Trade-offs in the implementation of silvopastoral systems: Windbreak counter-effect, wind speed and cloud cover

Trade-offs in the implementation of silvopastoral systems: Windbreak counter-effect, wind speed and cloud cover | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Trade-offs in the implementation of silvopastoral systems: Windbreak counter-effect, wind speed and cloud cover Thiago Mombach Pinheiro Machado, Abdon Luiz Schmitt Filho, Ruan Daros, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6436369/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This work aimed to improve the description of the windbreak counter-effect (WbCe) tin he implementation of silvopastoral systems under different cloudy conditions (clear sky and cloudy). A silvopastoral system with nuclei in which 5% and 10% of the pasture area is occupied by agroforestry nuclei was used (SPSnu5 and SPSnu10) and compared with treeless pasture (TLP) during summer in southern Brazil. The microclimatic variables analyzed were air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, black globe temperature and Heat Load Index (HLI) at two heights, 20 and 120 cm. The wind speed was about twice as high in the TLP because there was no wind barrier through the nuclei. Air temperatures were higher on days with clear skies. SPSnu had a slightly lower temperature under most conditions. Humidity was similar in all treatments. TLP had lower HLI values than SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 under both cloudy conditions. SPSnu10 had the worst conditions for thermal comfort in the area 'around the nuclei'. Although the young nuclei did not provide shade, but blocked wind increasing HLI. Air temperatures were slightly lower under the SPSnu treatments, the lower wind speed and lack of shade from the growing trees worsened thermal comfort in both SPSnu, even on cloudy days, due to WbCe. Therefore, the phase of adoption of silvopastoral systems is a critical moment for the thermal comfort of livestock, even on cloudy days. Producers must be aware of this trade-off on hot days and avoid paddocks with young trees even on cloudy days as HLI increases. Thermal comfort Bioclimatology Microclimate Heat stress Climate change mitigation Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Introduction The ability of modern societies to intervene in the Earth’s systems on a scale comparable to the greatest global catastrophes has ushered in the current geological era known as the Anthropocene (Crutzen 2006 ). In this context, extensive livestock production occupies the position of the villain associated with greenhouse gas emission and deforestation as it is often the primary activity utilizing these altered environments (Bowman et al. 2012 ; Parente et al. 2019 ). The benchmarks for evaluating the performance of cattle production systems can no longer be just productivity and profitability. Issues related to reducing carbon emissions (Desjardins et al. 2012 ; Stanley et al. 2018 ; Mazzzetto et al. 2022), improving energy efficiency (Hercher-Pasteur et al. 2020 ), using ecologically regenerative techniques (Gosnell et al. 2020 ; Teague & Kreuter 2020 ), improving biodiversity (Alvarado et al. 2018 ), animal welfare (Mandel et al. 2022 ), human well-being and social equity (Pinillos et al. 2016 ) need to be considered. The use of silvopastoral systems is a regenerative initiative for pasture-based livestock farming on former forest landscapes (Argote et al. 2022 ). This involves consortium of tree and shrub species with pastures and herbivores, either simultaneously or staggered over time (Cubbage et al. 2012 ). Silvopastoral systems can significantly increase species diversity in conventional livestock farming (Harvey et al. 2006 ; Heck 2020 ; Simioni et al. 2022 ), while being more efficient in terms of carbon balance (Olaya-Montes et al. 2021 , Silva et al. 2020 ), productivity (Ford et al. 2019 ), product diversification (Schmitt Filho & Farley 2020 ) and animal thermal comfort (Deniz et al. 2019 ; Schinato et al. 2023 ). The Silvopastoral System with Nuclei (SPSnu) uses forty 5 x 5 m agroforestry nuclei of native tree species evenly spaced over one hectare of pasture (Deniz et al. 2020 , Schmitt Filho et al. 2023 ). Depending on the degree of soil cover degradation, water cycling, and overall microclimate, these agroforestry nuclei may need to be previously planted with shrubs and herbs to prepare the soil and microclimate to provide the conditions for the pioner trees to grow. This facilitation process can take several years as a typical successional agroforestry (Chillo et al. 2022 ). During the implementation period of a SPSs, the presence of young trees can influence some microclimatic variables such as wind speed by blocking it. This increases thermal stress during the hot seasons. At the same time, young trees at this early stage cannot yet provide thermal comfort through large tree shade (Machado et al. 2024 ). This has been termed windbreak counter-effect (WbCe) by Machado et al ( 2024 ). – the negative effect of young trees blocking the wind before they provide effective shade. The WbCe can significantly limit thermal comfort in the early stages of SPSs, especially where hot season winds are an important refreshing factor (Church et al. 2014 ). Heat stress in cattle is a growing problem worldwide, (Thornton et al. 2021 ) and of great importance for pasture-based systems due to climate change (Mee & Boyle 2020 ). The provision of shade for animals is recognized to have benefits for thermal comfort in the hot seasons in temperate (Kendall et al. 2006 )) and subtropical regions (Vizzotto et al. 2015 ); and throughout the year in the tropics (Silanikove 2010; Van laer et al. 2015 ). Thermal comfort has been shown to be one of the main reasons influencing the decision to adopt SPSs (Pent et al. 2021 ). However, in order to develop management strategies for the adoption of SPSs, it is necessary to learn more about the windbreak counter-effect (WbCe) at different seasons, latitudes, and wind intensities, and how it affects thermal comfort and livestock productivity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the thermal environment and progress in the characterization of the Windbreak Counter-effect (WbCe), focusing on the implementation of SPSnu under different cloudy conditions on summer days in southern Brazil. Materials and methods Experimental area and treatments The experiment was carried out at the Silvopastoral System with Nuclei Teaching and Research Unit of the Experimental Farm of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), at 27º 41' South latitude, in Florianópolis, Southern Brazil. The climate of the region is subtropical, classified as Cfa (Kottek et al. 2006 ). The experiment was conducted in the summer of 2022, between the months of January and February, historically the hottest of the year with maximum temperature average of 28.1° C and 28.4° C, respectively (Wrege et al. 2012 ). The study was developed in the Silvipastoral System with Nuclei Unit (SPSnu) in a cattle production area with naturalized polyphytic pastures subdivided and managed according to the Voisin Rational Grazing (Machado Filho et al. 2021 , Murhpy 2010). The SPSnu is a long-term didactic and experimental unit that integrates concepts of succession and ecological rehabilitation into the pasture-based production system. Native species were preferably used to form agroforestry nuclei of 5 m x 5 m distributed equidistantly across the pasture in two densities, five and ten percent of the pasture’s basal area. Each nucleus concists of 20 native trees, four banana trees ( Musa spp .) and the ‘functional group zero’. This functional group consisted of forage plants and shrubs ( Cavanus cajam, Penisetum purpurium, Araquis pintoi, Bicha orellana ) that create microclimatic and pedological conditions for the planting of pioneering tree seadlings (Schmitt Filho et al., 2013 ; Schmitt Filho et al., 2017 ; Schmitt Filho & Farley, 2020 ). At the time the experiment was conducted, 15 tree seedlings were planted per nucleus and the experimental unit was in its second year since the first tree plantings began. The plant community in the nuclei reached an average height of 1.74 m. After stabilization of the succession plantings, there will be 800 trees and 160 banana trees per hectare. The diversity of the system will be up to 50 different native tree species per hectare. Due to the frequented strong winds (Wrege et al. 2012 ) in a coastal plain with shallow, sandy soils and possible flooding (Marques et al. 2015 ), tree seedlings in the agroforestry nuclei had to be staked, presenting growth difficulties in the first few years. Due to the inhospitable conditions, Pennisetum purpureum was planted on two sides of the nuclei. Two 0.5 m wide and 4 m long line were planted on the north and south side of each nuclei, as these are the prevailing winds directions in the region (Meteorological Database of the National Institute of Meteorology, Meteorological Station 83897 – Air Base of Florianópolis). These structures were created to facilitate the succession of other species by provision of shade, protection from wind and the accumulation of biomass (Huebner et al. 2022 ). Pennisetum purpureum and other plants that facilitate the initial succession process have been referred to as a functional group zero (Schmitt Filho et al. 2023 ). The trial area comprises 18 paddocks measuring 2,500 square meters (50 m x 50 m), divided in three blocks of six paddocks, Each block has two paddocks for each treatment: two ‘TLP’ - treeless pasture; two ‘SPSnu5’ − 5% of the pasture area occupied by tree nuclei (20 nuclei ha- 1 ) (); and two ‘SPSnu10’ − 10% of the pasture area occupied by tree nuclei (40 nuclei ha- 1 ). Data collection Data collection on climate variables took place in two areas within each of the 3 treatments (Fig. 1 ). The areas were (1) AN (around the nuclei) − 2.5 m wide strip surrounding the nuclei; (2) IN (internuclei) - an area between the nuclei. The nomenclatures of the areas were established according to Deniz et al. ( 2020 ). The data collection took place on 18 summer days with mean temperature above the historical maximum for the month (Wrege et al. 2012 ), with 10 sunny days without cloud cover and eight days with heavy cloud cover. The survey days were always determined the day before in consultations with the most important weather forecasting institutes. Days with clear sky were considered days with no cloud cover. Cloudy days were characterized by the fact that there was no shadow projection from tree structures and clouds were present in the entire field of view. The clarity index (IK) was calculated for the days on which data collection took place. On cloudy days, the average IK was 0.399, which classifies them as “partially cloudy days with a predominance of the diffuse component of solar radiation”. The average IK of days without clouds was 0.655, which classifies them as “clear sky” days according to the IK categories defined by Escobedo et al. ( 2009 ). Collections were made simultaneously in the treatments, at three times per day, at 8:00 am, 12:00 pm and 4:00 pm. The sampling unit was the agroforestry tree nucleus. Data were collected from nine nuclei per treatment and time. Four fixed collection points were established in each nuclei two in the area around the nuclei - AN (one on the south side and one on the north side) and two in the internuclei area - IN (one on the south side and the other on the north side). In the TLP treatment, fictitious nuclei were marked with pegs in the same number and arrangement as in the other treatments. Consequently, the collection points corresponded to those of the two treatments with SPSnu. The pasture height, relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS) and black globe temperature (BGT) were measured at each recording point. With the exception of pasture height, data was collected at two heights, 20 cm and 120 cm. These heights correspond to the heights of the microclimate samples for cattle in supine and standing position, respectively. The direction of the data collection route was alternated each day, starting one day in the south and the next day in the north. Collection teams were formed and assigned to treatments by daily draws and distribution of equipment. Equipment Data were recorded in a field table t and the following devices were used: three temperature meters, model AK887 (manufactured by Akso) to measure relative humidity (scale 0 to 99%, accuracy ± 3%) and black globe temperature (scale 0 to 80° C, accuracy ± 0.6° C); three thermoanemometers model AK821 (manufactured by Akso, scale 0.4 to 20 m/s, accuracy ± 2%) to measure wind speed. Pasture height was measured on each survey day using with a ruler graduated in centimeters. Each device was held at each point long enough to stabilize the measured variable. All devices were previously calibrated by the manufacturer. Data analysis The Heat Load Index was calculated for the AN and IN areas of the SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 treatments and for the TLP control on all collection days. These areas were compared separately at each time point and at a height of 20 cm and 120 cm. The variables that make up the HLI were also compared for the two heights. Finally, the contrasts of wind reduction were calculated as a function of the different treatments in relation to TLP. The Heat Load Index (HLI) was calculated using the following formula (Gaughan et al. 2008 ): - black globe temperature (BGT) greater than 25°C: HLI BGT>25 = 8.62 + (0.38 x rel. humidity) + (1.55 x BGT) – (0.5 x wind speed) + [e 2.4−wind speed ] e = natural logarithm base (approximate value of e = 2.71828). - black globe temperature (BGT) less than 25° C: HLI BGT<25 = 10.66 + (0,28 x relative humidity) + (1.3 x BGT) – wind speed The effect of the reduction in wind speed by SPSnu was calculated by the difference expressed as a relative percentage between the TLP and the areas of SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 within each time and height considering the respective TLP as 100%. Statistical analysis was performed in R software using the RStudio interface (Team RC, 2021 ). Simple and mixed linear regression models were applied using the nucleus as a random measure. Mixed models were calculated using the ‘lmer’ function of the lme4 statistical package (Bates et al., 2015 ). Repeated measurements on ten days with clear skies days and the eight cloudy days of data collection were grouped by simple average. To compare the overall effect of the treatment, data from each collection point in the area around the nuclei and in the area of internuclei were grouped to calculate the average. Linear regression models with treatment as a fixed effect (SPSnu5, SPSnu10 and TLP) were used and covariates were included where necessary. The Tukey test was used to compare the means generated by the linear model, with significance set at 5%. For comparisons between different areas and their interactions with treatment, data were grouped by day and nucleus area, with the nucleus indicated as a random- effect variable. Linear mixed models were constructed in this way and means were compared using Dunnet’s test in bespoke contrasts created in accordance with the aims of the work. As with the simple linear models the treatment variable, area, and the effects of potential confounding variables were included as covariates in the mixed models. Results Air temperature As expected, the air temperatures were higher on days with clear skies. In general, the air temperature at SPSnu was lower under all conditions except for a single point in time, 08:00 on days with clear skies, at both times. When comparing the two different areas of SPSnu (areas around the nuclei-AN and inter nuclei-IN) with treeless pastures, generally no differences were found between the air temperatures in the three areas. At a few times, less mild temperatures were observed in the two areas of SPSnu, and at some other times the opposite was observed. At 12:00 on days with clear skies, it was warmer at 20 cm in the SPSnu10 areas than in the others. On cloudy days, only the area AN of SPSnu10 was warmer than TLP at a height of 20 cm. At the same time, on clear sky days at 120 cm, only the AN area of SPSnu10 was warmer than TLP. On cloudy days at this time, both areas of SPSnu10 were warmer than the TLP. At 16:00, air temperatures on cloudy days were milder than on days with clear skies. There were no differences in air temperatures between areas within each cloudy condition. Component variables of the Heat Load Index The analysis of the variables that make up the HLI (wind speed, relative humidity and black globe temperature - Table 1 and Table 2 ) reveled no or only minor differences between the treatments on individual days for relative humidity and black globe temperature. In contrast, there were there large differences in wind speed between treatments. The TLP treatments; generally had wind speeds twice as high as the other treatments, while there were no differences in relative humidity and black globe temperature. Wind speed showed significant differences between clear and cloudy days virtually in all treatments. At 120 cm, in relation to 20 cm, within day, the homogeneity of values ​​between treatments for the variables relative humidity and black globe temperature was shown. On the other hand, a greater difference in wind speed between TLP and the other treatments was evident at 120 cm. In general, wind speeds were twice as high or higher in TLP than in the other treatments. On cloudy days, lower values ​​for wind speed and black globe temperature were generally observed compared to clear skies. Relative humidity showed an inverse pattern and was higher on cloudy days in virtually all treatments. Table 1 Mean values and standard errors of air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and temperature of the black globe (AT, WS, RH, and BGT) at a high of 20 cm in summer. Comparisons between the areas around the nuclei (AN) and internuclei (IN) of SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 and TLP on cloudy and clear days. Variables Clear sky Cloudy SPSnu5 SPSnu10 Control SPSnu5 SPSnu10 Control 08:00 h AN IN AN IN TLP AN IN AN IN TLP AT 32,8 ± 0,208 a 33 ± 0,208 a 33 ± 0,208 a 33,3 ± 0,208 a 31,9 ± 0,209 b 28,4 ± 0,209 c 28,4 ± 0,209 c 28,4 ± 0,210 c 28,6 ± 0,210 c 28,4 ± 0,208 c WS 0.754 ± 0.073 c 1.098 ± 0.073 b 0.450 ± 0.073 d 0.603 ± 0.073 cd 1.641 ± 0.073 a 0.288 ± 0.073 de 0.463 ± 0.073 d 0.178 ± 0.073 e 0.265 ± 0.073 de 0.712 ± 0.073 cd RH 63.3 ± 0.626 bc 61.4 ± 0.626 c 63 ± 0.626 bc 61 ± 0.626 c 64.4 ± 0.629 b 71.9 ± 0.626 a 70.9 ± 0.626 a 72.1 ± 0.633 ª 71.1 ± 0.633 a 71.6 ± 0.626 a BGT 36.3 ± 0.311 b 37.3 ± 0.311 ab 36.6 ± 0.311 b 37.7 ± 0.311 a 36 ± 0.312 b 30.8 ± 0.311 c 31.1 ± 0.311 c 30.6 ± 0.314 c 31.1 ± 0.314 c 31.1 ± 0.311 c 12:00 h AT 35,7 ± 0,168 b 35,8 ± 0,168 b 36,5 ± 0,168 a 36,7 ± 0,168 a 35,6 ± 0,169 b 30,9 ± 0,168 cd 30,9 ± 0,168 cd 31,1 ± 0,170 c 31,1 ± 0,170 cd 30,5 ± 0,168 d WS 1.026 ± 0.093 c 1.444 ± 0.093 b 0.749 ± 0.093 cd 0.853 ± 0.093 cd 1.987 ± 0.093 a 0.388 ± 0.093 d 0.604 ± 0.093 d 0.487 ± 0.093 d 0.638 ± 0.093 d 1.324 ± 0.093 bc RH 55.7 ± 0.422 c 55 ± 0.422 cd 55.1 ± 0.422 cd 53.8 ± 0.422 d 56 ± 0.425 c 64.8 ± 0.422 a 63.5 ± 0.422 ab 63.8 ± 0.428 ab 63.1 ± 0.428 b 65.1 ± 0.422 a BGT 39.5 ± 0.255 b 40.2 ± 0.255 b 40.2 ± 0.255 b 41.1 ± 0.255 ª 39.4 ± 0.257 b 34.3 ± 0.255 c 34.6 ± 0.255 c 34.2 ± 0.258 c 34.7 ± 0.258 c 34 ± 0.255 c 16:00 h AT 31,6 ± 0,151 a 31,7 ± 0,151 a 31,5 ± 0,151 a 31,7 ± 0,151 a 31,8 ± 0,152 a 27,7 ± 0,151 b 27,8 ± 0,151 b 27,8 ± 0,153 b 27,9 ± 0,153 b 27,7 ± 0,151 b WS 0.797 ± 0.063 bc 1.066 ± 0.063 b 0.521 ± 0.063 c 0.732 ± 0.063 bc 1.576 ± 0.063 a 0.417 ± 0.063 c 0.503 ± 0.063 c 0.380 ± 0.063 c 0.422 ± 0.063 c 1.026 ± 0.063 b RH 65.7 ± 0.657 b 65.1 ± 0.657 b 66.2 ± 0.657 b 65.2 ± 0.657 b 65 ± 0.658 b 70.7 ± 0.657 a 70.1 ± 0.657 a 70.1 ± 0.660 a 69.5 ± 0.660 a 70.9 ± 0.657 a BGT 33.4 ± 0.244 ab 33.9 ± 0.244 ab 33.2 ± 0.243 b 33.6 ± 0.243 ab 34.1 ± 0.245 a 28.8 ± 0.243 c 28.8 ± 0.243 c 28.9 ± 0.246 c 29 ± 0.246 c 28.7 ± 0.244 c Means followed by the same letters in the lines did not differ from each other (p < 0.05) by Dunnet test. Table 2 Mean values and standard errors of air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, and temperature of the black globe temperature (AT, WS, RH, and BGT) at high of 120 cm in summer. Comparisons between the areas around the nuclei (AN) and internuclei (IN) of SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 and TLP on cloudy and clear days. Variables Clear sky Cloudy SPSnu5 SPSnu10 Control SPSnu5 SPSnu10 Control 08:00 h AN IN AN IN TLP AN IN AN IN TLP AT 32,7 ± 0,223 ab 32,5 ± 0,223 b 32,9 ± 0,223 ab 33,1 ± 0,223 a 31,4 ± 0,224 c 28,3 ± 0,223 d 28,3 ± 0,223 d 28,5 ± 0,225 d 28,6 ± 0,225 d 28,2 ± 0,223 d WS 1.982 ± 0.121 c 2.818 ± 0.121 b 1.794 ± 0.121 c 2.023 ± 0.121 c 3.788 ± 0.121 a 0.929 ± 0.121 d 1.217 ± 0.121 d 0.760 ± 0.121 d 0.917 ± 0.121 d 1.712 ± 0.121 c RH 59.7 ± 0.667 c 59.9 ± 0.667 c 59.3 ± 0.667 c 59.3 ± 0.667 c 62.7 ± 0.667 b 69.7 ± 0.667 a 69.3 ± 0.667 a 69 ± 0.667 a 68.7 ± 0.667 a 69.5 ± 0.667 a BGT 37.1 ± 0.328 ab 37.3 ± 0.328 a 37.4 ± 0.328 a 37.9 ± 0.328 a 36.2 ± 0.330 b 31 ± 0.328 c 31.2 ± 0.328 c 30.9 ± 0.331 c 31.3 ± 0.331 c 31.2 ± 0.328 c 12:00 h AT 35,7 ± 0,174 ab 35,5 ± 0,174 b 36,3 ± 0,173 a 36,1 ± 0,173 ab 34,9 ± 0,174 b 30,8 ± 0,173 cd 30,5 ± 0,173 cd 31,1 ± 0,175 c 30,9 ± 0,175 c 30,2 ± 0,174 d WS 3.07 ± 0.205 bc 3.58 ± 0.205 b 2.66 ± 0.205 c 3.17 ± 0.205 bc 4.61 ± 0.205 a 1.51 ± 0.205 d 1.78 ± 0.205 d 1.63 ± 0.205 d 1.77 ± 0.205 d 3.01 ± 0.205 bc RH 52.7 ± 0.471 bc 53 ± 0.471 b 51.4 ± 0.471 c 51.5 ± 0.471 c 54 ± 0.471 b 61.6 ± 0.471 a 61.8 ± 0.471 a 61.3 ± 0.471 a 61.1 ± 0.471 a 62.5 ± 0.471 a BGT 40 ± 0.278 b 40.2 ± 0.278 b 40.9 ± 0.278 ab 41.2 ± 0.278 a 39.5 ± 0.279 b 34.7 ± 0.278 c 34.6 ± 0.278 c 34.5 ± 0.280 c 34.8 ± 0.280 c 34.1 ± 0.278 c 16:00 h AT 31,7 ± 0,169 a 31,5 ± 0,169 a 31,7 ± 0,169 a 31,5 ± 0,169 a 31,6 ± 0,170 a 27,8 ± 0,169 b 27,7 ± 0,169 b 27,9 ± 0,171 b 27,9 ± 0,171 b 27,7 ± 0,169 b WS 2.33 ± 0.126 b 2.68 ± 0.126 b 1.58 ± 0.126 c 2.28 ± 0.126 b 3.61 ± 0.126 a 1.36 ± 0.126 c 1.62 ± 0.126 c 1.33 ± 0.126 c 1.55 ± 0.126 c 2.66 ± 0.126 b RH 63.6 ± 0.704 b 63.4 ± 0.704 b 64.2 ± 0.704 b 64.2 ± 0.704 b 63.6 ± 0.704 b 69.2 ± 0.704 a 69.2 ± 0.704 a 69.4 ± 0.704 a 69.2 ± 0.704 a 69.4 ± 0.704 a BGT 33.8 ± 0.248 a 34 ± 0.248 a 33.6 ± 0.247 a 33.7 ± 0.247 a 34.2 ± 0.249 a 28.9 ± 0.248 b 28.9 ± 0.248 b 28.9 ± 0.250 b 29 ± 0.250 b 28.7 ± 0.248 b Means followed by the same letters in the lines did not differ from each other (p < 0.05) by Dunnet test. Heat Load Index Comparison of the HLI between the SPSnu5, SPSnu10 and TLP ranges on cloudy and clear sky days (Fig. 2 ) showed that the treatments provided poorer thermal comfort on clear sky days than on cloudy sky days, except for the area of internuclei in SPSnu5 on clear sky days. On cloudy days, the SPSnu treatments did not differ from each other and provide worse thermal comfort than TLP at all three time points. On clear days, the TLP provide better thermal comfort than the other areas at 08:00 and 12:00 in the sun. The TLP treatments showed better thermal comfort on both cloudy and clear sky days, with the exception of 16:00 on clear sky days, when TLP had a value lower than SPSnu10 only around the nuclei in clear sky days. At 12:00, the four cloudy sky treatments (SPSnu10 AN and IN, and SPSnu5 AN and IN) did not differ from TLP on clear sky days. Comparing all treatments in the two cloudy conditions (Fig. 3 ), the highest HLI values ​​at the three time points on clear sky days were found in SPSnu10 around the nuclei and in the internuclei areas. The lowest were found in TLP on cloudy days. On days with clear sky, which were analyzed separately, TLP had lower HLI values ​​ at 08:00 and 12:00 than the other treatments. Only at 16:00 did all cloudy treatments had lower HLI values ​​than the clear sky treatments. At 12:00 the four cloudy sky treatments did not differ from the TLP on clear sky days. On cloudy days, HLI values ​​were generally lower than on clear days. However, in both cloudy conditions, the HLI in the TLP was lower than in the other areas. On cloudy days, the HLI did not differ between SPSnu10 and SPSnu5 and AN and IN areas, with the exception of 16:00 at 120 cm. Windbreak Counter-effect in Silvopastoral System with Nuclei All areas of SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 showed a reduced wind speed compared to the TLP at all times, at both heights investigated and under both cloud cover conditions (Table 3 ). The largest reduction in wind speed was measured in the AN area of ​​SPSnu10 at 08:00, at a height of 20 cm on cloudy days, where WS was 75% lower than TLP. The smallest reduction in wind speed was recorded in the IN area of ​​SPSnu5 at 12:00, at a height of 120 cm, on clear sky days, where a reduction of 22.34% was recorded compared to TLP. Numerically, the magnitudes of wind speed reduction were always greater at 20 cm height than at 120 cm height. Similarly, they were always higher in the AN areas than in the IN areas within each time window. On days with clear sky, SPSnu10 had a greater effect on reducing wind speed than SPSnu5, and on cloudy days this occurred at 08:00 and 16:00. At 12:00, SPSnu5 showed a greater reduction in wind speed, but with values ​​very close to SPSnu10. Table 3 Contrasts expressed as percentages of wind speed reduction (m/s) between the treatments and the control (TLP). Clear sky SPSnu5 SPSnu10 20cm AN IN AN IN 08:00 h -54.05 -33.09 -72.58 -63.25 12:00 h -48.36 -27.33 -62.30 -57.70 16:00 h -49.43 -32.36 -66.94 -53.55 120cm 08:00 h -47.67 -25.60 -52.64 -46.59 12:00 h -33.40 -22.34 -42.30 -31.24 16:00 h -35.46 -25.76 -56.23 -36.84 Cloudy SPSnu5 SPSnu10 20cm AN IN AN IN 08:00 h -59.55 -34.97 -75 -62.78 12:00 h -70.69 -54.38 -63.22 -51.81 16:00 h -59.36 -50.97 -62.96 -58.87 120cm 08:00 h -45.73 -28.91 -55.60 -46.44 12:00 h -49.83 -40.86 -45.85 -41.20 16:00 h -48.87 -39.10 -50 -41.73 Discussion The most commonly used climatic variables to understand the thermal environment of cattle are ambient temperature, relative humidity, radiation, wind speed and precipitation (Lees et al., 2022 ). Indices to derive thermal comfort have been created as models that combine these variables in different ways (Herbut et al. 2018 ; Li et al. 2009 ). In the present work, HLI was used because it is a widely used index in zootechnical bioclimatology, and is considered an excellent predictor of thermal discomfort (Van laer et al. 2015 ), as it accounts for the largest number of variables relevant to the outdoor environment (Gaughan et al. 2008 ). On cloudy days there is an environment with less solar radiation (Pereira et al. 2017 ). As a result, the apparent shade was suppressed by SPSnu treatments. Under this condition, the variables of relative humidity and wind speed gain importance in the composition of thermal comfort derived from HLI (Gaughan et al. 2008 ). Considering that there was no difference in relative humidity between treatments on cloudy days, the wind becomes the most important cooling factor under these conditions. As long as the temperature of the fluid (air) surrounding the animals is lower than the body temperature, heat exchange by convection is important for maintaining homeostasis. In this context, greater air movement (wind speed) promotes a forced heat exchange (Mitchell et al. 2018 ). No differences were found that would demonstrate an increasing air temperature gradient between TLP, SPSnu5 and SPSnu10. However, this was observed in the HLI results, proving that air temperature alone is not a good predictor of thermal comfort in silvopastoral systems. This can play a important role when structures such as young trees block the wind, reducing wind speed and the cooling factor. Under these circumstances the cooling effect of summer winds can be overridden (Machado et al. 2024 ) The worst conditions for thermal comfort were found in the SPSnu10 treatment on days with clear skies in the area around the nuclei (AN) and in the internuclei (IN). Thus, the higher the density of the young trees (nuclei), the worse the microclimatic conditions were in summer during the implementation phase of SPSs. The denser the nuclei were, the more pronounced the windbreak effect was especially on cloud days. The reduction in wind speed around the SPSnu10 nuclei was up to 75% on cloudy days, and up to 72.58% in the same area on clear days. In SPSnu5, also around the nuclei, the reduction was 59.55% on cloudy days and 54.05% on clear days. This effect of reducing thermal comfort in the first phases of SPSs implementation, whem the shade of the trees is not sufficient to block radiation and whem their structures lead to a reduction in wind speed, was discussed by Machado et al. ( 2024 ) and referred to as the windbreak counter-effect. The effect of reducing wind speed was also demonstrated by Deniz et al. ( 2019 ) in a silvopastoral system with seven-years-old nuclei old, during all four seasons. In the work of Deniz et al. ( 2019 ), the presence of shade from older nuclei resulted in better thermal comfort depending on the age and size of the trees, as determined by the Temperature and Humidity Index (THI) for cattle. However, this index does not use wind speed in its mathematical model. In another study using SPSnu Schmitt Filho et al. ( 2023 ) also demonstrated the reduction in wind speed due to the influence of agroforestry nuclei in relation to the TLP. In this work with an eight-year-old SPSnu, a reduction in wind speed was observed in both shaded and unshaded areas near to the nuclei during the summer. The same effect was reported by Sousa et al. (2010), who observed a reduction in wind speed of up to 50% in the silvopastoral system with 18 m high eucalyptus trees planted in rows. Schinato et al. ( 2023 ) also observed a reduction in wind speed in a silvopastoral system, with greater effects under trees than in the spaces between rows. This reduction is related to the time required to establish the system and the size of the trees (eucalyptus trees aged 7 to 9 years). However, thermal comfort indices were better in under the trees than in full sun. The porosity of the windbreak structure and the shade projection are decisive factors for the extent of wind speed reduction and thermal confort (Oberschelp et al. 2020 ). SPSnu is characterized by a high tree density in the agroforestry nuclei.. Each nuclei has twenty native trees, four banana trees, in addition to the shrubs and herbs of functional group zero, which enhances this effect. The reduction in wind speed occurs on both, the windward and leeward sides of the tree barriers. As expected, this reduction is more intense near the windbreak in the so-called ‘quiet zone’ – a horizontal distance that is two to eight times the height of the windbreak. The effect of the windbreak can extend to a distance corresponding to thirty times the height of the windbreak (Cleugh et al. 2002). This gradient, with a decreasing effect of the reduction in wind speed at greater distances from the nuclei and collection points was also recorded in this work. Windbreaks or similar structures, such as young nuclei, can lead to different gains or losses in agricultural systems depending on latitude, environmental conditions, spatial and temporal characteristics (Baker et al. 2021 ). It can even result in reduced productivity in cattle, as is the case in tropical and subtropical summers (Mader et al. 1997 ). Early silvopastoral systems can intensify the effects of heat during extreme events by blocking the wind. Therefore, these variations require manegement strategies in the implementation of SPSs (Oberschelp et al. 2020 ; Machado et al. 2024 ). The HLI values, analyzed according to the categorization proposed by Gaughan et al. ( 2010 ) ( Online Resource 1 ): thermoneutral conditions when HLI 96; demonstrated that thermal comfort conditions categorized as extreme were only present on days with clear sky, at 20 cm above the ground. This condition occurred at 08:00 and 12:00 in SPSnu10 and only at 12:00 in SPSnu5. This phenomenon is due to the proximity of the ground, which emits its own and reflected thermal radiation and causes heating. Another factor is the lower wind speed at 20 cm compared to 120 cm. This helps to explain why animals tend to adopt the station position in situations of extreme heat (Tucker et al. 2021 ). In this way, they provide a larger surface area for heat exchange through convection. The thermal environment becomes more comfortable the further the body is away from the ground during period of extreme heat (Mitchell et al. 2018 ). The occurrence of the extreme condition early morning (08:00) reinforces the concern for differentiated management during the first stages of silvopastoral systems implementation (Machado et al. 2024 ). On the other hand, cloudy days were warmer and only at 12:00 at a height of 120 cm did TLP fit into the category of better thermal comfort than SPSnu, encouraging the occupation of paddock with SPSnu on hot days, as cloudy. The most important factor to improve thermal comfort in silvopastoral systems is the shade of trees, which hinders heat exchange through radiation. During the implementation early phases of SPSs, a phase in which the expected shade is not yet present, there is a neutralization of the possible positive effect of the system on thermal comfort (Deniz et al. 2023 ). In this context, the windbreak counter-effect influences the thermal environment and affects thermal comfort of the animals (Machado et al. 2024 ). The intensity and duration of the thermal challenge, as well as the possibility of recovery during the night, determine the metabolic and behavioral consequences of thermal heat stress for the animals (Renaudeau et al. 2012 ). The collections at 16:00 in the two cloud cover conditions were those that shown the mildest settings, indicating that from 16:00 onwards cooling occur in a tolerable range and should intensify during night. Thermal comfort was more pronounced at 16:00 on cloudy days. On cloudy days, the thermal comfort rating did not differ between the two SPSnu densities, possibly because the wind speed (in TLP) was lower on cloudy days, at both heights and at the three times points. It is therefore expected that the higher the wind speed, the greater the wind reduction in silvopastoral systems due to the windbreak (Souza et al. 2010 ). As stated, if this happens in the early stages of implementation before the tree casts shades, it characterizes the windbreak couter-effect. In the view of the results, it is suggested that the use of silvopastoral systems in the hot seasons should consider their windbreak effect combined with the insufficient supply of shade. We propose the introduction of staggered modular SPSs that would allow the establishment of tree structures of different sizes. This strategy would be reinforced by the subdivision of pasture area. This would also allow areas without trees be maintained until the first nuclei provide sufficient shade projection and a porosity gradient with greater air circulation (Oberschelp et al. 2020 ). In the case of the UFSC SPSnu, or in systems implemented in other windy regions, the functional group zero could be suppressed as soon as the tree seedlings are well established to favor greater porosity for air movement at the height of the grazing environment. However, it is understood that this functional group represents a necessary trade-off for the implementation of SPSnu under these edaphoclimatic conditions. As a recommendation, in the warmer seasons the occupations of paddocks with young nuclei should take place preferentially at night. During the cold winter days, on the other hand, the use of paddocks with young nuclei would be desirable, as the windbreak couter-effect of the nuclei would lower the wind chill (Brandle et al. 2004 ). Studies will be needed under cold weather to better understand the effects of SPSnu on climate variables during winter. The use of SPSs, as a variant of agroforestry systems, has been recommended to prevent further climate change (Montagnini et al. 2013 ), and also to mitigate the effects of these changes that are already underway. In adition to carbon uptake and microclimate mitigation, forest structures are able to infiltrate and percolate larger amounts of water than bare soils, which prevents runoff increases in riverbeds during extreme rainfall events, (Zhang et al. 2023 ; Alaoui et al. 2011 ). They also avoid erosion and siltation of rivers, which require less and less water to reach flood levels (Gentry & Lopez-Parodi, 1980 ). Although the present study was conducted in a region with a subtropical climate, we can extend the discussion to other climatic regions, not only tropical but even temperate regions. The use of silvopastoral systems in tropical regions is usually highly recommended by development agencies (Brasil, 2021) and should be increasingly encouraged given the prospect of extreme weather events, both hot and cold, due to global climate change (Weilnhammer et al. 2021 ). In contrast, in subtropical and temperate regions livestock facilities are primarily designed for protection from winter weather and the bovine genotypes used are poorly tolerant to heat (Toledo et al. 2022 ). Extreme heat and cold events can be minimized by the benefits to animal thermal comfort offered by consolidated silvopastoral systems (Deniz et al. 2023 ). In these regions the interval between planting and full establishment of tree structures, the windbreak counter-effect (Machado et al. 2024 ) must be considered in the management of animals. During the hot season in subtropical and temperate regions paddocks with silvopastoral systems being implemented should be avoided due to windbreak counter-effect. In the cold months, however, paddocks with silvopastoral systems of any age should be recommended for protection against wind chill. Likewise in tropical regions where breeders predominantly use animals of the Bos taurus indicus subspecies, which have no tolerance to low temperatures (Hansen 2004 ), short waves of intense cold have been recurrent, resulting in cattle mortality due to hypothermia (Iagro 2023). In extreme temperatures, whether hot or cold, silvopastoral systems can protect livestock from life-threatening climatic events while restoring ecosystem fuctions and services (Santos et al. 2012 ). Conclusions Even on cloudy days, SPSnu had neither positive nor negative effects on air temperature, relative humidity and black globe temperature during the initial phase of implementation. However, it had a major impact on wind speed, which worsened the thermal comfort of cattle (HLI) in summer. This condition is related to the windbreak counter-effect, a common microclimatic trade-off in this early stages of SPSs implementation during hot seasons where winds are frequent. The windbreak counter-effect occurred in both cloudiness conditions. On clear sky days, it was more pronounced in treatments with higher density of nuclei in the areas around the nuclei and internuclei due to the significant reduction in wind speed in these areas and the absence of shadow projection from young trees. The first phase of silvopastoral systems implementation is a critical moment for the thermal comfort of livestock, even on cloudy days. Producers must be aware of this trade-off on hot days and avoid paddocks with young trees when the wind is an important cooling factor. If there are no alternatives, paddocks with SPSs in the early phases of implementation should be used on clound days, as they provide a better inferred thermal comfort than days with clear skies Declarations Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available. Data availability Data sets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Authors Contribution All authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. The preparation of the material, data collection and analysis were carried out by Thiago Mombach Pinheiro Machado, Abdon L. Schmitt Filho, Ruan Daros, and Daniele C. Kazama. The main draft of the manuscript was written by Thiago Mombach Pinheiro Machado, Abdon Luiz Schmitt and Daniele C. Kazama, and all authors commented on earlier versions of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgments We thank the students from LASSre/UFSC who worked on data collection and implementation of SPSnu at FER/UFSC. We thanks the staff of FER/UFSC who helped the implementation of SPSnu Experimental Unit. 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Embrapa Clima Temperado, Embrapa Florestas, Pelotas e Colombo ISBN 978-85-7383-519-9 Zhang W et al (2023) Changes in soil infiltration and water flow paths: Insights from subtropical forest succession sequence. Catena 221:106748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106748 Supplementary Files 03OnlineResourMachadoetalAdvImplSPSabr25.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revisions Needed 22 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 Sep, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 13 Aug, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 28 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 26 Apr, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6436369","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":500023917,"identity":"e7d2da16-35c7-49b1-b665-a2a8638a8143","order_by":0,"name":"Thiago Mombach Pinheiro Machado","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Thiago","middleName":"Mombach Pinheiro","lastName":"Machado","suffix":""},{"id":500023918,"identity":"5bb4f0d1-2c6a-4cdc-a4f9-8f460c214dba","order_by":1,"name":"Abdon Luiz Schmitt Filho","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCQYDBgYbCRkDBuZjYAE2dqK0pEnwGDCwpTEwJAC1MBOnhQGohccMrIWBkBb+2c0bHxckWPCYs/d8e/DxxzZ5PmYGxg8fc/BYcudYsfGMBAkey56z2w1nJNw2bGNmYJacuQ2PNTdyzKR5fwD9ciN3mzRPwm1GoBY2Zl48WuRBWngSQFpynoG02BPUYoCkhQ2kJZGgFkOQX8Bazhwzk5yRdju5jZmxGa9f5G4DQ4wnoU7O4HjzM4kPNrdt57c3H/zwEZ/3sQDGBtLUj4JRMApGwSjAAADqZkjiqry+WQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3553-7727","institution":"Federal University of Santa Catarina","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdon","middleName":"Luiz Schmitt","lastName":"Filho","suffix":""},{"id":500023919,"identity":"5ba2910a-dccb-4dc5-b2d6-f008bab43e86","order_by":2,"name":"Ruan Daros","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ruan","middleName":"","lastName":"Daros","suffix":""},{"id":500023920,"identity":"a80118cd-5dae-4e9a-bb9b-bcd0213cf597","order_by":3,"name":"Joshua Farley","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joshua","middleName":"","lastName":"Farley","suffix":""},{"id":500023921,"identity":"3ab7e138-a7e3-42e6-9454-6e0ba71a631c","order_by":4,"name":"Paulo Sinisgalli","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paulo","middleName":"","lastName":"Sinisgalli","suffix":""},{"id":500023922,"identity":"3411e05d-b74b-4088-826d-bbfa462856e5","order_by":5,"name":"Daniele C. Silva-Kazama","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daniele","middleName":"C.","lastName":"Silva-Kazama","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-12 20:25:39","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6436369/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6436369/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89555059,"identity":"4e934b8a-5a89-4bcd-ba32-4fec5be2346a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 09:13:00","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":113262,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparisons of the Heat Load Index of the areas around the nuclei (AN) and internuclei (IN) of SPSnu5 (5) and SPSnu10 (10) and TLP (0) on clear and cloudy skys. Data from 08:00 (\u003cstrong\u003eA\u003c/strong\u003e), 12:00 (\u003cstrong\u003eB\u003c/strong\u003e) and 16:00 (\u003cstrong\u003eC\u003c/strong\u003e) at a hight of \u003cstrong\u003e20 cm\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6436369/v1/79c32d5c2533624388d3c77e.png"},{"id":89555060,"identity":"080af6ae-e621-4fbf-8d14-6fa281d234e3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 09:13:00","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":108484,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of the Heat Load Index of the areas around the nuclei (AN) and internuclei (IN) of SPSnu5 (5) and SPSnu10 (10) and TLP (0) on clear and cloudy skies. Data from 08:00 (A), 12:00 (B) and 16:00 (C) at a hight of 120 cm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6436369/v1/3ef6a8b88abcca33c79df56a.png"},{"id":89555373,"identity":"915d5c5b-3e91-4a86-851e-daa881c0ddfa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 09:21:01","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59656,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIllustrative representation of the areas in a paddock with five tree nuclei – SPSnu5 treatment. AN – around the nuclei (area between the dotted line and the nucleus); IN - internuclei. The paddocks are squares with a side length of 50 m, and the nuclei are squares with a side length of 5 m.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6436369/v1/391a4a6880265fc32630523a.jpeg"},{"id":89555069,"identity":"78e4e2ec-29d2-4f4a-a4a3-1d517d80786b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 09:13:01","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59656,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIllustrative representation of the areas in a paddock with five tree nuclei – SPSnu5 treatment. AN – around the nuclei (area between the dotted line and the nucleus); IN - internuclei. The paddocks are squares with a side length of 50 m, and the nuclei are squares with a side length of 5 m.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6436369/v1/9570729f2fe5ef8fa75acaf8.jpeg"},{"id":89556353,"identity":"2dedc391-cd9e-4c85-b8e6-179893b92465","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 09:29:01","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":113262,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparisons of the Heat Load Index of the areas around the nuclei (AN) and internuclei (IN) of SPSnu5 (5) and SPSnu10 (10) and TLP (0) on clear and cloudy skys. Data from 08:00 (\u003cstrong\u003eA\u003c/strong\u003e), 12:00 (\u003cstrong\u003eB\u003c/strong\u003e) and 16:00 (\u003cstrong\u003eC\u003c/strong\u003e) at a hight of \u003cstrong\u003e20 cm\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6436369/v1/d1040f915a4c36f79c5a343e.png"},{"id":89555079,"identity":"a14faa48-1699-4453-bef9-3d1febe495b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 09:13:02","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":108484,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of the Heat Load Index of the areas around the nuclei (AN) and internuclei (IN) of SPSnu5 (5) and SPSnu10 (10) and TLP (0) on clear and cloudy skies. Data from 08:00 (A), 12:00 (B) and 16:00 (C) at a hight of 120 cm.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6436369/v1/87032c40f0adba6bdbd415c0.png"},{"id":89556621,"identity":"1328e4b7-804f-4969-aad6-cf483ddbfa0d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 09:37:01","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1823172,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6436369/v1/0b5151d5-b8b3-48fd-9800-b519530d85b0.pdf"},{"id":89555064,"identity":"0ba8cf5a-bba5-4118-898a-5a3b83fe1e22","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 09:13:01","extension":"docx","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":31597,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"03OnlineResourMachadoetalAdvImplSPSabr25.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6436369/v1/b52418a8592ac239925c8bd4.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Trade-offs in the implementation of silvopastoral systems: Windbreak counter-effect, wind speed and cloud cover","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe ability of modern societies to intervene in the Earth\u0026rsquo;s systems on a scale comparable to the greatest global catastrophes has ushered in the current geological era known as the Anthropocene (Crutzen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In this context, extensive livestock production occupies the position of the villain associated with greenhouse gas emission and deforestation as it is often the primary activity utilizing these altered environments (Bowman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Parente et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The benchmarks for evaluating the performance of cattle production systems can no longer be just productivity and profitability. Issues related to reducing carbon emissions (Desjardins et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Stanley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Mazzzetto et al. 2022), improving energy efficiency (Hercher-Pasteur et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), using ecologically regenerative techniques (Gosnell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Teague \u0026amp; Kreuter \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), improving biodiversity (Alvarado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), animal welfare (Mandel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), human well-being and social equity (Pinillos et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) need to be considered.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe use of silvopastoral systems is a regenerative initiative for pasture-based livestock farming on former forest landscapes (Argote et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This involves consortium of tree and shrub species with pastures and herbivores, either simultaneously or staggered over time (Cubbage et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Silvopastoral systems can significantly increase species diversity in conventional livestock farming (Harvey et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Heck \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Simioni et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), while being more efficient in terms of carbon balance (Olaya-Montes et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, Silva et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), productivity (Ford et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), product diversification (Schmitt Filho \u0026amp; Farley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and animal thermal comfort (Deniz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Schinato et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Silvopastoral System with Nuclei (SPSnu) uses forty 5 x 5 m agroforestry nuclei of native tree species evenly spaced over one hectare of pasture (Deniz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Schmitt Filho et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Depending on the degree of soil cover degradation, water cycling, and overall microclimate, these agroforestry nuclei may need to be previously planted with shrubs and herbs to prepare the soil and microclimate to provide the conditions for the pioner trees to grow. This facilitation process can take several years as a typical successional agroforestry (Chillo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuring the implementation period of a SPSs, the presence of young trees can influence some microclimatic variables such as wind speed by blocking it. This increases thermal stress during the hot seasons. At the same time, young trees at this early stage cannot yet provide thermal comfort through large tree shade (Machado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This has been termed windbreak counter-effect (WbCe) by Machado et al (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). \u0026ndash; the negative effect of young trees blocking the wind before they provide effective shade. The WbCe can significantly limit thermal comfort in the early stages of SPSs, especially where hot season winds are an important refreshing factor (Church et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeat stress in cattle is a growing problem worldwide, (Thornton et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and of great importance for pasture-based systems due to climate change (Mee \u0026amp; Boyle \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The provision of shade for animals is recognized to have benefits for thermal comfort in the hot seasons in temperate (Kendall et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e)) and subtropical regions (Vizzotto et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e); and throughout the year in the tropics (Silanikove 2010; Van laer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Thermal comfort has been shown to be one of the main reasons influencing the decision to adopt SPSs (Pent et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, in order to develop management strategies for the adoption of SPSs, it is necessary to learn more about the windbreak counter-effect (WbCe) at different seasons, latitudes, and wind intensities, and how it affects thermal comfort and livestock productivity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe objective of this study was to evaluate the thermal environment and progress in the characterization of the Windbreak Counter-effect (WbCe), focusing on the implementation of SPSnu under different cloudy conditions on summer days in southern Brazil.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eExperimental area and treatments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experiment was carried out at the Silvopastoral System with Nuclei Teaching and Research Unit of the Experimental Farm of the Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), at 27\u0026ordm; 41' South latitude, in Florian\u0026oacute;polis, Southern Brazil. The climate of the region is subtropical, classified as Cfa (Kottek et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The experiment was conducted in the summer of 2022, between the months of January and February, historically the hottest of the year with maximum temperature average of 28.1\u0026deg; C and 28.4\u0026deg; C, respectively (Wrege et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was developed in the Silvipastoral System with Nuclei Unit (SPSnu) in a cattle production area with naturalized polyphytic pastures subdivided and managed according to the Voisin Rational Grazing (Machado Filho et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, Murhpy 2010). The SPSnu is a long-term didactic and experimental unit that integrates concepts of succession and ecological rehabilitation into the pasture-based production system. Native species were preferably used to form agroforestry nuclei of 5 m x 5 m distributed equidistantly across the pasture in two densities, five and ten percent of the pasture\u0026rsquo;s basal area. Each nucleus concists of 20 native trees, four banana trees (\u003cem\u003eMusa spp\u003c/em\u003e.) and the \u0026lsquo;functional group zero\u0026rsquo;. This functional group consisted of forage plants and shrubs (\u003cem\u003eCavanus cajam, Penisetum purpurium, Araquis pintoi, Bicha orellana\u003c/em\u003e) that create microclimatic and pedological conditions for the planting of pioneering tree seadlings (Schmitt Filho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Schmitt Filho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Schmitt Filho \u0026amp; Farley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). At the time the experiment was conducted, 15 tree seedlings were planted per nucleus and the experimental unit was in its second year since the first tree plantings began. The plant community in the nuclei reached an average height of 1.74 m. After stabilization of the succession plantings, there will be 800 trees and 160 banana trees per hectare. The diversity of the system will be up to 50 different native tree species per hectare.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to the frequented strong winds (Wrege et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) in a coastal plain with shallow, sandy soils and possible flooding (Marques et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), tree seedlings in the agroforestry nuclei had to be staked, presenting growth difficulties in the first few years. Due to the inhospitable conditions, \u003cem\u003ePennisetum purpureum\u003c/em\u003e was planted on two sides of the nuclei. Two 0.5 m wide and 4 m long line were planted on the north and south side of each nuclei, as these are the prevailing winds directions in the region (Meteorological Database of the National Institute of Meteorology, Meteorological Station 83897 \u0026ndash; Air Base of Florian\u0026oacute;polis). These structures were created to facilitate the succession of other species by provision of shade, protection from wind and the accumulation of biomass (Huebner et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003ePennisetum purpureum\u003c/em\u003e and other plants that facilitate the initial succession process have been referred to as a functional group zero (Schmitt Filho et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe trial area comprises 18 paddocks measuring 2,500 square meters (50 m x 50 m), divided in three blocks of six paddocks, Each block has two paddocks for each treatment: two \u0026lsquo;TLP\u0026rsquo; - treeless pasture; two \u0026lsquo;SPSnu5\u0026rsquo; \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5% of the pasture area occupied by tree nuclei (20 nuclei ha-\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e) (); and two \u0026lsquo;SPSnu10\u0026rsquo; \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10% of the pasture area occupied by tree nuclei (40 nuclei ha-\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData collection on climate variables took place in two areas within each of the 3 treatments (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The areas were (1) AN (around the nuclei) \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.5 m wide strip surrounding the nuclei; (2) IN (internuclei) - an area between the nuclei. The nomenclatures of the areas were established according to Deniz et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data collection took place on 18 summer days with mean temperature above the historical maximum for the month (Wrege et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), with 10 sunny days without cloud cover and eight days with heavy cloud cover. The survey days were always determined the day before in consultations with the most important weather forecasting institutes. Days with clear sky were considered days with no cloud cover. Cloudy days were characterized by the fact that there was no shadow projection from tree structures and clouds were present in the entire field of view. The clarity index (IK) was calculated for the days on which data collection took place. On cloudy days, the average IK was 0.399, which classifies them as \u0026ldquo;partially cloudy days with a predominance of the diffuse component of solar radiation\u0026rdquo;. The average IK of days without clouds was 0.655, which classifies them as \u0026ldquo;clear sky\u0026rdquo; days according to the IK categories defined by Escobedo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollections were made simultaneously in the treatments, at three times per day, at 8:00 am, 12:00 pm and 4:00 pm. The sampling unit was the agroforestry tree nucleus. Data were collected from nine nuclei per treatment and time. Four fixed collection points were established in each nuclei two in the area around the nuclei - AN (one on the south side and one on the north side) and two in the internuclei area - IN (one on the south side and the other on the north side). In the TLP treatment, fictitious nuclei were marked with pegs in the same number and arrangement as in the other treatments. Consequently, the collection points corresponded to those of the two treatments with SPSnu.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe pasture height, relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS) and black globe temperature (BGT) were measured at each recording point. With the exception of pasture height, data was collected at two heights, 20 cm and 120 cm. These heights correspond to the heights of the microclimate samples for cattle in supine and standing position, respectively. The direction of the data collection route was alternated each day, starting one day in the south and the next day in the north. Collection teams were formed and assigned to treatments by daily draws and distribution of equipment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEquipment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were recorded in a field table t and the following devices were used: three temperature meters, model AK887 (manufactured by Akso) to measure relative humidity (scale 0 to 99%, accuracy\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3%) and black globe temperature (scale 0 to 80\u0026deg; C, accuracy\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u0026deg; C); three thermoanemometers model AK821 (manufactured by Akso, scale 0.4 to 20 m/s, accuracy\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2%) to measure wind speed. Pasture height was measured on each survey day using with a ruler graduated in centimeters. Each device was held at each point long enough to stabilize the measured variable. All devices were previously calibrated by the manufacturer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Heat Load Index was calculated for the AN and IN areas of the SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 treatments and for the TLP control on all collection days. These areas were compared separately at each time point and at a height of 20 cm and 120 cm. The variables that make up the HLI were also compared for the two heights. Finally, the contrasts of wind reduction were calculated as a function of the different treatments in relation to TLP.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Heat Load Index (HLI) was calculated using the following formula (Gaughan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- black globe temperature (BGT) greater than 25\u0026deg;C:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHLI\u003csub\u003eBGT\u0026gt;25\u003c/sub\u003e = 8.62 + (0.38 x rel. humidity) + (1.55 x BGT) \u0026ndash; (0.5 x wind speed) + [e\u003csup\u003e2.4\u0026minus;wind speed\u003c/sup\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ee\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;natural logarithm base (approximate value of e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.71828).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- black globe temperature (BGT) less than 25\u0026deg; C:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHLI\u003csub\u003eBGT\u0026lt;25\u003c/sub\u003e = 10.66 + (0,28 x relative humidity) + (1.3 x BGT) \u0026ndash; wind speed\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect of the reduction in wind speed by SPSnu was calculated by the difference expressed as a relative percentage between the TLP and the areas of SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 within each time and height considering the respective TLP as 100%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis was performed in R software using the RStudio interface (Team RC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Simple and mixed linear regression models were applied using the nucleus as a random measure. Mixed models were calculated using the \u0026lsquo;lmer\u0026rsquo; function of the lme4 statistical package (Bates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Repeated measurements on ten days with clear skies days and the eight cloudy days of data collection were grouped by simple average. To compare the overall effect of the treatment, data from each collection point in the area around the nuclei and in the area of internuclei were grouped to calculate the average. Linear regression models with treatment as a fixed effect (SPSnu5, SPSnu10 and TLP) were used and covariates were included where necessary. The Tukey test was used to compare the means generated by the linear model, with significance set at 5%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor comparisons between different areas and their interactions with treatment, data were grouped by day and nucleus area, with the nucleus indicated as a random- effect variable. Linear mixed models were constructed in this way and means were compared using Dunnet\u0026rsquo;s test in bespoke contrasts created in accordance with the aims of the work. As with the simple linear models the treatment variable, area, and the effects of potential confounding variables were included as covariates in the mixed models.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAir temperature\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs expected, the air temperatures were higher on days with clear skies. In general, the air temperature at SPSnu was lower under all conditions except for a single point in time, 08:00 on days with clear skies, at both times.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen comparing the two different areas of SPSnu (areas around the nuclei-AN and inter nuclei-IN) with treeless pastures, generally no differences were found between the air temperatures in the three areas. At a few times, less mild temperatures were observed in the two areas of SPSnu, and at some other times the opposite was observed. At 12:00 on days with clear skies, it was warmer at 20 cm in the SPSnu10 areas than in the others. On cloudy days, only the area AN of SPSnu10 was warmer than TLP at a height of 20 cm. At the same time, on clear sky days at 120 cm, only the AN area of SPSnu10 was warmer than TLP. On cloudy days at this time, both areas of SPSnu10 were warmer than the TLP.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt 16:00, air temperatures on cloudy days were milder than on days with clear skies. There were no differences in air temperatures between areas within each cloudy condition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eComponent variables of the Heat Load Index\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the variables that make up the HLI (wind speed, relative humidity and black globe temperature - Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) reveled no or only minor differences between the treatments on individual days for relative humidity and black globe temperature. In contrast, there were there large differences in wind speed between treatments. The TLP treatments; generally had wind speeds twice as high as the other treatments, while there were no differences in relative humidity and black globe temperature. Wind speed showed significant differences between clear and cloudy days virtually in all treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt 120 cm, in relation to 20 cm, within day, the homogeneity of values ​​between treatments for the variables relative humidity and black globe temperature was shown. On the other hand, a greater difference in wind speed between TLP and the other treatments was evident at 120 cm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn general, wind speeds were twice as high or higher in TLP than in the other treatments. On cloudy days, lower values ​​for wind speed and black globe temperature were generally observed compared to clear skies. Relative humidity showed an inverse pattern and was higher on cloudy days in virtually all treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean values and standard errors of air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and temperature of the black globe (AT, WS, RH, and BGT) at a high of \u003cb\u003e20 cm\u003c/b\u003e in summer. Comparisons between the areas around the nuclei (AN) and internuclei (IN) of SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 and TLP on cloudy and clear days.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClear sky\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCloudy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e08:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32,8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,208\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,208\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,208\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33,3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,208\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31,9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,209\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,209\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,209\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,210\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,210\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,208\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.754\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.098\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.450\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.603\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003ecd\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.641\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.288\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003ede\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.463\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.178\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003ee\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.265\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003ede\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.712\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.073\u003cb\u003ecd\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRH\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.626\u003cb\u003ebc\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.626\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.626\u003cb\u003ebc\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.626\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.629\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.626\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.626\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.633\u003cb\u003e\u0026ordf;\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.633\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.626\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBGT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.797\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003ebc\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.066\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.521\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.732\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003ebc\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.576\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.417\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.503\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.380\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.422\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.026\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.063\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRH\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.657\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.657\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.657\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.657\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.658\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.657\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.657\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.660\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.660\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.657\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBGT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.244\u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.244\u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.243\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.243\u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.245\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.243\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.243\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.246\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.246\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.244\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans followed by the same letters in the lines did not differ from each other (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) by Dunnet test.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean values and standard errors of air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, and temperature of the black globe temperature (AT, WS, RH, and BGT) at high of \u003cb\u003e120 cm\u003c/b\u003e in summer. Comparisons between the areas around the nuclei (AN) and internuclei (IN) of SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 and TLP on cloudy and clear days.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClear sky\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCloudy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e08:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTLP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32,7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,223\u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32,5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,223\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32,9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,223\u003cb\u003eab\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33,1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,223\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31,4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,224\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,223\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,223\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,225\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,225\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,223\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.982\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.818\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.794\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.023\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.788\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.929\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.217\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.760\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.917\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003ed\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.712\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.121\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRH\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.667\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBGT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31,7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,169\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31,5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,169\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31,7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,169\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31,5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,169\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31,6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,170\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27,8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,169\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27,7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,169\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27,9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,171\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27,9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,171\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27,7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0,169\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.126\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRH\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.704\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBGT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.248\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.248\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.247\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.247\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.249\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.248\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.248\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.250\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.250\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.248\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMeans followed by the same letters in the lines did not differ from each other (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) by Dunnet test.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHeat Load Index\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eComparison of the HLI between the SPSnu5, SPSnu10 and TLP ranges on cloudy and clear sky days (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) showed that the treatments provided poorer thermal comfort on clear sky days than on cloudy sky days, except for the area of internuclei in SPSnu5 on clear sky days. On cloudy days, the SPSnu treatments did not differ from each other and provide worse thermal comfort than TLP at all three time points. On clear days, the TLP provide better thermal comfort than the other areas at 08:00 and 12:00 in the sun.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe TLP treatments showed better thermal comfort on both cloudy and clear sky days, with the exception of 16:00 on clear sky days, when TLP had a value lower than SPSnu10 only around the nuclei in clear sky days. At 12:00, the four cloudy sky treatments (SPSnu10 AN and IN, and SPSnu5 AN and IN) did not differ from TLP on clear sky days.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparing all treatments in the two cloudy conditions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), the highest HLI values ​​at the three time points on clear sky days were found in SPSnu10 around the nuclei and in the internuclei areas. The lowest were found in TLP on cloudy days. On days with clear sky, which were analyzed separately, TLP had lower HLI values ​​ at 08:00 and 12:00 than the other treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOnly at 16:00 did all cloudy treatments had lower HLI values ​​than the clear sky treatments. At 12:00 the four cloudy sky treatments did not differ from the TLP on clear sky days.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn cloudy days, HLI values ​​were generally lower than on clear days. However, in both cloudy conditions, the HLI in the TLP was lower than in the other areas. On cloudy days, the HLI did not differ between SPSnu10 and SPSnu5 and AN and IN areas, with the exception of 16:00 at 120 cm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eWindbreak Counter-effect in Silvopastoral System with Nuclei\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll areas of SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 showed a reduced wind speed compared to the TLP at all times, at both heights investigated and under both cloud cover conditions (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The largest reduction in wind speed was measured in the AN area of ​​SPSnu10 at 08:00, at a height of 20 cm on cloudy days, where WS was 75% lower than TLP. The smallest reduction in wind speed was recorded in the IN area of ​​SPSnu5 at 12:00, at a height of 120 cm, on clear sky days, where a reduction of 22.34% was recorded compared to TLP.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumerically, the magnitudes of wind speed reduction were always greater at 20 cm height than at 120 cm height. Similarly, they were always higher in the AN areas than in the IN areas within each time window. On days with clear sky, SPSnu10 had a greater effect on reducing wind speed than SPSnu5, and on cloudy days this occurred at 08:00 and 16:00. At 12:00, SPSnu5 showed a greater reduction in wind speed, but with values ​​very close to SPSnu10.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContrasts expressed as percentages of wind speed reduction (m/s) between the treatments and the control (TLP).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClear sky\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20cm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e08:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-54.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-33.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-72.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-63.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-48.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-27.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-62.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-57.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-49.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-32.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-66.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-53.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e120cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e08:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-47.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-25.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-52.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-46.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-33.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-22.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-42.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-31.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-35.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-25.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-56.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-36.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCloudy\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSPSnu5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSPSnu10\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAN\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIN\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAN\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIN\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e08:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-59.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-34.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-62.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-70.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-54.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-63.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-51.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-59.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-50.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-62.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-58.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e120cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e08:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-45.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-28.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-55.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-46.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-49.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-40.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-45.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-41.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16:00 h\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-48.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-39.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-41.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe most commonly used climatic variables to understand the thermal environment of cattle are ambient temperature, relative humidity, radiation, wind speed and precipitation (Lees et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Indices to derive thermal comfort have been created as models that combine these variables in different ways (Herbut et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). In the present work, HLI was used because it is a widely used index in zootechnical bioclimatology, and is considered an excellent predictor of thermal discomfort (Van laer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), as it accounts for the largest number of variables relevant to the outdoor environment (Gaughan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn cloudy days there is an environment with less solar radiation (Pereira et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, the apparent shade was suppressed by SPSnu treatments. Under this condition, the variables of relative humidity and wind speed gain importance in the composition of thermal comfort derived from HLI (Gaughan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsidering that there was no difference in relative humidity between treatments on cloudy days, the wind becomes the most important cooling factor under these conditions. As long as the temperature of the fluid (air) surrounding the animals is lower than the body temperature, heat exchange by convection is important for maintaining homeostasis. In this context, greater air movement (wind speed) promotes a forced heat exchange (Mitchell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo differences were found that would demonstrate an increasing air temperature gradient between TLP, SPSnu5 and SPSnu10. However, this was observed in the HLI results, proving that air temperature alone is not a good predictor of thermal comfort in silvopastoral systems. This can play a important role when structures such as young trees block the wind, reducing wind speed and the cooling factor. Under these circumstances the cooling effect of summer winds can be overridden (Machado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe worst conditions for thermal comfort were found in the SPSnu10 treatment on days with clear skies in the area around the nuclei (AN) and in the internuclei (IN). Thus, the higher the density of the young trees (nuclei), the worse the microclimatic conditions were in summer during the implementation phase of SPSs. The denser the nuclei were, the more pronounced the windbreak effect was especially on cloud days. The reduction in wind speed around the SPSnu10 nuclei was up to 75% on cloudy days, and up to 72.58% in the same area on clear days. In SPSnu5, also around the nuclei, the reduction was 59.55% on cloudy days and 54.05% on clear days.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis effect of reducing thermal comfort in the first phases of SPSs implementation, whem the shade of the trees is not sufficient to block radiation and whem their structures lead to a reduction in wind speed, was discussed by Machado et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and referred to as the windbreak counter-effect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect of reducing wind speed was also demonstrated by Deniz et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) in a silvopastoral system with seven-years-old nuclei old, during all four seasons. In the work of Deniz et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), the presence of shade from older nuclei resulted in better thermal comfort depending on the age and size of the trees, as determined by the Temperature and Humidity Index (THI) for cattle. However, this index does not use wind speed in its mathematical model.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn another study using SPSnu Schmitt Filho et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) also demonstrated the reduction in wind speed due to the influence of agroforestry nuclei in relation to the TLP. In this work with an eight-year-old SPSnu, a reduction in wind speed was observed in both shaded and unshaded areas near to the nuclei during the summer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe same effect was reported by Sousa et al. (2010), who observed a reduction in wind speed of up to 50% in the silvopastoral system with 18 m high eucalyptus trees planted in rows.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchinato et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) also observed a reduction in wind speed in a silvopastoral system, with greater effects under trees than in the spaces between rows. This reduction is related to the time required to establish the system and the size of the trees (eucalyptus trees aged 7 to 9 years). However, thermal comfort indices were better in under the trees than in full sun. The porosity of the windbreak structure and the shade projection are decisive factors for the extent of wind speed reduction and thermal confort (Oberschelp et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSPSnu is characterized by a high tree density in the agroforestry nuclei.. Each nuclei has twenty native trees, four banana trees, in addition to the shrubs and herbs of functional group zero, which enhances this effect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe reduction in wind speed occurs on both, the windward and leeward sides of the tree barriers. As expected, this reduction is more intense near the windbreak in the so-called \u0026lsquo;quiet zone\u0026rsquo; \u0026ndash; a horizontal distance that is two to eight times the height of the windbreak. The effect of the windbreak can extend to a distance corresponding to thirty times the height of the windbreak (Cleugh et al. 2002). This gradient, with a decreasing effect of the reduction in wind speed at greater distances from the nuclei and collection points was also recorded in this work.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWindbreaks or similar structures, such as young nuclei, can lead to different gains or losses in agricultural systems depending on latitude, environmental conditions, spatial and temporal characteristics (Baker et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It can even result in reduced productivity in cattle, as is the case in tropical and subtropical summers (Mader et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Early silvopastoral systems can intensify the effects of heat during extreme events by blocking the wind. Therefore, these variations require manegement strategies in the implementation of SPSs (Oberschelp et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Machado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe HLI values, analyzed according to the categorization proposed by Gaughan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) (\u003cb\u003eOnline Resource 1\u003c/b\u003e): thermoneutral conditions when HLI\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;70; warm, HLI 70.1\u0026ndash;77; hot, HLI 77.1\u0026ndash;86; very hot, HLI 86.1\u0026ndash;96 and extreme when HLI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;96; demonstrated that thermal comfort conditions categorized as extreme were only present on days with clear sky, at 20 cm above the ground. This condition occurred at 08:00 and 12:00 in SPSnu10 and only at 12:00 in SPSnu5. This phenomenon is due to the proximity of the ground, which emits its own and reflected thermal radiation and causes heating.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother factor is the lower wind speed at 20 cm compared to 120 cm. This helps to explain why animals tend to adopt the station position in situations of extreme heat (Tucker et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In this way, they provide a larger surface area for heat exchange through convection. The thermal environment becomes more comfortable the further the body is away from the ground during period of extreme heat (Mitchell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe occurrence of the extreme condition early morning (08:00) reinforces the concern for differentiated management during the first stages of silvopastoral systems implementation (Machado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, cloudy days were warmer and only at 12:00 at a height of 120 cm did TLP fit into the category of better thermal comfort than SPSnu, encouraging the occupation of paddock with SPSnu on hot days, as cloudy. The most important factor to improve thermal comfort in silvopastoral systems is the shade of trees, which hinders heat exchange through radiation. During the implementation early phases of SPSs, a phase in which the expected shade is not yet present, there is a neutralization of the possible positive effect of the system on thermal comfort (Deniz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In this context, the windbreak counter-effect influences the thermal environment and affects thermal comfort of the animals (Machado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe intensity and duration of the thermal challenge, as well as the possibility of recovery during the night, determine the metabolic and behavioral consequences of thermal heat stress for the animals (Renaudeau et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The collections at 16:00 in the two cloud cover conditions were those that shown the mildest settings, indicating that from 16:00 onwards cooling occur in a tolerable range and should intensify during night. Thermal comfort was more pronounced at 16:00 on cloudy days. On cloudy days, the thermal comfort rating did not differ between the two SPSnu densities, possibly because the wind speed (in TLP) was lower on cloudy days, at both heights and at the three times points. It is therefore expected that the higher the wind speed, the greater the wind reduction in silvopastoral systems due to the windbreak (Souza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). As stated, if this happens in the early stages of implementation before the tree casts shades, it characterizes the windbreak couter-effect.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the view of the results, it is suggested that the use of silvopastoral systems in the hot seasons should consider their windbreak effect combined with the insufficient supply of shade. We propose the introduction of staggered modular SPSs that would allow the establishment of tree structures of different sizes. This strategy would be reinforced by the subdivision of pasture area. This would also allow areas without trees be maintained until the first nuclei provide sufficient shade projection and a porosity gradient with greater air circulation (Oberschelp et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the case of the UFSC SPSnu, or in systems implemented in other windy regions, the functional group zero could be suppressed as soon as the tree seedlings are well established to favor greater porosity for air movement at the height of the grazing environment. However, it is understood that this functional group represents a necessary trade-off for the implementation of SPSnu under these edaphoclimatic conditions. As a recommendation, in the warmer seasons the occupations of paddocks with young nuclei should take place preferentially at night. During the cold winter days, on the other hand, the use of paddocks with young nuclei would be desirable, as the windbreak couter-effect of the nuclei would lower the wind chill (Brandle et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Studies will be needed under cold weather to better understand the effects of SPSnu on climate variables during winter.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe use of SPSs, as a variant of agroforestry systems, has been recommended to prevent further climate change (Montagnini et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and also to mitigate the effects of these changes that are already underway. In adition to carbon uptake and microclimate mitigation, forest structures are able to infiltrate and percolate larger amounts of water than bare soils, which prevents runoff increases in riverbeds during extreme rainfall events, (Zhang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Alaoui et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). They also avoid erosion and siltation of rivers, which require less and less water to reach flood levels (Gentry \u0026amp; Lopez-Parodi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the present study was conducted in a region with a subtropical climate, we can extend the discussion to other climatic regions, not only tropical but even temperate regions. The use of silvopastoral systems in tropical regions is usually highly recommended by development agencies (Brasil, 2021) and should be increasingly encouraged given the prospect of extreme weather events, both hot and cold, due to global climate change (Weilnhammer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, in subtropical and temperate regions livestock facilities are primarily designed for protection from winter weather and the bovine genotypes used are poorly tolerant to heat (Toledo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Extreme heat and cold events can be minimized by the benefits to animal thermal comfort offered by consolidated silvopastoral systems (Deniz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In these regions the interval between planting and full establishment of tree structures, the windbreak counter-effect (Machado et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) must be considered in the management of animals. During the hot season in subtropical and temperate regions paddocks with silvopastoral systems being implemented should be avoided due to windbreak counter-effect. In the cold months, however, paddocks with silvopastoral systems of any age should be recommended for protection against wind chill.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLikewise in tropical regions where breeders predominantly use animals of the \u003cem\u003eBos taurus indicus\u003c/em\u003e subspecies, which have no tolerance to low temperatures (Hansen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), short waves of intense cold have been recurrent, resulting in cattle mortality due to hypothermia (Iagro 2023). In extreme temperatures, whether hot or cold, silvopastoral systems can protect livestock from life-threatening climatic events while restoring ecosystem fuctions and services (Santos et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eEven on cloudy days, SPSnu had neither positive nor negative effects on air temperature, relative humidity and black globe temperature during the initial phase of implementation. However, it had a major impact on wind speed, which worsened the thermal comfort of cattle (HLI) in summer. This condition is related to the windbreak counter-effect, a common microclimatic trade-off in this early stages of SPSs implementation during hot seasons where winds are frequent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe windbreak counter-effect occurred in both cloudiness conditions. On clear sky days, it was more pronounced in treatments with higher density of nuclei in the areas around the nuclei and internuclei due to the significant reduction in wind speed in these areas and the absence of shadow projection from young trees.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first phase of silvopastoral systems implementation is a critical moment for the thermal comfort of livestock, even on cloudy days. Producers must be aware of this trade-off on hot days and avoid paddocks with young trees when the wind is an important cooling factor. If there are no alternatives, paddocks with SPSs in the early phases of implementation should be used on clound days, as they provide a better inferred thermal comfort than days with clear skies\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Information\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe online version contains supplementary material available.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eData sets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors Contribution\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. The preparation of the material, data collection and analysis were carried out by Thiago Mombach Pinheiro Machado, Abdon L. Schmitt Filho, Ruan Daros, and Daniele C. Kazama. The main draft of the manuscript was written by Thiago Mombach Pinheiro Machado, Abdon Luiz Schmitt and Daniele C. Kazama, and all authors commented on earlier versions of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003eWe thank the students from LASSre/UFSC who worked on data collection and implementation of SPSnu at FER/UFSC. We thanks the staff of FER/UFSC who helped the implementation of SPSnu Experimental Unit.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding information\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis study was funded by the National Council on Scientific and Technological Development (Procam/USP PVE/CNPq N\u0026ordm; 40.2022) and Coordination for the Improvement of High Education Personnel (CAPES).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlaoui A et al (2011) Preferential flow effects on infiltration and runoff in grassland and forest soils. Vadose Zone Journal 10(1): 367-377. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2010.0076 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlvarado F et al (2018) The role of livestock intensification and landscape structure in maintaining tropical biodiversity. 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Catena 221:106748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106748 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-biometeorology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbm","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Biometeorology](http://link.springer.com/journal/484)","snPcode":"484","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ijbm/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Biometeorology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Thermal comfort, Bioclimatology, Microclimate, Heat stress, Climate change mitigation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6436369/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6436369/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis work aimed to improve the description of the windbreak counter-effect (WbCe) tin he implementation of silvopastoral systems under different cloudy conditions (clear sky and cloudy). A silvopastoral system with nuclei in which 5% and 10% of the pasture area is occupied by agroforestry nuclei was used (SPSnu5 and SPSnu10) and compared with treeless pasture (TLP) during summer in southern Brazil. The microclimatic variables analyzed were air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, black globe temperature and Heat Load Index (HLI) at two heights, 20 and 120 cm. The wind speed was about twice as high in the TLP because there was no wind barrier through the nuclei. Air temperatures were higher on days with clear skies. SPSnu had a slightly lower temperature under most conditions. Humidity was similar in all treatments. TLP had lower HLI values than SPSnu5 and SPSnu10 under both cloudy conditions. SPSnu10 had the worst conditions for thermal comfort in the area 'around the nuclei'. Although the young nuclei did not provide shade, but blocked wind increasing HLI. Air temperatures were slightly lower under the SPSnu treatments, the lower wind speed and lack of shade from the growing trees worsened thermal comfort in both SPSnu, even on cloudy days, due to WbCe. Therefore, the phase of adoption of silvopastoral systems is a critical moment for the thermal comfort of livestock, even on cloudy days. Producers must be aware of this trade-off on hot days and avoid paddocks with young trees even on cloudy days as HLI increases.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Trade-offs in the implementation of silvopastoral systems: Windbreak counter-effect, wind speed and cloud cover","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-21 09:12:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6436369/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revisions Needed","date":"2025-12-22T23:25:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-09-08T17:55:08+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-13T14:15:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-04-29T03:14:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Biometeorology","date":"2025-04-26T20:24:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-biometeorology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijbm","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Biometeorology](http://link.springer.com/journal/484)","snPcode":"484","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ijbm/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Biometeorology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"031bf488-2f8e-47b2-8465-111e613a2f33","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-21T13:06:06+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-21 09:12:56","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6436369","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6436369","identity":"rs-6436369","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}