Direct activation of an innate immune system in bacteria by a viral capsid protein

Bacteria have evolved sophisticated and diverse immunity mechanisms to protect themselves against a nearly constant onslaught of bacteriophages 1–3 . Similar to how eukaryotic innate immune systems sense foreign invaders through pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) 4 , many bacterial immune systems that respond to bacteriophage infection require a phage-specific trigger to be activated. However, the identities of such triggers and the mechanistic basis of sensing remain almost completely unknown. Here, we discover and investigate the anti-phage function of a fused toxin-antitoxin (TA) system called CapRel SJ46 that protects E. coli against diverse phages. Through genetic, biochemical, and structural analysis, we demonstrate that the C-terminal domain of CapRel SJ46 regulates the toxic N-terminal region, serving as both an antitoxin element and a phage-infection sensor. Following infection by certain phages, the newly synthesized major capsid protein binds directly to the C-terminal domain of CapRel SJ46 to relieve autoinhibition, enabling the toxin domain to then pyrophosphorylate tRNAs, which blocks translation to restrict viral infection. Collectively, our results reveal the molecular mechanism by which a bacterial immune system directly senses a conserved, essential component of phages, suggesting a PAMP-like sensing model for TA-mediated innate immunity in bacteria. We provide evidence that CapRels and their phage-encoded triggers are engaged in a Red Queen conflict 5 , revealing a new front in the intense coevolutionary battle being waged by phage and bacteria. With capsid proteins of some eukaryotic viruses known to stimulate innate immune signaling in mammalian hosts 6–10 , our results now reveal an ancient, deeply conserved facet of immunity.