Snakes as food. Determinants of behavior intention to consume Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica) in Ghana

Snakes as food. Determinants of behavior intention to consume Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica) in Ghana | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Snakes as food. Determinants of behavior intention to consume Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica) in Ghana Maxwell Kwame Boakye This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6165893/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 13 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Human consumption of snakes is listed as one of the main threats to their conservation status. Consumer behavior change interventions are identified as the most effective means to conserve species threatened by human consumption. However, knowing which behavioral drivers of consumption intention to focus on is necessary to guide change interventions effectively. This study determined the factors influencing behavioral intentions to consume the Vulnerable (VU) snake species Bitis gabonica in Ghana. Data were collected from 296 households in the Avatime traditional area in October and November 2024 with in-person interviews using a structured questionnaire. Analysis was done using the partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique in SmartPLS 3.2.8. The findings revealed that the paths between attitude perceived behavioral control, and social norm towards consumption intention of Bitis gabonica were positive and significant. Attitude was the most important predictor of Bitis gabonica consumption followed by perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm. The study recommends behavior change campaigns that emphasize changes in attitude toward human consumption of Bitis gabonica . Persuasive messages focused on changing beliefs and emotions towards snakes should be the aim of attitudinal change efforts. Biological sciences/Ecology/Biodiversity Biological sciences/Ecology/Conservation Biological sciences/Ecology/Ecosystem services attitude conservation ophidiophobia theory of planned behavior wildlife value mutualistic orientation Figures Figure 1 Introduction Snakes are widely consumed as a source of animal protein in various cultures around the world 1 – 5 . In many sub-Saharan African countries, snake meat has been a staple source of protein and consumed as a traditional delicacy 1 , 4 , 6 , 7 . Bitis spp . is one species of snake that is consumed for dietary purposes in sub-Sahara Africa 5 , 6 , 8 and is among reptiles eaten in Ghana 9 . Gaboon viper ( Bitis gabonica ) has been recorded to be sold in bushmeat markets for dietary purposes in several countries including DR Congo 7 , Cameroon 10 , Nigeria 11 , 12 , and Republic of Guinea 13 . The Gaboon viper is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 14 , and dietary consumption has been identified as one of the main threats to the species conservation 15 . Human behavior change is identified as key to attenuating global biodiversity loss as human actions are driving the extinction crisis 16 – 18 . Exploitation for consumption is identified as one human action affecting the status of threat of wildlife species 16 , 18 . Consumers behavior change has been suggested as the most effective means for conservation interventions aimed at reducing bushmeat consumption 16 . Previous studies have shown that the behavioral aspects that impact the intention to consume bushmeat have presented significant potential for interventions aimed at conservation of wildlife species 19 – 23 . However, studies on consumption of snakes have generally focused on the cultural aspect with limited attention to the behavioral determinants influencing the consumption 1 – 5 . Snake meat is consumed for dietary purposes in Ghana 24 – 26 and cultural specificity of meat socialization is identified to influence the consumption of snake meat with different cultures socialized into liking or disliking their consumption 25 . The Avatime people of the Volta Region of Ghana are noted for their consumption of B. gabonica 27 . The people’s culture has been socialized to accept the consumption of the Gaboon viper meat. Although the cultural specificity and acceptance for the consumption of the Gaboon viper among the Avatime people is known, behavioral determinants underlying the consumption have yet to be determined. Given the Vulnerable (VU) conservation status of B. gabonica , there is a need to understand determinants fueling consumption intention to develop conservation management strategies to address conservation needs from human exploitation for bushmeat purposes. When a person’s values, attitudes, and social norms towards a behavior intention are known, conservation strategies and messages are better tailored to promote actions that preserve biodiversity 16 , 17 . This study aims to find the behavioral determinants associated with the consumption intention of Gaboon viper meat using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), with extended construct of Wildlife Value Orientations (WVOs), and Perceived Susceptibility (PS) to zoonotic diseases from consumption. Theoretical Underpinning of Study Theory of Planed Behavior (TPB) A social-psychological model that has been the most influential for explaining human behavior is the TPB 28 . According to TPB, an individual’s intentions to perform the behavior is the most powerful determinant of the actual behavior 29 . Behavioral intention is a function of the following three factors: attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control toward the behavior 30 , 31 . Attitudes toward the behavior deal with the positive or negative evaluations about performing the target behavior, (2) subjective norms in the context of a given behavior is the influence of the opinions of others, such as family and friends into performing the target behavior, and (3) perceived behavioral control which to perceptions of ease or difficulty of performing the target behavior 30 , 31 . The TPB has been used to identify antecedents of meat consumption behavior and design effective interventions 32 – 35 and have demonstrated its capacity in predicting bushmeat consumption behavior 20 , 22 , 23 , 36 . The TPB was therefore selected as the theoretical framework for this study as it has demonstrated its capability in meat consumption studies. The study hypothesized as follows: H1 Attitude positively influences consumption intention towards Gaboon viper. H2 Subjective norm positively influences consumption intention towards Gaboon viper. H3 Perceived behavioral control (ease of access) positively influences consumption intention towards Gaboon viper. Ajzen 29 stated that the addition of other predictors besides those in the TPB framework is allowed if they enhance the predictive power of the model TPB. Various metal-analytical studies have established the usefulness of additional variables in enhancing the predictive power of intention the TPB framework 28 , 37 , 38 . Due to the openness of the TPB framework to the additional variables, the Wildlife Value Orientations (WVOs) and Perceived Susceptibility (PS) were included in this study model due to their influence on intention towards bushmeat consumption. Wildlife Value Orientations (WVOs) The Wildlife Value Orientations (WVOs) are individual’s conceptualization of human-wildlife interactions 39 . They are important to predicting the behavioral intention underlying human wildlife relationships for conservation management decisions 39 – 41 . WVO has been utilized in behavioral intentions studies to understand wildmeat consumption beliefs 42 – 45 . However, WVO application in the TPB framework is limited although both can assist in predicting behavior intentions. WVOs affect relationships with wildlife and two main classes of domination and mutualism are identified 39 , 46 , 47 . The domination orientation advocates for a clear separation of groups (i.e., animals from humans), the maintenance of beliefs that reinforces justification for cultural practices, the subordination of the role of animals to humans 46 . Domination-oriented values emphasize the rationale exploitation of wildlife. The mutualism orientation place emphasis on wildlife as an integral part of the social community and as lifeforms having similar rights as humans, worthy of caring and compassion, capable of having a trusting relationship with humans 39 , 46 , 47 . Mutualism oriented values view wildlife in human terms and rationalize welfare-enhancing behaviors as opposed to actions resulting in death or harm to wildlife. H4 Domination WVO (animal use beliefs) will positively influence consumption intention towards the Gaboon viper. H5 Mutualism WVO (social affiliation beliefs) will negatively influence consumption intention towards the Gaboon viper. Perceived susceptibility (PS) Perceived susceptibility (PS) is the likelihood that a person believes they are vulnerable to contracting sickness from an undertaking or behaviour 48 , 49 . Snakes are intermediate host to most diseases causing pathogens and their consumption may serve as drivers for the transmission of foodborne zoonoses leading to public health risk 50 – 52 . In recent times, the COVID-19 outbreak has highlighted the increased risk of zoonotic diseases from bushmeat consumption 53 – 55 . In Ghana, Abukari and Kankam 19 identified perceived risk of zoonosis to influence the consumption of bushmeat. Weariness about zoonosis is predicted to influence the consumption of Gaboon viper. Therefore, the study hypothesized that: H6 Perceived susceptibility will negatively influence consumption intention the Gaboon viper. Materials and Methods Study area The Avatimes people with a human population of about 35, 000 56 lives in the western portion of the Volta Region mainly in the villages and towns of Amedzofe, Vane, Gbadzeme, Dzokpe, Biakpe, Dzogbefeme, and Fume 57 , 58 . The study area is dominated by two main vegetation types; the moist semideciduous forest vegetation the dominates the mountains, and the savannah woodland areas in the valley 59 . Farming is the main occupation in the study area, and crops produced include cassava, yams, beans, cocoyams, rice and plantain 56 – 59 . Tea, coffee and cocoa are cultivated as cash crops in the area 56 , 57 . For the Avatime, maintaining traditions, customs, and practices is a safeguard for their ethnic identity 60 . The consumption of the Gaboon viper known locally in the local language as Ligalɛ is one such unique traditional practice that has been maintained in the Avatime area 27 . It was expected that people in the study area would be ideal in determining the factors underlying the consumption of the Gaboon viper. Determination of sample size Within the seven towns and villages in the Avatime area, 35 individuals were conveniently sampled to determine their knowledge about Gaboon viper consumption. The survey revealed that 30 individuals ( p = 0.86) knew about the consumption of the Gaboon viper ( Ligalɛ ). The proportion ( p ) of people having knowledge was used to calculate the sample size according to the formula of Dagnelie 61 in Eq. 1: $$\:n=\:\frac{{U}_{\raisebox{1ex}{$1-\propto\:$}\!\left/\:\!\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\right.}^{2}\times\:p(1-p)}{{d}^{2}}\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\left(1\right)$$ where n is the sample size, p is the proportion of people having knowledge about the consumption of Gaboon viper ( Ligalɛ) , \(\:{U}_{\raisebox{1ex}{$1-\propto\:$}\!\left/\:\!\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\right.}\) = 1.96 is the value of the normal random variable corresponding to a probability value of α = 0.05; and d is the of margin error which was fixed at 5% (0.05). Based on these assumptions, 185 respondents were determined to be appropriate for the study but 296 were interviewed. The sample size was increased due to the influence of large size on increasing reliability and decreasing the degree of error 62 . Sampling procedure and data collection The study population was made up of households as a household was considered the unit of analysis. Similar to previous bushmeat studies by Abukari and Kankam 19 , this study used the Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) sampling method 63 . With the EPI approach, the location middle of the selected study community was identified and through the spinning of a bottle or pen a random direction was determined. A household was chosen as the starting point from the center to the edge of the community along the randomly chosen direction of the spined bottle or pen. Within the chosen households’ individuals who confirmed the consumption of Gaboon viper were sought and interviewed. Neighboring households were chosen if no suitable respondents were found in previous households for respondents that could provide the answers for the study. This process was repeated until the required number of respondents was achieved for the study. Data on the determinants influencing Gaboon viper consumption intention were collected from respondents between October and November of 2024 using structured questionnaires with an in-person interview. The study assistants who handed out the survey questions helped participants with the completion of the questionnaire by explaining the measurement items to them. Ewe is the predominant language in the area, and Avatime speakers are also proficient in it 58 . Every research assistant involved in this study was proficient in both Ewe and English language. The research was performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. The ethics committee of the Ho Technical University approved the study (HTU/DRI/EC2025-004). An informed consent was obtained from all participants. Instruments used for data collection The questions used to measure the latent variables were selected after a meticulous review of the relevant literature on meat consumption behavior intentions. The TPB questions were largely based on related studies on bushmeat consumption 20 , 22 , 23 , 32 , 33 , 53 . The Wildlife Value Orientation (WVO) questions were adopted from Ehrhart et al. 40 , and Keener-Eck et al. 41 . The perceived susceptibility instruments were adapted from Abukari and Kankam 19 . The survey questions were structured into two sections. The first section dealt with demographic questions relating to gender, age, educational qualification, monthly household income, and marital status. The second section of the questionnaire dealt with the components of TPB (attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control) and its extended constructs of WVO (domination and mutualism), and perceived susceptibility (supplementary material). A five-point Likert scale was used to rank respondents’ degree of agreement with measuring items in each of the construct. The statements were anchored on either side with strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). The study’s selected questionnaire was piloted with 20 respondents to assess its applicability regarding ease of understanding, clarity, and timing for individual interviews. The consistency and reliability test were performed for the piloted study and all the constructs had appropriate Cronbach’s alpha values above 0.70. Data analysis The characteristics of respondents were analyzed using SPSS version 29. The proposed relationships between the theoretical constructs were assessed through partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique. The PLS algorithm was used to evaluate the outer model fitness including convergent reliability and validity, discriminant validity, as well as the inner model fitness including model's fit indices, the coefficient of determination (R 2 ), predictive relevance (Q 2 ), and the hypothesis testing (path coefficient) 64 , 65 . Path significances were estimated via the bootstrapping method using 5 000 resamples at a 5% significance level. Data analysis was performed using SmartPLS 3.2.8. Results Demographics, descriptive, and inferential statistics The majority of the 296 participants were males (n = 177; 59.80%) and females (n = 119; 40.20%). The age group of participants revealed that most were between the ages of 31–40 (n = 81; 27.36%), followed by ages 21–30 (n = 69; 23.31%), ages 41–50 (n = 50; 16.89%), ages 18–20 and ages 51–60 (n = 41; 13.85%; each), ages and those above 60 years (n = 14; 4.73%). The level of education of the participants revealed that most had attained Senior High School/Vocational School (n = 139; 46.96%), followed by tertiary education (n = 70; 23.65%), Junior High School level (n = 35; 11.82%), Middle School Leaving Certificate (n = 34; 11.49%), basic/primary (n = 16; 5.41%), and below primary/no formal education (n = 2; 0.68%). The self-reported average monthly income revealed that most of the participants earned between 500–999 Ghana Cedis as monthly income (n = 151; 51.01%), followed by less than 500 Ghana Cedis (n = 101; 34.12%), 1000–1499 Ghana Cedis (n = 42; 14.19%), between 1500–2000 and above 2000 Ghana cedis (n = 1; 0.34%; each), and. Based on marital status, most participants were single (n = 158; 53.38%), married (n = 116; 39.19%), widowed (n = 17; 5.74%), and divorced (n = 5; 1.69%). Item validation and reliability The measurement items sufficiently contributed to their respective scales with 0.70 or better factor loadings recommended by Hair et al. 66 as ideal except for SAB2 with a factor loading value (0.602) which was deleted. Also, Hair et al. 67 suggested the removal of indicators with loadings below 0.7 if their removal leads to increased composite reliability. The removal of SAB2 improved the Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE) of the social affiliation beliefs (SAB) construct. Table 1 presents the retained measuring item's construct convergent reliability and validity results. All the latent variables had a composite reliability (CR) value above the minimum threshold of 0.70, ranging from 0.846 to 0.946. Cronbach’s alpha values varied from 0.746 to 0.910, above the suggested minimum of 0.7 68 . The average variance extracted (AVE), scores all exceeded the critical value of 0.5, ranging from 0.646 to 0.825. The maximum VIF of 3.394 for SAB3 was within the acceptable threshold of 5, indicating that multicollinearity was not an issue in the data set 66 . The results satisfy the requirement for convergent reliability and validity 64 . Table 1 Factor loadings of measuring items, construct reliability and validity of constructs Construct Measuring item Factor loading VIF Cronbach's Alpha CR AVE Attitude ATT1 0.854 2.252 0.871 0.912 0.721 ATT2 0.858 2.175 ATT3 0.851 2.177 ATT4 0.834 1.976 Animal use beliefs AUB1 0.908 2.532 0.877 0.920 0.794 AUB2 0.923 2.303 AUB3 0.840 2.348 Intention INT1 0.925 3.131 0.910 0.943 0.847 INT2 0.917 2.982 INT3 0.918 2.995 Perceived behavioural control PBC1 0.783 1.889 0.746 0.846 0.646 PBC2 0.787 1.891 PBC3 0.840 1.246 Perceived susceptibility PS1 0.923 2.931 0.894 0.934 0.825 PS2 0.901 2.497 PS3 0.901 2.705 Social affiliation beliefs SAB1 0.891 2.765 0.867 0.919 0.791 SAB3 0.940 3.394 SAB4 0.833 1.861 Social norm SN1 0.904 2.837 0.893 0.933 0.823 SN2 0.896 2.423 SN3 0.922 2.824 The Fornell-Larcker and Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio presented in Table 2 confirm that discriminant validity was satisfied. As reported in Table 2 , Fornell–Larcker criterion was satisfied as the square root of the AVEs of all constructs in the matrix diagonal is greater than the associated correlations in the corresponding columns and rows. The most conservative threshold value to check for the discriminant validity of the HTMT ratio is less than or equal to 0.90 69 . All the correlations were lower than the suggested limit of 0.90 (Table 2 ), an indication that the latent constructs used in the research were conceptually different 69 . The measuring items were deemed suitable for model structure testing. Table 2 Discriminate validity of constructs Fornell-Larcker criterion ATT AUB INT PBC PS SAB SN Attitude (ATT) 0.849 Animal use beliefs (AUB) 0.143 0.891 Intention (INT) 0.621 -0.149 0.920 Perceived behavioural control (PBC) 0.466 -0.008 0.468 0.804 Perceived susceptibility (PS) -0.340 -0.036 -0.283 -0.305 0.908 Social affiliation beliefs (SAB) 0.519 0.189 0.443 0.360 -0.503 0.889 Social norm (SN) 0.270 -0.097 0.289 0.209 0.029 -0.016 0.907 Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio ATT AUB INT PBC PS SAB SN Attitude (ATT) Animal use beliefs (AUB) 0.183 Intention (INT) 0.697 0.153 Perceived behavioural control (PBC) 0.56 0.167 0.526 Perceived susceptibility (PS) 0.387 0.045 0.313 0.321 Social affiliation beliefs (SAB) 0.596 0.241 0.495 0.393 0.571 Social norm (SN) 0.305 0.093 0.318 0.202 0.047 0.07 Measurement model The standardized root mean residual (SRMR) of 0.072 and 0.064 for the original and extended TPB framework, were within the recommended range of 0.01 to 0.08 required to be considered a good fit 64 . The model structure analyses indicate a Normed Fit Index (NFI) of 0.827 and 0.811 for the original and extended TPB framework, were within the acceptable ranges of between 0 and 1 but less than the recommended ideal value of at least 0.9 66 . Regarding the model’s explanatory power, R 2 value of 0.438 and 0.509 indicates 43.8% and 50.9% of the variance in the dependent variable is explained by the independent variables in the original and extended TPB framework model respectively. The model predictive relevance (Stone–Geisser criterion, Q 2 ) value of 0.348 and 0.403 indicates that the model can predict the endogenous latent components with an accuracy of 40.3% for the extended TPB and 34.8% for the original TPB framework. Structural models Table 3 presents results of the structural model used to test the study hypotheses for the original and extended TPB framework. The results revealed that attitude ( β = 0.491, t = 11.284, p < 0.001), perceived behavioral control ( β = 0.216, t = 4.476, p < 0.001) and subjective norms ( β = 0.111, t = 2.503, p < 0.012) all had a positive significant relationship with consumption intention. H1, H2, H3 were therefore confirmed for the original TPB framework. The path between attitude, perceived behavioral control, and social norm towards consumption intention Gaboon viper for the extended TPB framework were positive and significant ( β = 0.445, t = 8.302, p < 0.001), ( β = 0.164, t = 3.705, p < 0.001), and ( β = 0.114, t = 2.472, p < 0.001), respectively. Therefore, H1, H2, and H3 were confirmed for the extended TPB framework. The relation between consumption intention of Gaboon viper and animal use beliefs ( β = -0.238, t = 4.615, p < 0.001), and social affiliation beliefs ( β = 0.204, t = 3.569, p < 0.001), were significant. The study hypothesis proposed a positive and negative path relationship between consumption intention and animal use beliefs and social affiliation beliefs, respectively. Therefore, H4 and H5 were not confirmed as the paths were negative for animal use beliefs and positive for social affiliation beliefs, contrary to the hypothesized paths. The intention to consume the gaboon viper and perceived susceptibility path was not significant ( β = 0.010, t = 0.181, p < 0.856), and therefore H6 is not confirmed. Figure 1 depicts the measurement model of the extended TPB framework for the hypothesis. Table 3 Path coefficient of the research hypotheses for the original and extended TPB framework Original TPB Original Sample Sample Mean Standard Deviation T Statistics P Values Findings ATT → INT 0.491 0.490 0.043 11.284 0.001 Confirmed PBC → INT 0.216 0.218 0.048 4.476 0.001 Confirmed SN → INT 0.111 0.113 0.044 2.503 0.012 Confirmed Extended TPB ATT → INT 0.445 0.445 0.054 8.302 0.001 Confirmed PBC → INT 0.164 0.163 0.044 3.705 0.001 Confirmed SN → INT 0.114 0.115 0.046 2.472 0.013 Confirmed AUB → INT -0.238 -0.235 0.052 4.615 0.001 Not confirmed SAB → INT 0.204 0.207 0.057 3.569 0.001 Not confirmed PS → INT 0.010 0.014 0.054 0.181 0.856 Not confirmed Discussion Bushmeat consumption remains a significant threat to biodiversity conservation of vulnerable species such as B. gabonica . Behavioral change interventions are identified as a means through which tailored strategies for effective biodiversity conservation can be accomplished 16 , 17 . However, knowing which behavioral drivers of consumption intention to focus is necessary to effectively guide change interventions. This study determined the behavioral intentions influencing the consumption of the Gaboon viper for bushmeat purposes. The findings of the study revealed that attitude was the most important predictor of Gaboon viper consumption followed by perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm. The original TPB and extended TPB model’s explanatory power of 43.8% and 50.9% respectively, were above the 39% suggested by Armitage and Conner 28 to account for the variance in intention to act using the TPB framework. The study’s applied model therefore satisfactorily explains the behaviour intention to consume the Gaboon viper meat. The predictive advantage of the extended model was supported by findings from metal-analytical studies 28 , 37 , 38 . Attitude as the main determinants of bushmeat consumption is well established in literature 21 , 70 – 72 and consistent with findings from this study. Attitudinal motives such as taste, healthy nature, and cultural acceptability have been found as the main drivers of behavior intention towards bushmeat consumption 70 – 75 . Positive attitude dimension is a better predictor of behavior intention 76 . According to Glasman and Albarracín 77 , the attitudes people hold with confidence and emanating from direct experience are better predictor behavior than their doubtful ones, and those from indirect experience. The favorable attitude towards the taste, healthy nature, cultural acceptability, and safety attributes of Gaboon viper bushmeat may have influenced the attitude construct as the strongest predictor of behavior intention for consumption in this study. Previous studies have shown highly accessible attitudes to be stronger predictors of behavior intention 76 , 78 , 79 . Accessible attitudes are therefore more likely to be acted upon. Perceived behavioral control measured as ease of access in this study was the second most significant predictor of intention based on path relationships, an indication that access to Gaboon viper was not difficult. In Ghana, encounter with snakes is highest for people engage in farming activities 80 , 81 . The studied communities were predominantly farmers 56 , 82 , and their day-to-day activities make them more prone to encounter snakes. With low level mechanized agricultural practice, exposure of farmers to snakes concealed in vegetation, soil and crops are high in Ghana 81 . Accessibility through frequent encounters with snakes may have influenced attitude as the strongest predictor of behavior intention in this study. The consumption of snake meat varies with different cultures socialized into liking or disliking their consumption 6 , 7 , 25 . In Ghana, the consumption of snake meat is influenced by meat socialisation 25 . When the consumption of meat is a socially accepted and expected behavior, there is a positive subjective norm towards the intention to perform such behavior 83 – 85 . The measuring items for subjective norms all had high factors indicating high approval in the community. The positive significant path association been subjective norm and intention in this study can be attributed to the approval of Gaboon viper meat consumption in the studied communities. Value orientation and emotions varies based on a specific wildlife species 43 . Value orientations associated with fear and anger may results in less sensitivity to biocentric values 43 . Wildlife species that elucidate fear and anger usually attract approval for persecution 43 – 45 . Globally, snakes tend to generate a feeling of fear, disgust, or hatred 86 – 88 . In Ghana, there is a high prevalence of ophidiophobia, and snakes are generally persecuted among local people 25 , 81 , 89 , 90 . Generally, people are wary of snakes and believe killing them is acceptable. The strong negative feeling towards snakes’ might have led to reduced mutualistic-oriented value towards their killing and consumption for bushmeat purposes. This may have resulted in the positive instead of a negative path of association between the path of social affiliation beliefs and consumption intentions. The negative association between domination-oriented value and consumption intention can be attributed to fear of snakes. The irrational degree of anxiety in seeing a snake far exceeds the interest in hunting them which may have resulted in the negative rather than the expected positive path for animal use beliefs and intention to consume the Gaboon viper. The risk of zoonotic diseases from the consumption of bushmeat has been found to be insignificant in influencing the intention of consumers due to their reduced weariness 22 , 53 , 54 , 73 . The perception of risk from the consumption of snake was found to be low among wild animals consumed for bushmeat purposes in Kenya and Tanzania 91 . Similarly, risk perception about zoonotic infections from consumption of reptiles including snakes was observed to be low in Nigeria 55 . Reduced wariness of contraction of zoonotic diseases may have accounted for the lack of significance in the relationship between perceived susceptibility and intention to consume Gaboon viper meat in this study. The findings of this study contradicted previous study in Ghana by Abukari and Kankam 19 that found zoonotic weariness to reduce bushmeat consumption. Abukari and Kankam 19 study was held at the backdrop of public health campaigns on COVID-19 and admitted that reduced bushmeat consumption was not limited to weariness of contracting zoonotic diseases. Conclusion This study assessed the determinants of consumption intention of Gaboon viper in Ghana using the TPB, WVOs, and perceived susceptibility to zoonotic risk. Among the factors examined, attitude was found to be the strongest determinant of the intention, followed by perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm for the hypothesized association paths with intention. Perceived susceptibility to zoonotic ailments had no significant influence on the consumption intention of the Gaboon viper. Behavior changes campaigns aimed at reducing human consumption of Gaboon viper should emphasize change in attitude towards consumption. Attitudinal change in this case requires changing beliefs and emotions towards snakes. This will require the use of persuasive massage that emphasis on ecological importance of snakes to convince people become mutualistic oriented towards snakes. The study had limitations worth mentioning. This study only assessed the consumption intention of Gaboon viper; hence the results cannot be generalized to all snakes consumed. The study was cross-sectional in design and does not establish causation. Future studies should use a longitudinal approach to evaluate the pattern of change and the degree to which behavior intentions alter over time, especially following attitudinal change campaigns. Although this study used the extended TPB farmwork which improved the predictive power of the model, future studies should include emotional disposition as a possible mediator or moderator due to its role in lethal management of wildlife. Declarations Disclosure statement The author declares no competing interests. Consent to participate All participants ensured that they understood the purpose, process, and potential risks of the study before participating, and they voluntarily took part in the study. Author Contribution Conceptualization: MKB.Data curation: MKB.Formal analysis: MKB.Investigation: MKB.Methodology: MKB.Resources: MKB.Writing – original draft: MKB. Writing – review & editing: MKB. Acknowledgements Special thanks go to Mr. Godwin Dagadu a local tour guide at Amedzofe who assisted with community facilitation to undertake the study. The author is grateful to all participants in the study and the research assistants who collected the data to make this research a success. Data Availability The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable requests. References Natusch, D. et al. Python farming as a flexible and efficient form of agricultural food security. Sci. Rep. 14 , (2024). Taran, D. M. 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Meat Sci. 194 , 108955 (2022). Demartini, E., Vecchiato, D., Tempesta, T., Gaviglio, A. & Viganò, R. Consumer preferences for red deer meat: a discrete choice analysis considering attitudes towards wild game meat and hunting. Meat Sci. 146 , 168–179 (2018). Denyer, S. WildAid; & CABAG. Understanding urban consumption of Pangolin meat in Cameroon. (2024). https://wildaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/UNDERSTANDING-URBAN-CONSUMPTION-OF-PANGOLIN-MEAT-IN-CAMEROON.pdf Nguyen, L. B., Fossung, E. E., Affana Nkoa, C. & Humle, T. Understanding consumer demand for bushmeat in urban centers of Cameroon with a focus on pangolin species. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 3 , (2021). Popoola, I. O., Soladoye, P. O., Gaudette, N. J. & Wismer, W. V. A Review of Sensory and Consumer-related Factors Influencing the Acceptance of Red Meats from Alternative Animal Species. Food Rev. Int. 38 , 266–285 (2020). McCartan, R. & Elliott, M. A. Bi-dimensional attitudes, attitude accessibility and speeding behaviour. Transp. Res. F: Traffic Psychol. Behav. 58 , 581–593 (2018). Glasman, L. R. & Albarracín, D. Forming attitudes that predict future behavior: A meta-analysis of the attitude-behavior relation. Psychol. Bull. 132 (5), 778–822 (2006). Barnes, A. J. & Shavitt, S. In what ways do accessible attitudes ease decision making? Examining the reproducibility of accessibility effects across cultural contexts. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 126 , 1036–1051 (2024). Cooke, R. & Sheeran, P. Moderation of cognition-intention and cognition‐behaviour relations: A meta‐analysis of properties of variables from the theory of planned behaviour. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 43 , 159–186 (2004). Gyawu, V. B. et al. Production and evaluation of monovalent anti-snake immunoglobulins from chicken egg yolk using Ghanaian puff adder ( Bitis arietans ) Venom: Isolation, purification, and neutralization efficacy. Toxicon 231 , 107180 (2023). Musah, Y., Ameade, E. P. K., Attuquayefio, D. K. & Holbech, L. H. Epidemiology, ecology and human perceptions of snakebites in a savanna community of northern Ghana. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 13 , e0007221 (2019). Noretti, A. M. Avatime readies to grow apples, grapes, potatoes, tea. (2022). https://www.graphic.com.gh/features/features/ghana-news-avatime-readies-to-grow-apples-grapes-potatoes-tea.html Ostermann, C. M., Trevisan, L. V., Nicolao, L., Pereira, L. A. & de Barcellos, M. D. The effect of normative conflict on meat consumption behavior: A mixed-method study. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 44 , 87–100 (2024). Alblas, M. C., Meijers, M. H. C., de Groot, H. E. & Mollen, S. Meat Me in the Middle: The Potential of a Social Norm Feedback Intervention in the Context of Meat Consumption – A Conceptual Replication. Environ. Commun. 17 , 991–1003 (2023). Henchion, M., McCarthy, M., Zimmermann, J. & Troy, D. J. International comparisons, domestic influences and where to next? The case of Irish meat consumption. Meat Sci. 193 , 108921 (2022). Larson, K. 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Determinants of behavior intention to consume Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica) in Ghana","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSnakes are widely consumed as a source of animal protein in various cultures around the world\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3 CR4\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In many sub-Saharan African countries, snake meat has been a staple source of protein and consumed as a traditional delicacy\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. \u003cem\u003eBitis spp\u003c/em\u003e. is one species of snake that is consumed for dietary purposes in sub-Sahara Africa\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and is among reptiles eaten in Ghana\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Gaboon viper (\u003cem\u003eBitis gabonica\u003c/em\u003e) has been recorded to be sold in bushmeat markets for dietary purposes in several countries including DR Congo\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, Cameroon\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, Nigeria\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and Republic of Guinea\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The Gaboon viper is listed as Vulnerable (VU) in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and dietary consumption has been identified as one of the main threats to the species conservation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuman behavior change is identified as key to attenuating global biodiversity loss as human actions are driving the extinction crisis\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Exploitation for consumption is identified as one human action affecting the status of threat of wildlife species\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Consumers behavior change has been suggested as the most effective means for conservation interventions aimed at reducing bushmeat consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Previous studies have shown that the behavioral aspects that impact the intention to consume bushmeat have presented significant potential for interventions aimed at conservation of wildlife species\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20 CR21 CR22\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, studies on consumption of snakes have generally focused on the cultural aspect with limited attention to the behavioral determinants influencing the consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3 CR4\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSnake meat is consumed for dietary purposes in Ghana\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR25\" citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and cultural specificity of meat socialization is identified to influence the consumption of snake meat with different cultures socialized into liking or disliking their consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The Avatime people of the Volta Region of Ghana are noted for their consumption of \u003cem\u003eB. gabonica\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The people\u0026rsquo;s culture has been socialized to accept the consumption of the Gaboon viper meat. Although the cultural specificity and acceptance for the consumption of the Gaboon viper among the Avatime people is known, behavioral determinants underlying the consumption have yet to be determined. Given the Vulnerable (VU) conservation status of \u003cem\u003eB. gabonica\u003c/em\u003e, there is a need to understand determinants fueling consumption intention to develop conservation management strategies to address conservation needs from human exploitation for bushmeat purposes. When a person\u0026rsquo;s values, attitudes, and social norms towards a behavior intention are known, conservation strategies and messages are better tailored to promote actions that preserve biodiversity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This study aims to find the behavioral determinants associated with the consumption intention of Gaboon viper meat using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), with extended construct of Wildlife Value Orientations (WVOs), and Perceived Susceptibility (PS) to zoonotic diseases from consumption.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTheoretical Underpinning of Study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTheory of Planed Behavior (TPB)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA social-psychological model that has been the most influential for explaining human behavior is the TPB\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. According to TPB, an individual\u0026rsquo;s intentions to perform the behavior is the most powerful determinant of the actual behavior\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Behavioral intention is a function of the following three factors: attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control toward the behavior\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Attitudes toward the behavior deal with the positive or negative evaluations about performing the target behavior, (2) subjective norms in the context of a given behavior is the influence of the opinions of others, such as family and friends into performing the target behavior, and (3) perceived behavioral control which to perceptions of ease or difficulty of performing the target behavior\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe TPB has been used to identify antecedents of meat consumption behavior and design effective interventions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR33 CR34\" citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and have demonstrated its capacity in predicting bushmeat consumption behavior\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The TPB was therefore selected as the theoretical framework for this study as it has demonstrated its capability in meat consumption studies. The study hypothesized as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH1\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude positively influences consumption intention towards Gaboon viper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH2\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubjective norm positively influences consumption intention towards Gaboon viper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH3\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived behavioral control (ease of access) positively influences consumption intention towards Gaboon viper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAjzen\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e stated that the addition of other predictors besides those in the TPB framework is allowed if they enhance the predictive power of the model TPB. Various metal-analytical studies have established the usefulness of additional variables in enhancing the predictive power of intention the TPB framework\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Due to the openness of the TPB framework to the additional variables, the Wildlife Value Orientations (WVOs) and Perceived Susceptibility (PS) were included in this study model due to their influence on intention towards bushmeat consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eWildlife Value Orientations (WVOs)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Wildlife Value Orientations (WVOs) are individual\u0026rsquo;s conceptualization of human-wildlife interactions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. They are important to predicting the behavioral intention underlying human wildlife relationships for conservation management decisions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR40\" citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. WVO has been utilized in behavioral intentions studies to understand wildmeat consumption beliefs\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR43 CR44\" citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, WVO application in the TPB framework is limited although both can assist in predicting behavior intentions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWVOs affect relationships with wildlife and two main classes of domination and mutualism are identified\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The domination orientation advocates for a clear separation of groups (i.e., animals from humans), the maintenance of beliefs that reinforces justification for cultural practices, the subordination of the role of animals to humans\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Domination-oriented values emphasize the rationale exploitation of wildlife. The mutualism orientation place emphasis on wildlife as an integral part of the social community and as lifeforms having similar rights as humans, worthy of caring and compassion, capable of having a trusting relationship with humans\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Mutualism oriented values view wildlife in human terms and rationalize welfare-enhancing behaviors as opposed to actions resulting in death or harm to wildlife.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH4\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eDomination WVO (animal use beliefs) will positively influence consumption intention towards the Gaboon viper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH5\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eMutualism WVO (social affiliation beliefs) will negatively influence consumption intention towards the Gaboon viper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePerceived susceptibility (PS)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePerceived susceptibility (PS) is the likelihood that a person believes they are vulnerable to contracting sickness from an undertaking or behaviour\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Snakes are intermediate host to most diseases causing pathogens and their consumption may serve as drivers for the transmission of foodborne zoonoses leading to public health risk\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR51\" citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In recent times, the COVID-19 outbreak has highlighted the increased risk of zoonotic diseases from bushmeat consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR54\" citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In Ghana, Abukari and Kankam\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e identified perceived risk of zoonosis to influence the consumption of bushmeat. Weariness about zoonosis is predicted to influence the consumption of Gaboon viper. Therefore, the study hypothesized that:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eH6\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived susceptibility will negatively influence consumption intention the Gaboon viper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Avatimes people with a human population of about 35, 000\u003csup\u003e56\u003c/sup\u003e lives in the western portion of the Volta Region mainly in the villages and towns of Amedzofe, Vane, Gbadzeme, Dzokpe, Biakpe, Dzogbefeme, and Fume\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The study area is dominated by two main vegetation types; the moist semideciduous forest vegetation the dominates the mountains, and the savannah woodland areas in the valley\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Farming is the main occupation in the study area, and crops produced include cassava, yams, beans, cocoyams, rice and plantain\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR57 CR58\" citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Tea, coffee and cocoa are cultivated as cash crops in the area\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For the Avatime, maintaining traditions, customs, and practices is a safeguard for their ethnic identity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The consumption of the Gaboon viper known locally in the local language as \u003cb\u003eLigalɛ\u003c/b\u003e is one such unique traditional practice that has been maintained in the Avatime area\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It was expected that people in the study area would be ideal in determining the factors underlying the consumption of the Gaboon viper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of sample size\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the seven towns and villages in the Avatime area, 35 individuals were conveniently sampled to determine their knowledge about Gaboon viper consumption. The survey revealed that 30 individuals (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.86) knew about the consumption of the Gaboon viper (\u003cb\u003eLigalɛ\u003c/b\u003e). The proportion (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e) of people having knowledge was used to calculate the sample size according to the formula of Dagnelie\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e in Eq.\u0026nbsp;1:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:n=\\:\\frac{{U}_{\\raisebox{1ex}{$1-\\propto\\:$}\\!\\left/\\:\\!\\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\\right.}^{2}\\times\\:p(1-p)}{{d}^{2}}\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\left(1\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e is the sample size, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e is the proportion of people having knowledge about the consumption of Gaboon viper (\u003cem\u003eLigalɛ)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:{U}_{\\raisebox{1ex}{$1-\\propto\\:$}\\!\\left/\\:\\!\\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\\right.}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e = 1.96 is the value of the normal random variable corresponding to a probability value of α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05; and \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e is the of margin error which was fixed at 5% (0.05). Based on these assumptions, 185 respondents were determined to be appropriate for the study but 296 were interviewed. The sample size was increased due to the influence of large size on increasing reliability and decreasing the degree of error\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSampling procedure and data collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study population was made up of households as a household was considered the unit of analysis. Similar to previous bushmeat studies by Abukari and Kankam\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, this study used the Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) sampling method\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. With the EPI approach, the location middle of the selected study community was identified and through the spinning of a bottle or pen a random direction was determined. A household was chosen as the starting point from the center to the edge of the community along the randomly chosen direction of the spined bottle or pen. Within the chosen households\u0026rsquo; individuals who confirmed the consumption of Gaboon viper were sought and interviewed. Neighboring households were chosen if no suitable respondents were found in previous households for respondents that could provide the answers for the study. This process was repeated until the required number of respondents was achieved for the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData on the determinants influencing Gaboon viper consumption intention were collected from respondents between October and November of 2024 using structured questionnaires with an in-person interview. The study assistants who handed out the survey questions helped participants with the completion of the questionnaire by explaining the measurement items to them. Ewe is the predominant language in the area, and Avatime speakers are also proficient in it\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Every research assistant involved in this study was proficient in both Ewe and English language. The research was performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. The ethics committee of the Ho Technical University approved the study (HTU/DRI/EC2025-004). An informed consent was obtained from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInstruments used for data collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe questions used to measure the latent variables were selected after a meticulous review of the relevant literature on meat consumption behavior intentions. The TPB questions were largely based on related studies on bushmeat consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The Wildlife Value Orientation (WVO) questions were adopted from Ehrhart et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and Keener-Eck et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The perceived susceptibility instruments were adapted from Abukari and Kankam\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The survey questions were structured into two sections. The first section dealt with demographic questions relating to gender, age, educational qualification, monthly household income, and marital status. The second section of the questionnaire dealt with the components of TPB (attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control) and its extended constructs of WVO (domination and mutualism), and perceived susceptibility (supplementary material). A five-point Likert scale was used to rank respondents\u0026rsquo; degree of agreement with measuring items in each of the construct. The statements were anchored on either side with strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). The study\u0026rsquo;s selected questionnaire was piloted with 20 respondents to assess its applicability regarding ease of understanding, clarity, and timing for individual interviews. The consistency and reliability test were performed for the piloted study and all the constructs had appropriate Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha values above 0.70.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe characteristics of respondents were analyzed using SPSS version 29. The proposed relationships between the theoretical constructs were assessed through partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique. The PLS algorithm was used to evaluate the outer model fitness including convergent reliability and validity, discriminant validity, as well as the inner model fitness including model's fit indices, the coefficient of determination (R\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e), predictive relevance (Q\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e), and the hypothesis testing (path coefficient)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Path significances were estimated \u003cem\u003evia\u003c/em\u003e the bootstrapping method using 5 000 resamples at a 5% significance level. Data analysis was performed using SmartPLS 3.2.8.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDemographics, descriptive, and inferential statistics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of the 296 participants were males (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;177; 59.80%) and females (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;119; 40.20%). The age group of participants revealed that most were between the ages of 31\u0026ndash;40 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;81; 27.36%), followed by ages 21\u0026ndash;30 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;69; 23.31%), ages 41\u0026ndash;50 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;50; 16.89%), ages 18\u0026ndash;20 and ages 51\u0026ndash;60 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;41; 13.85%; each), ages and those above 60 years (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14; 4.73%). The level of education of the participants revealed that most had attained Senior High School/Vocational School (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;139; 46.96%), followed by tertiary education (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;70; 23.65%), Junior High School level (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35; 11.82%), Middle School Leaving Certificate (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;34; 11.49%), basic/primary (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16; 5.41%), and below primary/no formal education (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2; 0.68%). The self-reported average monthly income revealed that most of the participants earned between 500\u0026ndash;999 Ghana Cedis as monthly income (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;151; 51.01%), followed by less than 500 Ghana Cedis (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;101; 34.12%), 1000\u0026ndash;1499 Ghana Cedis (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;42; 14.19%), between 1500\u0026ndash;2000 and above 2000 Ghana cedis (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1; 0.34%; each), and. Based on marital status, most participants were single (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;158; 53.38%), married (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;116; 39.19%), widowed (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17; 5.74%), and divorced (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5; 1.69%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eItem validation and reliability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe measurement items sufficiently contributed to their respective scales with 0.70 or better factor loadings recommended by Hair et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e as ideal except for SAB2 with a factor loading value (0.602) which was deleted. Also, Hair et al.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e suggested the removal of indicators with loadings below 0.7 if their removal leads to increased composite reliability. The removal of SAB2 improved the Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE) of the social affiliation beliefs (SAB) construct. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the retained measuring item's construct convergent reliability and validity results. All the latent variables had a composite reliability (CR) value above the minimum threshold of 0.70, ranging from 0.846 to 0.946. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha values varied from 0.746 to 0.910, above the suggested minimum of 0.7\u003csup\u003e68\u003c/sup\u003e. The average variance extracted (AVE), scores all exceeded the critical value of 0.5, ranging from 0.646 to 0.825. The maximum VIF of 3.394 for SAB3 was within the acceptable threshold of 5, indicating that multicollinearity was not an issue in the data set\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The results satisfy the requirement for convergent reliability and validity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor loadings of measuring items, construct reliability and validity of constructs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstruct\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasuring item\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor loading\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVIF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCronbach's Alpha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAVE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.854\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.871\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.912\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.721\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.858\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATT3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.851\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATT4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.834\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnimal use beliefs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAUB1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.908\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.532\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.877\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.920\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.794\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAUB2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.923\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.303\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAUB3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.840\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.348\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINT1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.925\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.910\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.943\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.847\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINT2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.917\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.982\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINT3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.918\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.995\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived behavioural control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBC1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.783\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.889\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.746\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.846\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.646\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBC2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.787\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.891\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBC3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.840\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived susceptibility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.923\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.931\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.894\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.934\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.825\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.901\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.497\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.901\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.705\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial affiliation beliefs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAB1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.891\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.765\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.867\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.919\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.791\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAB3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.940\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.394\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAB4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.833\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.861\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial norm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSN1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.904\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.837\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.893\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.933\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.823\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSN2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.896\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.423\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSN3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.922\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Fornell-Larcker and Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e confirm that discriminant validity was satisfied. As reported in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, Fornell\u0026ndash;Larcker criterion was satisfied as the square root of the AVEs of all constructs in the matrix diagonal is greater than the associated correlations in the corresponding columns and rows. The most conservative threshold value to check for the discriminant validity of the HTMT ratio is less than or equal to 0.90 \u003csup\u003e69\u003c/sup\u003e. All the correlations were lower than the suggested limit of 0.90 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), an indication that the latent constructs used in the research were conceptually different\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The measuring items were deemed suitable for model structure testing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscriminate validity of constructs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFornell-Larcker criterion\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAUB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude (ATT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.849\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnimal use beliefs (AUB)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.143\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.891\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntention (INT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.621\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.149\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.920\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived behavioural control (PBC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.468\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.804\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived susceptibility (PS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.340\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.908\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial affiliation beliefs (SAB)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.519\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.443\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.360\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.503\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.889\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial norm (SN)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.270\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.097\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.907\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHeterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAUB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eINT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude (ATT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnimal use beliefs (AUB)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.183\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntention (INT)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.697\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived behavioural control (PBC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.526\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived susceptibility (PS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.387\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.313\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.321\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial affiliation beliefs (SAB)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.596\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.241\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.495\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.393\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.571\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial norm (SN)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.093\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.318\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.202\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasurement model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe standardized root mean residual (SRMR) of 0.072 and 0.064 for the original and extended TPB framework, were within the recommended range of 0.01 to 0.08 required to be considered a good fit\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The model structure analyses indicate a Normed Fit Index (NFI) of 0.827 and 0.811 for the original and extended TPB framework, were within the acceptable ranges of between 0 and 1 but less than the recommended ideal value of at least 0.9\u003csup\u003e66\u003c/sup\u003e. Regarding the model\u0026rsquo;s explanatory power, R\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e value of 0.438 and 0.509 indicates 43.8% and 50.9% of the variance in the dependent variable is explained by the independent variables in the original and extended TPB framework model respectively. The model predictive relevance (Stone\u0026ndash;Geisser criterion, Q\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e) value of 0.348 and 0.403 indicates that the model can predict the endogenous latent components with an accuracy of 40.3% for the extended TPB and 34.8% for the original TPB framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStructural models\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents results of the structural model used to test the study hypotheses for the original and extended TPB framework. The results revealed that attitude (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.491, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11.284, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), perceived behavioral control (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.216, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.476, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and subjective norms (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.111, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.503, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.012) all had a positive significant relationship with consumption intention. H1, H2, H3 were therefore confirmed for the original TPB framework. The path between attitude, perceived behavioral control, and social norm towards consumption intention Gaboon viper for the extended TPB framework were positive and significant (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.445, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.302, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.164, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.705, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.114, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.472, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), respectively. Therefore, H1, H2, and H3 were confirmed for the extended TPB framework. The relation between consumption intention of Gaboon viper and animal use beliefs (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.238, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.615, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and social affiliation beliefs (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.204, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.569, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), were significant. The study hypothesis proposed a positive and negative path relationship between consumption intention and animal use beliefs and social affiliation beliefs, respectively. Therefore, H4 and H5 were not confirmed as the paths were negative for animal use beliefs and positive for social affiliation beliefs, contrary to the hypothesized paths. The intention to consume the gaboon viper and perceived susceptibility path was not significant (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.010, \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.181, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.856), and therefore H6 is not confirmed. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e depicts the measurement model of the extended TPB framework for the hypothesis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePath coefficient of the research hypotheses for the original and extended TPB framework\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOriginal TPB\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOriginal Sample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample Mean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT Statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP Values\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATT \u0026rarr; INT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.491\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.284\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfirmed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBC \u0026rarr; INT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.476\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfirmed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSN \u0026rarr; INT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.503\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfirmed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExtended TPB\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATT \u0026rarr; INT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.302\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfirmed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePBC \u0026rarr; INT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.705\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfirmed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSN \u0026rarr; INT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.114\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.472\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfirmed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAUB \u0026rarr; INT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.238\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.235\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.615\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot confirmed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSAB \u0026rarr; INT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.204\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.569\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot confirmed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS \u0026rarr; INT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.181\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.856\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot confirmed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eBushmeat consumption remains a significant threat to biodiversity conservation of vulnerable species such as \u003cem\u003eB. gabonica\u003c/em\u003e. Behavioral change interventions are identified as a means through which tailored strategies for effective biodiversity conservation can be accomplished\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, knowing which behavioral drivers of consumption intention to focus is necessary to effectively guide change interventions. This study determined the behavioral intentions influencing the consumption of the Gaboon viper for bushmeat purposes. The findings of the study revealed that attitude was the most important predictor of Gaboon viper consumption followed by perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm. The original TPB and extended TPB model\u0026rsquo;s explanatory power of 43.8% and 50.9% respectively, were above the 39% suggested by Armitage and Conner\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e to account for the variance in intention to act using the TPB framework. The study\u0026rsquo;s applied model therefore satisfactorily explains the behaviour intention to consume the Gaboon viper meat. The predictive advantage of the extended model was supported by findings from metal-analytical studies\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttitude as the main determinants of bushmeat consumption is well established in literature\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR71\" citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and consistent with findings from this study. Attitudinal motives such as taste, healthy nature, and cultural acceptability have been found as the main drivers of behavior intention towards bushmeat consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR71 CR72 CR73 CR74\" citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Positive attitude dimension is a better predictor of behavior intention\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. According to Glasman and Albarrac\u0026iacute;n\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e77\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, the attitudes people hold with confidence and emanating from direct experience are better predictor behavior than their doubtful ones, and those from indirect experience. The favorable attitude towards the taste, healthy nature, cultural acceptability, and safety attributes of Gaboon viper bushmeat may have influenced the attitude construct as the strongest predictor of behavior intention for consumption in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have shown highly accessible attitudes to be stronger predictors of behavior intention\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e78\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e79\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Accessible attitudes are therefore more likely to be acted upon. Perceived behavioral control measured as ease of access in this study was the second most significant predictor of intention based on path relationships, an indication that access to Gaboon viper was not difficult. In Ghana, encounter with snakes is highest for people engage in farming activities\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e80\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The studied communities were predominantly farmers\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e82\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and their day-to-day activities make them more prone to encounter snakes. With low level mechanized agricultural practice, exposure of farmers to snakes concealed in vegetation, soil and crops are high in Ghana\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Accessibility through frequent encounters with snakes may have influenced attitude as the strongest predictor of behavior intention in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe consumption of snake meat varies with different cultures socialized into liking or disliking their consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In Ghana, the consumption of snake meat is influenced by meat socialisation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. When the consumption of meat is a socially accepted and expected behavior, there is a positive subjective norm towards the intention to perform such behavior\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR84\" citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e83\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e85\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The measuring items for subjective norms all had high factors indicating high approval in the community. The positive significant path association been subjective norm and intention in this study can be attributed to the approval of Gaboon viper meat consumption in the studied communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue orientation and emotions varies based on a specific wildlife species\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Value orientations associated with fear and anger may results in less sensitivity to biocentric values\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Wildlife species that elucidate fear and anger usually attract approval for persecution\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR44\" citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Globally, snakes tend to generate a feeling of fear, disgust, or hatred\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR87\" citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e86\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e88\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In Ghana, there is a high prevalence of ophidiophobia, and snakes are generally persecuted among local people\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e81\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e89\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e90\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Generally, people are wary of snakes and believe killing them is acceptable. The strong negative feeling towards snakes\u0026rsquo; might have led to reduced mutualistic-oriented value towards their killing and consumption for bushmeat purposes. This may have resulted in the positive instead of a negative path of association between the path of social affiliation beliefs and consumption intentions. The negative association between domination-oriented value and consumption intention can be attributed to fear of snakes. The irrational degree of anxiety in seeing a snake far exceeds the interest in hunting them which may have resulted in the negative rather than the expected positive path for animal use beliefs and intention to consume the Gaboon viper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe risk of zoonotic diseases from the consumption of bushmeat has been found to be insignificant in influencing the intention of consumers due to their reduced weariness\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The perception of risk from the consumption of snake was found to be low among wild animals consumed for bushmeat purposes in Kenya and Tanzania\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e91\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Similarly, risk perception about zoonotic infections from consumption of reptiles including snakes was observed to be low in Nigeria\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Reduced wariness of contraction of zoonotic diseases may have accounted for the lack of significance in the relationship between perceived susceptibility and intention to consume Gaboon viper meat in this study. The findings of this study contradicted previous study in Ghana by Abukari and Kankam\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e that found zoonotic weariness to reduce bushmeat consumption. Abukari and Kankam\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e study was held at the backdrop of public health campaigns on COVID-19 and admitted that reduced bushmeat consumption was not limited to weariness of contracting zoonotic diseases.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study assessed the determinants of consumption intention of Gaboon viper in Ghana using the TPB, WVOs, and perceived susceptibility to zoonotic risk. Among the factors examined, attitude was found to be the strongest determinant of the intention, followed by perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm for the hypothesized association paths with intention. Perceived susceptibility to zoonotic ailments had no significant influence on the consumption intention of the Gaboon viper. Behavior changes campaigns aimed at reducing human consumption of Gaboon viper should emphasize change in attitude towards consumption. Attitudinal change in this case requires changing beliefs and emotions towards snakes. This will require the use of persuasive massage that emphasis on ecological importance of snakes to convince people become mutualistic oriented towards snakes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study had limitations worth mentioning. This study only assessed the consumption intention of Gaboon viper; hence the results cannot be generalized to all snakes consumed. The study was cross-sectional in design and does not establish causation. Future studies should use a longitudinal approach to evaluate the pattern of change and the degree to which behavior intentions alter over time, especially following attitudinal change campaigns. Although this study used the extended TPB farmwork which improved the predictive power of the model, future studies should include emotional disposition as a possible mediator or moderator due to its role in lethal management of wildlife.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDisclosure statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declares no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll participants ensured that they understood the purpose, process, and potential risks of the study before participating, and they voluntarily took part in the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConceptualization: MKB.Data curation: MKB.Formal analysis: MKB.Investigation: MKB.Methodology: MKB.Resources: MKB.Writing \u0026ndash; original draft: MKB. Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing: MKB.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Special thanks go to Mr. Godwin Dagadu a local tour guide at Amedzofe who assisted with community facilitation to undertake the study. The author is grateful to all participants in the study and the research assistants who collected the data to make this research a success.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable requests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNatusch, D. et al. Python farming as a flexible and efficient form of agricultural food security. \u003cem\u003eSci. Rep.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e14\u003c/b\u003e, (2024).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTaran, D. M. K., Sirami, E., Arobaya, A., Sinery, A. \u0026amp; Sawaki, S. M. 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Evol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e11\u003c/b\u003e, (2023).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"attitude, conservation, ophidiophobia, theory of planned behavior, wildlife value, mutualistic orientation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6165893/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6165893/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eHuman consumption of snakes is listed as one of the main threats to their conservation status. Consumer behavior change interventions are identified as the most effective means to conserve species threatened by human consumption. However, knowing which behavioral drivers of consumption intention to focus on is necessary to guide change interventions effectively. This study determined the factors influencing behavioral intentions to consume the Vulnerable (VU) snake species \u003cem\u003eBitis gabonica\u003c/em\u003e in Ghana. Data were collected from 296 households in the Avatime traditional area in October and November 2024 with in-person interviews using a structured questionnaire. Analysis was done using the partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique in SmartPLS 3.2.8. The findings revealed that the paths between attitude perceived behavioral control, and social norm towards consumption intention of \u003cem\u003eBitis gabonica\u003c/em\u003e were positive and significant. Attitude was the most important predictor of \u003cem\u003eBitis gabonica\u003c/em\u003e consumption followed by perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm. The study recommends behavior change campaigns that emphasize changes in attitude toward human consumption of \u003cem\u003eBitis gabonica\u003c/em\u003e. Persuasive messages focused on changing beliefs and emotions towards snakes should be the aim of attitudinal change efforts.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Snakes as food. Determinants of behavior intention to consume Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica) in Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-15 16:54:19","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6165893/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-18T08:22:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-26T09:17:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-19T16:03:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"64321230782282070029129235461292230908","date":"2025-05-14T13:59:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"206810716292991899231022658965764071758","date":"2025-05-09T13:30:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-09T12:42:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-16T18:05:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-03-13T09:37:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-03-13T09:33:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-03-06T00:03:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"148ef573-b9e5-49e6-97fb-f042fe075190","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 15th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":48404932,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology/Biodiversity"},{"id":48404933,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology/Conservation"},{"id":48404934,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology/Ecosystem services"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-17T16:06:21+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6165893","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-23464-3","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-13 15:58:22","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 13th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-15 16:54:19","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-025-23464-3","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-23464-3","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6165893","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6165893","identity":"rs-6165893","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}