaluated for their environmental impact using the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) model, developed by Kovach et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). This model offers a standardized method to assess the environmental effects of pesticides by considering their toxicity to consumers, pickers, terrestrial and aquatic organisms, and overall ecological components. The EIQ values for various pesticides are available through the New York State Integrated Pest Management (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://cals.cornell.edu/new-york-state-integrated-pest-management/risk-assessment/eiq/eiq-pesticide-values\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://cals.cornell.edu/new-york-state-integrated-pest-management/risk-assessment/eiq/eiq-pesticide-values\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. The EIQ values of the active ingredients were further evaluated under field conditions using the EIQ Field Use Rating (EIQ-FUR or field EIQ), which takes into account the percentage of active ingredient, application frequency, and the pesticide application rate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEIQ Field Use Rating (EIQ FUR)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;EIQ x % Active Ingredient x Rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeppermint oil is generally regarded as safe for humans at low concentrations (Nair, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e)., and it is commonly used in food, cosmetics, and natural medicine. However, peppermint oil exhibits both repellent and toxic effects on non-target organisms such as bees and parasitoids. Since the EIQ model was originally developed for synthetic pesticides, and published EIQ values for peppermint oil are missing, we have used the EIQ of tea oil (EIQ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26) as a proxy (Cornell University, 2025). This approach is justified by the similar overall environmental impact of both oils, as indicated in comparative studies (Shetta et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Paichitrojjana and Chalermchai \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Both peppermint oil and tea oil exhibit low environmental persistence but pose potential risks to non-target organisms. We recognize that this proxy has limitations. However, it provides a reasonable basis for comparative analysis within the EIQ framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4. Statistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe toxicity bioassay data were subjected to log and probit analysis (LDP) according to Finney (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1952\u003c/span\u003e) to determine the lethal concentrations (LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e) and lethal times (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LT\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e) of the essential oils against third instar larvae. Mortality data were corrected using Abbott\u0026rsquo;s formula (1925) if control mortality occurred, and probit transformation was applied to linearize the dose-response relationship. A probit regression model was fitted to the data, with log concentrations as the independent variable and probit mortality as the dependent variable. The model's goodness-of-fit was assessed using the chi-square test, and lethal concentrations (LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e) with their 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Similarly, time-mortality data were analyzed to estimate LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LT\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbbot\u0026rsquo;s formula:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:Corrected\\:Mortality\\:\\left(\\%\\right)=\\frac{Observed\\:Mortality\\:\\left(\\%\\right)-Control\\:Mortality\\:\\left(\\%\\right)}{100\\:-Control\\:Mortality\\:\\left(\\%\\right)}\\times\\:100$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the field experiment results, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate the impact of the treatments (T0, TIS and TEO) on the studied variables. When ANOVA indicated significant differences among treatments (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), Tukey\u0026rsquo;s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test was used as a post-hoc analysis to compare and separate the means of statistically different treatments. All statistical analyses were performed using the R statistical software (version 4.4.2, R Core Team, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1. Laboratory toxicity bioassay\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe graph in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays the mortality rates of 20 insects exposed to four treatments peppermint (PM), lemongrass (LG), basil (BS), and clove (CL) essential oils across concentrations from 0 to 10000 PPM. The control treatment 0 PPM resulted in minimal mortality with only one dead insect. By 500 PPM, PM caused 75% mortality (15 dead insects), while LG remained ineffective (1 dead insect), and BS and CL showed intermediate responses with 30% (6 dead insects) and 40% (8 dead insects) mortality, respectively. At 1000 PPM, PM achieved 95% mortality (19 dead insects), and BS and CL reached 70% (14 dead insects) and 80% (16 dead insects) mortality, respectively. By 5000 PPM, PM and BS approached 100% mortality (20 and 18 dead insects), and CL achieved 90% mortality (18 dead insects). At 10,000 PPM, all treatments except LG achieved complete mortality (20 dead insects), with LG reaching 90% mortality (18 dead insects).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the larvicidal toxicity bioassay shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e reveals the distinct toxicity profiles among the tested oils. Peppermint oil emerges as the most potent with the lowest LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e values 59.79 ppm and 2431.24 ppm, respectively, indicating its remarkable toxicity at low concentrations. Clove oil ranked second in toxicity with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 627.13 ppm and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e of 5805.95 ppm, followed by Basil oil (LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e: 938.57 ppm, LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e: 6046.86 ppm), which exhibited moderate toxicity. Lemon Grass oil showed the lowest toxicity, requiring significantly higher concentrations (LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e: 3231.98 ppm, LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e: 11131.66 ppm) to achieve similar effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dose-response analysis revealed variability in slope values, with Lemon Grass (slope: 2.40) showing the steepest response and Peppermint (slope: 0.78) the least. Chi-square values (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 for all oils) indicated a good fit for the dose-response models.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe time-dependent toxicity of the four essential oils was assessed through LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LT\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e values (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Peppermint oil demonstrated the highest efficacy, with the shortest LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e (9.83 hours) and LT\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e (22.37 hours), indicating its rapid action. Clove oil ranked second with LT50 and LT90 values of 28.34 hours and 104.06 hours, respectively, followed by Basil (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e: 23.86 hours, LT\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e: 143.52 hours) and Lemon Grass (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e: 134.36 hours, LT\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e: 570.82 hours). These differences highlight the varied lethality rates among the oils.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToxicity comparison between essential oils expressed by LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e after 48 Hours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlope\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi square\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeppermint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e279.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2431.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e519.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11369.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLemon grass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3231.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1981.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5272.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11131.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6823.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18159.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e938.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e484.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1816.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6046.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3124.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11702.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClove\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e627.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e284.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1381.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5805.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2636.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12786.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eToxicity comparison between essential oils expressed by LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LT\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e at the concentration 5000 ppm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLT50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLT90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlope\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi square\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeppermint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLemon grass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e214.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e570.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e358.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e909.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e211.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClove\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e137.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlope values, which reflect the steepness of the time-response curves, ranged from 1.69 (Basil) to 3.68 (Peppermint), with higher slopes indicating faster mortality. Peppermint had the steepest slope, confirming its fast-acting nature, while Lemon Grass, with the shallowest slope (2.10), demonstrated slower action over time. Chi-square values (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 for all oils) indicated good model fit for the data. Standard errors were low across all oils, reflecting the precision of slope estimates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2. Foliar and fruit damage of field experiment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the average of leaf damage caused by the tomato leaf miner \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e in plots under the treatments, untreated (T0), essential oil (TEO), and chemical insecticide (TIS) across two sites (S1 and S2). The evaluation shows also the progression of the damage during the experiment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn S1, significant differences among treatments became evident starting in observation 2, with ANOVA p-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001 for all comparisons (Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The TIS and TEO treatments significantly reduced leaf damage compared to T0, with TIS consistently showing the lowest damage. For instance, in observation 2, the mean damage for TIS was 2.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50, compared to 4.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.67 for TEO and 8.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91 for T0. By observation 6, the differences were still pronounced (T0: 34.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.54, TEO: 21.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.19, TIS: 17.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.52; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0406). The grouping analysis reinforces this trend, where TIS consistently fell into a lower damage group (\"b\") compared to T0 (\"a\").\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANOVA results for foliar damage caused by \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e in two experimental sites (S1 and S2). Mean damage scores (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE) are provided for each treatment, with statistical groupings and p-values indicating significant differences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 1 (S1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 2 (S2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANOVA p-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANOVA p-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3446\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3446\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5212\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3446\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0895\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0895\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0895\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0646\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0646\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0646\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eO6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1319\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1319\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1319\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn S2, significant differences among treatments also emerged from observation 2, with p-values ranging from 0.0026 to 0.1319. TEO and TIS both significantly reduced damage compared to T0, but their relative effectiveness varied slightly. For example, in observation 2, TEO showed better performance (2.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47) than TIS (3.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.71). However, in subsequent observation s, TIS consistently outperformed TEO, particularly by observation 6, where the mean damage for TIS was 21.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.71 compared to 25.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.86 for TEO. In both sites, the untreated control plots showed an increase in damage over time, with T0 in observation 6 showing approximately double the damage observed in TEO and TIS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e illustrates data on fruit damage caused by \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e at two sites (S1 and S2) under three treatments: untreated control (T0), essential oil (TEO), and chemical insecticide (TIS) across four harvests assessments (Y1 toY4). In both sites, T0 consistently exhibited the highest mean yield loss, with values increasing from Y1 (S1: 23.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.33, S2: 20.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.76) to Y4 (S1: 38.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.32, S2: 44.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.84). As shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, statistical analysis revealed significant differences among treatments (ANOVA p-values\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 in all cases).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANOVA results for fruit damage due to \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e in two experimental sites (S1 and S2). Mean fruit damage (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE) is presented for each treatment, with statistical comparisons across four harvests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 1 (S1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite 2 (S2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHarvest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANOVA p-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANOVA p-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn S1, both TEO and TIS significantly reduced yield loss compared to T0. For instance, in Y2, mean yield loss for TEO (12.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.83) and TIS (10.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.66) was substantially lower than T0 (28.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.76, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0008). A similar trend was observed in Y4, with TEO (10.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.35) and TIS (9.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87) achieving significantly lower losses than T0 (38.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.32, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0002). In S2, TIS consistently resulted in the lowest yield loss, particularly in Y4 (9.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.65), followed closely by TEO (12.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87), both of which were significantly different from T0 (44.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.84, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0001). Notably, in early assessments (Y1 and Y2), TEO and TIS performance was comparable in both sites, but TIS showed slightly better results in later assessments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3. Economic analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ANOVA results show that treatment choice significantly impacts profit (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001), with TIS, TEO, and T0 having markedly different effects on profitability. In contrast, the site of the experience does not significantly influence profitability (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.60), and there is no significant interaction between site and treatment (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.47), indicating that treatment effects are consistent across both sites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Tukey HSD post hoc test reveals that TEO and TIS consistently yield higher profitability than T0 across both Site S1 and Site S2. In both sites, TEO (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0036 in S1; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0003 in S2) and TIS (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001 in both sites) result in significantly greater profits than T0. While TIS emerges as the most profitable option, TEO demonstrates strong and consistent performance, making it a viable and effective alternative (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e demonstrates that across both sites, TIS was highly effective in maximizing returns on investment and generated the highest average profits: 122 q/ha of tomatoes with a profit rate of 29.69% in Site S1, and 133 q/ha with a profit rate of 31.57% in Site S2. TEO also showed promising results, generating an average profit of 89 q/ha and a profit rate of 24.58% in Site S1, and 108 q/ha with a profit rate of 28.28% in Site S2. Although not as profitable as TIS, TEO still provided a considerable improvement over the control treatment (T0), which resulted in an average profit of only 10 q/ha and a profit rate of 3.57% in Site S1, while in Site S2, it led to an average loss of 3 q/ha and a negative profit rate of -1.25%. This highlights the economic risks of not using any treatment for \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e attack.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfit rate analysis of pest control treatments across two sites. Revenue, costs, and profit values are presented in quintals per hectare (q/ha), with profit rates (%) calculated for each treatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRevenue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCosts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfit Rate (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(q/ha of tomato)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e269\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e259\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e273\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e410\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e288\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e256\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e259\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTEO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e380\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e273\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTIS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e421\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e288\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, while TIS is the most profitable treatment, TEO proves to be a highly effective and economically beneficial alternative across both sites. Its consistent performance underscores its value as a reliable option for improving profitability in tomato cultivation, particularly when compared to the risks associated with no treatment (T0). The similar trends observed in both sites further emphasize the robustness of these findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4. Environmental impact\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e compares the environmental impact quotient (EIQ) and field use rating (FUR) of plots treated with chemical insecticides (TIS) and a peppermint essential oil treatment (TEO) applied over 140 days to manage \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. The chemical insecticides used include several active ingredients such as chlorantraniliprole, abamectin, spinosad, lambda-cyhalothrin, and others, with differing EIQ and FUR values. Peppermint essential oil, applied as an alternative treatment on specific days, showed consistently lower EIQ values (26) and moderate FUR (1.3), reflecting reduced environmental impact compared to most chemical pesticides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ) and Field Use Rating (FUR) between chemical pesticides plots (TIS) and peppermint essential oil plots (TEO). The table presents active ingredients, concentrations, and EIQ/FUR values across different application days.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical synthetic pesticides (TIS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEssential oil (TEO)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDays\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrade name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eActive ingredient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Active Ingredient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEIQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEIQ FUR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eActive ingredient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e% Active Ingredient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEIQ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEIQ FUR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoragen\u0026reg; SC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChlorantraniliprole\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVapcomic\u0026reg; CE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbamectin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoragen\u0026reg; SC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChlorantraniliprole\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeppermint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVapcomic\u0026reg; CE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbamectin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTracer \u0026reg;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpinosad\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVapcomic\u0026reg; CE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbamectin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmpligo\u0026reg; ZC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChlorantraniliprol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeppermint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLambda-Cyhalothrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVertimec\u0026reg; CE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbamectin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProAct\u0026reg; CE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmamectin benzoate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEtoxa\u0026reg; SC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEtoxazole\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAxam\u0026reg; WP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThiamitoxam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 g/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVertimec\u0026reg; CE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbamectin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoragen\u0026reg; SC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChlorantraniliprole\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeppermint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVapcomic\u0026reg; CE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbamectin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eACEPLAN 20 SP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetamiprid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 g/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEtoxa\u0026reg; SC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEtoxazole\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eACEPLAN 20 SP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetamiprid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 g/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeppermint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlazo\u0026reg; CE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBifenthrin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrivap\u0026reg; WP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ecyromazine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 g/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVapcomic\u0026reg; CE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbamectin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75 ml/hl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1441.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e###\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the chemical pesticides, abamectin-based products (e.g., Vapcomic\u0026reg; and Vertimec\u0026reg;) consistently displayed the highest EIQ values (108.16) across all days, indicating significant environmental risks despite their relatively low FUR values (e.g., 0.50 on day 10). In contrast, chlorantraniliprole-based products (e.g., Coragen\u0026reg; SC and Ampligo\u0026reg; ZC) exhibited moderate EIQ values (42.00) and relatively low FUR values (1.44), signifying a better balance between efficacy and environmental safety. Lambda-cyhalothrin and bifenthrin treatments had higher EIQ values (69.83 and 69.50, respectively), suggesting greater environmental impact. Overall, the total EIQ value for chemical pesticides across the treatment period was 1441.61, with a FUR of 29.31, highlighting the cumulative environmental burden of these treatments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1. Laboratory toxicity bioassay\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current study provides an evaluation of the larvicidal and time-dependent toxicity of four essential oils: Peppermint, clove, basil, and lemon grass. The results revealed clear differences in efficacy, highlighting peppermint oil as the most potent insecticidal agent, followed by clove and Basil oils, while lemon grass oil exhibited weaker toxicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeppermint oil demonstrated the highest potency among the oils tested, with the lowest LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e (59.79 ppm) and LC\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e (2431.24 ppm) values, which indicates its remarkable toxicity even at low concentrations. The same trend was found in a recent study of Prasannakumar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) that compared peppermint and clove essential oils against \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e. The peppermint EO showed highest mortality (100%) of \u003cem\u003eT. absoluta\u003c/em\u003e with LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e 1.78 \u0026micro;l/ml due to alloaromadendrene (27.99%), levomenthol (18.31%) and santolina triene (9.78%). The O. basilicum EO also had significant but a lower mortality (90%) effect with LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e 3.58 \u0026micro;l/ml due to humulene (32.31%), alpha farnesense (27.22%), estragole (19.24%) and 4-cerene (10.61%). Many studies have established that peppermint oil as an effective insecticide against a variety of pests, particularly lepidopteran larvae (Afiunizadeh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Altaf et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The high content of menthol and menthone in peppermint oil is likely responsible for its enhanced efficacy (Kour et al. 2021; Kadoglidou et al. 2023). The steep dose-response curve (slope: 0.78) further supports the idea of its fast-acting nature, making it a strong candidate for use in pest management strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, lemon grass oil exhibited the lowest toxicity (LC50: 3231.98 ppm, LC90: 11131.66 ppm), which reflects its primarily repellent rather than insecticidal properties. This result is contrary to a study in which lemon grass and peppermint essential oils showed similar effects in reducing the total longevity of the mango red spider mite \u003cem\u003eOligonychus mangiferus\u003c/em\u003e females compared to the control group (Ahmed and Abdelwines 2024)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe differential toxicity profiles of clove and basil EOs indicate moderate insecticidal activity, with clove EO being more potent than basil EO. Contrarily, literature reports suggest that these oils exhibit strong insecticidal activity in other cases. For instance, Clove oil demonstrated strong contact toxicity against the summerform adults of \u003cem\u003eCacopsylla chinensis\u003c/em\u003e (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), with LD₅₀ values of 0.730, 0.673, and 0.708 \u0026micro;g/adult. Its major constituent, eugenol (88.61%), is likely responsible for its high efficacy (Tian et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, basil EO (\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e) significantly reduced \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e oviposition behavior on tomato plants, with estragole (73.8%) identified as the main chemical compound (Yarou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Other basil species, \u003cem\u003eOcimum gratissimum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eOcimum kilimandscharicum\u003c/em\u003e, also exhibited strong repellent activity against \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (Essoung et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe variability in the time-dependent toxicity of the oils, reflected in their LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e and LT\u003csub\u003e90\u003c/sub\u003e values. Peppermint oil acted the fastest (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e: 9.83 hours), followed by Clove (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e: 28.34 hours) and Basil (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e: 23.86 hours). Lemon grass oil demonstrated the slowest action (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e: 134.36 hours), which is consistent with its lower toxicity and repellent action. These differences underscore the need to consider both the speed of action and the concentration required when selecting essential oils for pest management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaboratory bioassays highlighted the potential of essential oils, particularly peppermint, as alternatives to synthetic insecticides. The observed differences in toxicity among tested oils emphasize the importance of selecting the most effective one for field applications. Based on these results, peppermint oil was tested under field conditions to assess its efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2. Foliar and fruit damage of field experiment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the field, despite the frequency of chemical insecticide applications being more than twice that of peppermint oil treatments, both approaches demonstrated comparable effectiveness. In Site 1, TIS-treated fields exhibited a \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e foliar damage rate of 17.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.52% by observation 6, while TEO-treated fields recorded 21.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.19% (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0406). In S2, TEO initially performed better (2.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47% vs. 3.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.71% for TIS in observation 2), but TIS ultimately outperformed TEO by observation 6 (21.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.71% vs. 25.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.86%). Similarly, both treatments significantly reduced yield loss compared to untreated controls. In S1 (Y4), TIS and TEO resulted in 9.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87% and 10.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.35% yield loss, respectively, while in S2 (Y4), TIS (9.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.65%) slightly outperformed TEO (12.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87%). These findings align with previous research, confirming the insecticidal potential of peppermint oil in field conditions (El-Samahy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Singh and Pandey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe high toxicity of peppermint oil against \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e is attributed to its rich composition of monoterpenoids, known for their neurotoxic effects on insects. These compounds act on multiple targets in the insect nervous system, including acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, positive modulation of GABA receptors, and octopamine receptor activation (Enan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Price \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Jankowska et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Menthol and menthone, the primary bioactive components, are potent AChE inhibitors, disrupting neural function (Kennedy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, menthol may act as an octopamine receptor agonist, mimicking octopamine\u0026rsquo;s action in insect neuromodulation (Jankowska et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Xing et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond neurotoxicity, peppermint oil induces oxidative stress, enhancing its insecticidal efficacy. Studies on Sitophilus oryzae and \u003cem\u003eTribolium castaneum\u003c/em\u003e show that peppermint oil increases superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity while decreasing catalase (CAT) activity, leading to heightened oxidative stress and reduced insect defense capacity (Rajkumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This dual-action mechanism; combining oxidative stress and neurotoxicity; positions peppermint oil as a potent alternative to conventional insecticides, explaining its comparable efficacy to chemical insecticides observed in our field experiment. Unlike single-target chemical insecticides, its multifaceted mode of action lowers the risk of resistance development, reinforcing its potential for sustainable pest management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1. Economic analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA major challenge in transitioning botanical pesticides from research to practical use is the lack of evidence on their economic feasibility (Grzywacz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Isman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Our research demonstrates that essential oil (EO)-based treatments offer financial returns comparable to chemical treatments. Profitability can be further enhanced by increasing application frequency, especially since EO treatments in our study were more cost-effective than chemical options.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings indicate that the EO treatments were insufficient for complete \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e control. However, increasing the frequency of applications could potentially improve plant yield beyond our observed results. While chemical treatments were applied until full recovery, EO treatments did not reach this stage, making it difficult to directly compare their production and revenue outcomes. Extending EO treatments until full recovery might further enhance production, positioning them as a more viable alternative to chemical options.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe availability of commercial formulations containing peppermint oil, such as Ecotec\u0026reg; and Clean Green\u0026reg;, highlights significant opportunities for expanding peppermint EO-based solutions in the pesticide industry. In our experiment, we used EO with only emulsifiers added; however, their efficacy could potentially be improved by incorporating other co-formulants such as stickers, stabilizers, and synergists (Sarmah et al. 2014; Kordy at al. 2025). Optimizing these formulations could reduce costs while enhancing their efficacy in pest management (Lengai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Further advancements in peppermint EO formulations may improve cost-effectiveness, potentially increasing net profits beyond those observed in our current findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1. Environmental impact\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile peppermint EO is an effective biopesticide, its environmental impact must be carefully considered. Several studies have indicated that peppermint oil exhibits moderate toxicity to certain non-target organisms. The ecotoxicological profile of peppermint oil was assessed in comparison to Synthetic chemical insecticides used in this experiment such as Emamectin Benzoate, Abamectin, Bifenthrin, and Thiamethoxam, focusing on its impact on aquatic organisms (\u003cem\u003eDaphnia magna\u003c/em\u003e), pollinators (\u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e), and beneficial insects (\u003cem\u003eAphidius rhopalosiphi\u003c/em\u003e). The results highlight significant differences in toxicity levels, positioning peppermint oil as a potential safer alternative in pest management strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of aquatic toxicity, peppermint oil demonstrated a moderate acute EC₅₀ of 2.7 mg/L for \u003cem\u003eDaphnia magna\u003c/em\u003e. This value is significantly higher than the highly toxic synthetic insecticides bifenthrin (0.00011 mg/L) and emamectin benzoate (0.001 mg/L), indicating that peppermint oil is less hazardous to aquatic invertebrates. However, peppermint oil exhibited greater toxicity compared to thiamethoxam and cyromazine, both of which had EC₅₀ values exceeding 100 mg/L, suggesting that its use may still pose some risks to aquatic ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor honeybee toxicity, peppermint oil (menthol) showed an acute LD₅₀ of 5.67 \u0026micro;g/bee, which places it within the moderately toxic range. When compared to the synthetic insecticides emamectin benzoate (0.0036 \u0026micro;g/bee) and bifenthrin (0.016 \u0026micro;g/bee), which are highly toxic to honeybees, peppermint oil appears to be a safer option. However, it is slightly more toxic than chlorantraniliprole (LD₅₀ \u0026gt;4 \u0026micro;g/bee). These findings suggest that while peppermint oil poses a reduced risk to pollinators compared to certain synthetic alternatives, its potential impacts on bee populations require careful consideration in agricultural applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData on the effects of peppermint oil on \u003cem\u003eAphidius rhopalosiphi\u003c/em\u003e is currently unavailable in PPDB, preventing direct comparisons. Peppermint essential oil inhibits \u003cem\u003eDrosophila suzukii\u003c/em\u003e emergence but reduces \u003cem\u003ePachycrepoideus vindemmiae\u003c/em\u003e parasitism rates (Gowton et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Among the synthetic insecticides, bifenthrin and tebufenpyrad demonstrated relatively high toxicity, with LR₅₀ values of 8.415 g/ha and 7.3 g/ha, respectively. Chlorantraniliprole, by contrast, had an LR₅₀ exceeding 750 g/ha, suggesting lower toxicity to beneficial insects. The lack of data for peppermint oil highlights a gap in understanding its broader ecological impacts, particularly on non-target beneficial organisms, which necessitates further research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen it comes to the impact on human health, peppermint essential oils Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the FDA, when used in food [21 CFR 184.20]. Peppermint and peppermint oil\u0026rsquo;s major components are not classified as carcinogenic by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 2014). They are not listed as known carcinogens (Cal-EPA 1997); and do not appear on the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) Basis of OSHA Carcinogens (US EPA 2015). Moreover peppermint oil is used as a natural herbal remedy as aromatherapy agent and to heal gastic irregularities, according to Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003ePeppermint essential oil shows strong potential as a green insecticide for managing \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e, offering a balance between efficacy, economic feasibility, and environmental sustainability. Its lower environmental impact compared to synthetic pesticides makes it a valuable tool for sustainable agriculture. However, to maximize its benefits while minimizing risks, further studies should focus on refining application methods and evaluating its long-term ecological effects, particularly on beneficial insects and aquatic ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by the Algerian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research under the PRFU grant No. D00L02UN390120220001.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgment:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge farmers Bekkar Mahmoud and Alyamane for their support in the field experiments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbbasipour H, et al (2010) Insecticidal activity of \u003cem\u003ePeganum harmala\u003c/em\u003e seed extract against the diamondback moth, \u003cem\u003ePlutella xylostella\u003c/em\u003e. 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Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 25:29880-29888. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9795-6\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"University of El Oued","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Green pesticides, Essential oil, Sustainability, Tomato pinworm","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6202729/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6202729/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated the efficacy, environmental impact, and economic feasibility of essential oils (EOs) as biopesticides for controlling \u003cem\u003eTuta absoluta\u003c/em\u003e (tomato leaf miner). Laboratory bioassays were conducted to assess the larvicidal effects of four essential oils: peppermint, clove, basil, and lemongrass. Among them, peppermint EO demonstrated the highest potency (LC₅₀: 59.79 ppm, LC₉₀: 2431.24 ppm) and the fastest action (LT₅₀: 9.83 hours, LT₉₀: 22.37 hours). Given its strong larvicidal performance, peppermint EO was further evaluated under field conditions. Field trials were conducted on two tomato farms using a completely randomized design (CRD). Each site (S1 and S2) consisted of 18 plots, divided into three treatments: TEO (essential oil), TIS (synthetic pesticide), and T0 (untreated control), with five replicates per treatment. Foliar and fruit damage assessments revealed that in S1, TEO reduced foliar damage from 8.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91 (T0) to 4.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.67 by the second observation and from 34.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.54 (T0) to 21.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.19 by the sixth observation. Fruit damage was also significantly reduced, from 38.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.32 (T0) to 10.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.35 in S1 and from 44.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.84 (T0) to 12.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.87 in S2. Economic analysis, based on profit percentage from yield, showed that TEO achieved an average profit rate of 26%, significantly higher than T0 (1%) and comparable to TIS (30%). Additionally, the Environmental Impact Quotient Field Use Rating (EIQ-FUR) was calculated to assess environmental impact. TEO demonstrated a low environmental footprint, with an FUR of 1.3 compared to 29.31 for chemical pesticides. These findings highlight the potential of peppermint EO as a safer, environmentally friendly alternative to synthetic insecticides. Further studies are needed to optimize formulation and application strategies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Essential oils vs. Synthetic insecticides: Evaluating field performance, profitability, and environmental impact in Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) management","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-13 05:32:21","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6202729/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"69e941f3-26d8-40c6-9b08-db42ebef8913","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":45524178,"name":"Agronomy"},{"id":45524179,"name":"Agroecology"},{"id":45524180,"name":"Horticulture"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-03-13T05:32:21+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-13 05:32:21","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6202729","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6202729","identity":"rs-6202729","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}