Prolonged Use of ADHD Medications is Associated with Testosterone Hypofunction – Results from a National Claims Database Analysis

Prolonged Use of ADHD Medications is Associated with Testosterone Hypofunction – Results from a National Claims Database Analysis | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Prolonged Use of ADHD Medications is Associated with Testosterone Hypofunction – Results from a National Claims Database Analysis Garett Ostdiek-Wille, Kyle Bavitz, Taylor Kohn, Christopher Deibert This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3117834/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 21 Dec, 2023 Read the published version in International Journal of Impotence Research → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Male hypogonadism is not a risk associated with ADHD stimulant medications, but recent studies have explored this connection. Though the exact pathophysiologic connection remains unclear, we predicted that long-term use of ADHD stimulant medications could increase the risk of hypogonadism in post-pubertal males. Utilizing the national TriNetX, LLC Research Network, individuals older than 18 with a diagnosis of ADHD receiving long-term stimulant medication (> 36 monthly prescriptions) were selected for the study population. Two control groups were constructed: individuals with ADHD but no stimulant medication use, and individuals without ADHD or stimulant medication use. A diagnosis of testicular hypofunction (ICD-10: E29.1) within five years of long-term ADHD stimulant medication use was chosen as the primary outcome. After propensity score matching, 17 224 men were analyzed in each group. Of the men with long-term ADHD stimulant medication use, 1.20% were subsequently diagnosed with testicular hypofunction compared to 0.67% of individuals with ADHD but no associated medication use (RR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.42–2.23) and 0.68% in men without an ADHD diagnosis or stimulant medication use (RR: 1.75, 95% CI: 1.39–2.19). Therefore, chronic ADHD stimulant medication use was found to be significantly associated with a subsequent diagnosis of testicular hypofunction. Health sciences/Risk factors Health sciences/Health care/Therapeutics/Adverse effects Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most diagnosed and treated psychiatric conditions in the United States. A 2019 CDC estimation reported that over six million children, 9.4%, between the ages of two and seventeen in the United States had received a diagnosis of ADHD from a healthcare provider ( 1 ). Of those children with a diagnosis, 62.0% were currently using medication. Though often considered a diagnosis in children, over 4% of adults are diagnosed with ADHD ( 2 ). A mainstay of treatment for ADHD in both adults and children is stimulant medication such as methylphenidate (Ritalin) or amphetamine-dextroamphetamine (Adderall). These medications function by increasing the bioavailability of the catecholamines dopamine and norepinephrine within the brain ( 3 ). Despite no reported risks of gonadal dysfunction associated with the medications, case studies, and animal studies have recently suggested these medications could impact gonadal functioning, including fertility rates ( 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ). Dopamine has been shown to suppress the excitation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons in both male and female mice ( 10 ). GnRH acts upon the hypothalamus to release both luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which directly impact gonadal function and testosterone production ( 11 ). Hypogonadism and, potentially, infertility can result when this signaling of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal access is disrupted or suppressed. To further assess this relationship, Wang et al. in 2019 utilized the National Health Insurance database in Taiwan to explore the relationship between the long-term use of methylphenidate and testicular dysfunction in boys ( 12 ). This demonstrated an increased rate of testicular dysfunction within the population of males diagnosed with ADHD compared to their control group. ADHD medication use itself had no increased risk of testicular dysfunction ( 12 ). We hypothesized that prolonged use of ADHD stimulant medications could negatively impact testosterone production in post-pubertal males. To assess this, we used electronic health records to build a retrospective cohort to evaluate testicular hypofunction rates among men with long-term use of ADHD medications compared to others. METHODS Data Source and Study Design Data used in this study was collected and analyzed in January 2023 from the TriNetX, LLC Research Network, which provided access to electronic medical records (diagnoses, procedures, medications, and laboratory values), as well as insurance claims for approximately 108 million patients from 76 healthcare organizations. Information regarding demographics, diagnoses from International Classification of Disease (ICD) codes, procedures from Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes, and medications were all recorded and used for analysis. Medication data was obtained from prescriptions, orders, inpatient medication reconciliations, and charted medications and were identified in the database using the National Library of Medicine RxNorm classification system. Data from January 2000 through December 2019 were included. The process by which the data was de-identified is attested to through a formal determination by a qualified expert as defined in Section § 164.514(b)( 1 ) of the HIPAA Privacy Rule. Because this study used only de-identified patient records and did not involve the collection, use, or transmittal of individually identifiable data, this study was exempted from Institutional Review Board. Cohorts To evaluate the risk of long-term ADHD stimulant medication on developing a diagnosis of testosterone deficiency in post-pubertal males, we included adult men ages 20–40 years with a diagnosis of ADHD (ICD-10: F90) who did and did not have exposure to ADHD stimulant medications, including: methylphenidate (RxNorm: 6901), dextroamphetamine (3288), lisdexamfetamine (700810), amphetamine (725), and dexmethylphenidate (149,373). Men were defined as having chronic exposure if they had received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD medications while control men with an ADHD diagnosis but had zero instances of these prescriptions including the above stimulants as well as non-stimulant ADHD medications including guanfacine (40114) and atomoxetine (38400). A second control group was additionally created including men with no diagnosis of ADHD and never having received any ADHD medications to serve as a population control. The primary outcome was a diagnosis of testicular hypofunction (ICD-10: E29.1) within 5 years of having been prescribed at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD medications. Statistical Analysis Data was reported as mean and standard deviation or total counts. Baseline characteristics prior to propensity score matching were compared using T-test and Chi-squared. We then utilized propensity score matching – a statistical technique that utilizes logistic regression to build cohorts of equal size based on covariates of interest. We used 1:1 greedy nearest-neighbor propensity score matching to control for confounding variables through the TriNetX platform. In this analysis we controlled for: Age at Index, Current Age, Race/Ethnicity, hyperlipidemia (ICD-10: E78), overweight or obesity (E66), obstructive sleep apnea (G47.3), diabetes mellitus (E08-13), conduct disorder (F91), Pervasive developmental disorders (F84), Tic disorders (F95), and intellectual disabilities (F70-79). Statistical analysis was performed using Python and R software built into the TriNetX platform. We determined that the two groups had minimal differences after balancing, as the standardized differences between propensity scores were less than 0.1. RESULTS Prior to matching, we identified 19 498 men with a diagnosis of ADHD and had received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD stimulant medications and 147 441 men with a diagnosis of ADHD but never received Spaziani M, Tarantino C, Tahani N, Gianfrilli D, Sbardella E, Lenzi A, et al. Hypothalamo-Pituitary axis and puberty. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2021;520:111094.any ADHD medications. After matching, a total of 17 224 men in each group were included in the analysis with an initial age of ADHD diagnosis occurring at 19.1 ± 8.3 years and a current age of 28.9 ± 6.1 for both groups (Table 1). After propensity score matching, 1.20% of men who received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD medications were found to have a subsequent diagnosis of testosterone hypofunction within 5 years compared to 0.67% in men with ADHD but never received ADHD medications who were diagnosed with testicular hypofunction (risk ratio (RR) 1.78, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.42–2.23). Next we compared these men with chronic ADHD medication use to the population without ADHD and who had never received any ADHD medication. Prior to matching we identified 19 498 men who had a diagnosis of ADHD and received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD stimulant medications and 2 416 153 men who had never had a diagnosis of ADHD nor had received any ADHD medications. After matching a total of 17 217 patients were included with age of ADHD diagnosis occurring at 19.1 ± 8.3 years and a current age of 28.9 ± 6.2 for both groups (Table 2). After propensity score matching, we found 1.20% of men who received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD medications had a subsequent diagnosis of testosterone hypofunction compared to 0.68% of men without a history of ADHD or ADHD medication use (RR: 1.75, 95% CI 1.39–2.19). DISCUSSION This large-scale retrospective claims database study explored the impact stimulant medication use for ADHD has on future testicular hypofunction risk. The key finding is an increased relative risk for a subsequent diagnosis of hypogonadism among adult male patients who have received long-term pharmaceutical treatment for ADHD with dextroamphetamine, lisdexamfetamine, amphetamine, or dexmethylphenidate. This increased risk was found to be significant when compared to both individuals without ADHD and those with ADHD not using stimulant medications. Our findings have major similarities and a key difference from the previous large Taiwanese cohort study, which found an association between an ADHD diagnosis and testicular dysfunction ( 12 ). Both studies utilized large cohorts to compare rates of testosterone hypofunction in individuals with ADHD retrospectively. While our study did not evaluate the risk of testosterone hypofunction for individuals with ADHD regardless of medication use, we found a significant risk increase among individuals with long-term stimulant use. This conflicts with findings from Wang et al., who found no associated increase in the risk of testicular dysfunction with methylphenidate use among individuals with ADHD but did find a significant increase in testicular dysfunction risk with an ADHD diagnosis. Notably, our study evaluated multiple stimulant ADHD medications in addition to methylphenidate. Wang et al. focused on the effects of hypogonadism on development and puberty, a much younger study population with nearly a 10-year lower mean age ( 12 ). Yet, our findings support conclusions made by the case study from Abdalla et al. that identified a case of reversible pituitary failure leading to hypogonadism believed to be caused by amphetamine-dextroamphetamine ( 4 ). Another case report by Ramasamy et al. from 2014 reported on a case of testicular failure and delayed puberty in a 20-year-old male with a 17-year history of methylphenidate use despite cessation of drug use years prior. This patient was treated with supplemental testosterone and human chorionic gonadotropin ( 5 ). One longitudinal study explored this between 2005 and 2011 and found a significantly decreased growth rate among adolescents with a 3-year history of stimulant medication use ( 13 ). This treatment length matches the criteria used in our study, but the patient population of focus was on adolescents rather than adults, like the research by Wang et al. ( 12 ). With hypothalamic influence over puberty and development involving the release of GnRH and subsequently, LH and FSH ( 14 ), a shared physiological pathway may be involved. Methylphenidate has also been found to decrease testosterone levels in male rhesus monkeys, and that dose-dependent decrease in testicular size further supports this idea ( 8 ). The same axis is involved in folliculogenesis in females and was found to be impacted in rats with methylphenidate exposure ( 9 ). Wang et al. postulated higher dosing relative to mass compared to typical pharmaceutical dosing in many of these animal studies as a reason they did not translate to the results of their research ( 12 ). Our study did not have access to medication dosage, so we cannot comment on the potential impact on gonadal functioning. To our knowledge, this study is the first to identify a significant relative risk of hypogonadism and testicular hypofunction with long-term ADHD medication use. With the number of patients found in TriNet, the power of this analysis is a particular strength, with most current literature supporting our hypothesis consisting of case reports ( 4 , 5 , 6 ). The study size also allowed for propensity matching to minimize treatment selection bias in this population. Limitations of this study design include the lack of information available on the cause of hypogonadism or hormone levels. Also, an inherent bias exists because medication status was not randomized among individuals in the study, and factors such as symptom severity could impact who received pharmaceutical treatment. Despite these drawbacks, the study’s results are significant in helping determine all risks associated with the drug that should be considered by both the patient and healthcare provider when prescribing stimulant medication for ADHD. CONCLUSIONS Long-term ADHD stimulant medication use in men was found to be associated with a significant increase in relative risk for a subsequent testicular hypofunction diagnosis. This difference was found when compared to both those with ADHD not using pharmaceutical therapy and those without ADHD. These results indicate that impaired gonadal function is a potential side effect of stimulant medications. Future studies should explore the exact physiologic pathways responsible for this effect in men and women and the impact of the medications on GnRH, FSH, LH, testosterone levels, and fertility. This will enhance understanding of the adverse effects of stimulant use in treating ADHD. Declarations DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: AUTHOR CONTRIBUTION STATEMENT: TK and CD created the idea and design for the study. TK collected and analyzed the study’s data. GOW, KB, CD, and TK were involved in the drafting and revision of the manuscript. FUNDING: No financial assistance was received or utilized for this study. ETHICAL APPROVAL: This study was exempt from Institutional Review Board because only de-identified patient records were utilized. Individually identifiable data was never collected, used, or transmitted. COMPETING INTERESTS: The authors declare no competing interests. References Bitsko RH, Claussen AH, Lichstein J, Black LI, Jones SE, Danielson ML, et al. Mental Health Surveillance Among Children - United States, 2013–2019. MMWR Suppl. 2022;71(2):1–42.. Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, Biederman J, Conners CK, Demler O, et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(4):716–23. Caye A, Swanson JM, Coghill D, Rohde LA. Treatment strategies for ADHD: an evidence-based guide to select optimal treatment. Mol Psychiatry. 2019;24(3):390–408. Abdalla TE, Kotsonis D, Best J, Ramasamy R, Wood E. Stimulant-Induced Pituitary Failure and Reversible Azoospermia. Cureus. 2021;13(4):e14269. Ramasamy R, Dadhich P, Dhingra A, Lipshultz L. Case Report: Testicular failure possibly associated with chronic use of methylphenidate. F1000Res. 2014;3:207. Akaltun İ. Report of a 14-Year-Old Boy Whose Testosterone Level Decreased After Starting on Methylphenidate. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2016;26(2):181. Danborg PB, Simonsen AL, Gøtzsche PC. Impaired reproduction after exposure to ADHD drugs: Systematic review of animal studies. Int J Risk Saf Med. 2017;29(1–2):107–24. Mattison DR, Plant TM, Lin HM, Chen HC, Chen JJ, Twaddle NC, et al. Pubertal delay in male nonhuman primates (Macaca mulatta) treated with methylphenidate. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(39):16301–6. Chatterjee-Chakrabarty S, Miller BT, Collins TJ, Nagamani M. Adverse effects of methylphenidate on the reproductive axis of adolescent female rats. Fertil Steril. 2005;84 Suppl 2:1131–8. Liu X, Herbison AE. Dopamine regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neuron excitability in male and female mice. Endocrinology. 2013;154(1):340–50. Babu SR, Sadhnani MD, Swarna M, Padmavathi P, Reddy PP. Evaluation of FSH, LH and testosterone levels in different subgroups of infertile males. Indian J Clin Biochem. 2004;19(1):45–9. Wang LJ, Lee SY, Chou WJ, Lee MJ, Tsai CS, Lee TL, et al. Testicular Function After Long-Term Methylphenidate Treatment in Boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2019;29(6):433–8. Poulton AS, Melzer E, Tait PR, Garnett SP, Cowell CT, Baur LA, et al. Growth and pubertal development of adolescent boys on stimulant medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Med J Aust. 2013;198(1):29–32. Spaziani M, Tarantino C, Tahani N, Gianfrilli D, Sbardella E, Lenzi A, et al. Hypothalamo-Pituitary axis and puberty. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2021;520:111094. Tables Tables 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations There is NO conflict of interest to disclose. Supplementary Files Table1ADHDMedicationsHypogonadism.xlsx Table 1 – ADHD Chronic Medications Use Compared to No Use in ADHD Patient Table2ADHDMedicationHypogonadism.xlsx Table 2 – ADHD Chronic Medications Use Compared to Men with No History of ADHD Diagnosis or Medication Sse DataforTable1.pdf Dataset 1 DataforTable2.pdf Dataset 2 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 21 Dec, 2023 Read the published version in International Journal of Impotence Research → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: revise 08 Aug, 2023 Review # 2 received at journal 07 Aug, 2023 Reviewer # 2 agreed at journal 26 Jul, 2023 Review # 1 received at journal 11 Jul, 2023 Reviewer # 1 agreed at journal 11 Jul, 2023 Reviewers invited by journal 30 Jun, 2023 Submission checks completed at journal 28 Jun, 2023 Editor assigned by journal 27 Jun, 2023 First submitted to journal 27 Jun, 2023 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3117834","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":214516802,"identity":"96fb408a-7ac4-4644-8bf4-d5d1f4d93a6d","order_by":0,"name":"Garett Ostdiek-Wille","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABIUlEQVRIie2PMUsDMRTHXwm8W3K9NYI0XyHHQXEoOPo12iUuDoWCCC4HB5mEri7Sr2ARimPKwU3nfpDFInRSOBe5QdDcqZ1ScXTIb8gLL/nxfw/A4/nnCA0aaD+A3uNPZ+9fPbYHfitIgIg/K/ZmKwFkvyn85GHz9NrAgC+ypa7L/BAJKS7D+xWHIFsxhxKXp4mwKYkocLq+rnI7GEoTliZOaXHuVFKJzCqTW6Qip7WxCh2aUJkxsLOhU5lvg6ZVFsoq750Svc06hT87Fc4ktutP0sIqUHUpSL5SqFMRbEtYKZndRU7XV+VHu0tycKNMrKicHblS5rJXX4xGA57ld3VTyOMoyDb1izI8CvJl5UrRXXENgI5el5LuefB4PB7Pjk94AGFpYUgy7wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8034-7797","institution":"University of Nebraska Medical Center","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Garett","middleName":"","lastName":"Ostdiek-Wille","suffix":""},{"id":214516803,"identity":"944360d0-56b1-4424-b54f-91f5e4cc4bf5","order_by":1,"name":"Kyle Bavitz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nebraska Medical Center","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kyle","middleName":"","lastName":"Bavitz","suffix":""},{"id":214516804,"identity":"b9844928-f84e-4004-bf2c-dda873359817","order_by":2,"name":"Taylor Kohn","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Taylor","middleName":"","lastName":"Kohn","suffix":""},{"id":214516805,"identity":"87f2d0ee-a7f3-442f-bd5f-710d68f19d6a","order_by":3,"name":"Christopher Deibert","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nebraska Medical Center","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christopher","middleName":"","lastName":"Deibert","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2023-06-28 01:35:52","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3117834/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3117834/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41443-023-00805-2","type":"published","date":"2023-12-21T05:00:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":39598968,"identity":"3de82787-2e8e-4af0-8d5c-8298f6290bc3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-07-05 20:42:10","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43302,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSample Criteria and Outcomes\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1ADHDandTesticularDysfunction.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3117834/v1/7bd64481ce229ade1ad59fe4.png"},{"id":48660185,"identity":"797cd9db-f6ca-476b-9f03-5ec28aa9484d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-12-22 08:08:24","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":264043,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3117834/v1/7c8b96b2-1889-42fa-b789-6dac0c660b1d.pdf"},{"id":39598969,"identity":"9cdc4456-9d6b-4eb4-bcb3-eb1016c34e0c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-07-05 20:42:10","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":11949,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1 – \u003c/strong\u003eADHD Chronic Medications Use Compared to No Use in ADHD Patient\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Table1ADHDMedicationsHypogonadism.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3117834/v1/d97cb37229f6231084c7c1de.xlsx"},{"id":39598970,"identity":"0e4be003-4a78-47df-a7af-9b856176acd0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-07-05 20:42:10","extension":"xlsx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":11907,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2 – \u003c/strong\u003eADHD Chronic Medications Use Compared to Men with No History of ADHD Diagnosis or Medication Sse\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Table2ADHDMedicationHypogonadism.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3117834/v1/1ec525dbbfe7c6dbb5608a5f.xlsx"},{"id":39598972,"identity":"237a372a-19da-46cc-bba8-081fa2f0bf2a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-07-05 20:42:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":659761,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDataset 1\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"DataforTable1.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3117834/v1/105ea37b9d0534e856318cb0.pdf"},{"id":39600367,"identity":"83840327-c582-49ef-9f95-cb374b553055","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-07-05 20:50:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":679140,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDataset 2\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"DataforTable2.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3117834/v1/8ee322cc17b2b2cffdf2a9ae.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e conflict of interest to disclose.","formattedTitle":"Prolonged Use of ADHD Medications is Associated with Testosterone Hypofunction – Results from a National Claims Database Analysis","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eAttention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most diagnosed and treated psychiatric conditions in the United States. A 2019 CDC estimation reported that over six million children, 9.4%, between the ages of two and seventeen in the United States had received a diagnosis of ADHD from a healthcare provider (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Of those children with a diagnosis, 62.0% were currently using medication. Though often considered a diagnosis in children, over 4% of adults are diagnosed with ADHD (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). A mainstay of treatment for ADHD in both adults and children is stimulant medication such as methylphenidate (Ritalin) or amphetamine-dextroamphetamine (Adderall). These medications function by increasing the bioavailability of the catecholamines dopamine and norepinephrine within the brain (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite no reported risks of gonadal dysfunction associated with the medications, case studies, and animal studies have recently suggested these medications could impact gonadal functioning, including fertility rates (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Dopamine has been shown to suppress the excitation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons in both male and female mice (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). GnRH acts upon the hypothalamus to release both luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which directly impact gonadal function and testosterone production (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Hypogonadism and, potentially, infertility can result when this signaling of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal access is disrupted or suppressed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo further assess this relationship, Wang et al. in 2019 utilized the National Health Insurance database in Taiwan to explore the relationship between the long-term use of methylphenidate and testicular dysfunction in boys (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). This demonstrated an increased rate of testicular dysfunction within the population of males diagnosed with ADHD compared to their control group. ADHD medication use itself had no increased risk of testicular dysfunction (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe hypothesized that prolonged use of ADHD stimulant medications could negatively impact testosterone production in post-pubertal males. To assess this, we used electronic health records to build a retrospective cohort to evaluate testicular hypofunction rates among men with long-term use of ADHD medications compared to others.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Source and Study Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData used in this study was collected and analyzed in January 2023 from the TriNetX, LLC Research Network, which provided access to electronic medical records (diagnoses, procedures, medications, and laboratory values), as well as insurance claims for approximately 108\u0026nbsp;million patients from 76 healthcare organizations. Information regarding demographics, diagnoses from International Classification of Disease (ICD) codes, procedures from Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes, and medications were all recorded and used for analysis. Medication data was obtained from prescriptions, orders, inpatient medication reconciliations, and charted medications and were identified in the database using the National Library of Medicine RxNorm classification system. Data from January 2000 through December 2019 were included.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe process by which the data was de-identified is attested to through a formal determination by a qualified expert as defined in Section \u0026sect;\u0026nbsp;164.514(b)(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) of the HIPAA Privacy Rule. Because this study used only de-identified patient records and did not involve the collection, use, or transmittal of individually identifiable data, this study was exempted from Institutional Review Board.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCohorts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the risk of long-term ADHD stimulant medication on developing a diagnosis of testosterone deficiency in post-pubertal males, we included adult men ages 20\u0026ndash;40 years with a diagnosis of ADHD (ICD-10: F90) who did and did not have exposure to ADHD stimulant medications, including: methylphenidate (RxNorm: 6901), dextroamphetamine (3288), lisdexamfetamine (700810), amphetamine (725), and dexmethylphenidate (149,373). Men were defined as having chronic exposure if they had received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD medications while control men with an ADHD diagnosis but had zero instances of these prescriptions including the above stimulants as well as non-stimulant ADHD medications including guanfacine (40114) and atomoxetine (38400). A second control group was additionally created including men with no diagnosis of ADHD and never having received any ADHD medications to serve as a population control. The primary outcome was a diagnosis of testicular hypofunction (ICD-10: E29.1) within 5 years of having been prescribed at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD medications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData was reported as mean and standard deviation or total counts. Baseline characteristics prior to propensity score matching were compared using T-test and Chi-squared. We then utilized propensity score matching \u0026ndash; a statistical technique that utilizes logistic regression to build cohorts of equal size based on covariates of interest. We used 1:1 greedy nearest-neighbor propensity score matching to control for confounding variables through the TriNetX platform. In this analysis we controlled for: Age at Index, Current Age, Race/Ethnicity, hyperlipidemia (ICD-10: E78), overweight or obesity (E66), obstructive sleep apnea (G47.3), diabetes mellitus (E08-13), conduct disorder (F91), Pervasive developmental disorders (F84), Tic disorders (F95), and intellectual disabilities (F70-79). Statistical analysis was performed using Python and R software built into the TriNetX platform. We determined that the two groups had minimal differences after balancing, as the standardized differences between propensity scores were less than 0.1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003ePrior to matching, we identified 19 498 men with a diagnosis of ADHD and had received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD stimulant medications and 147 441 men with a diagnosis of ADHD but never received Spaziani M, Tarantino C, Tahani N, Gianfrilli D, Sbardella E, Lenzi A, et al. Hypothalamo-Pituitary axis and puberty. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2021;520:111094.any ADHD medications. After matching, a total of 17 224 men in each group were included in the analysis with an initial age of ADHD diagnosis occurring at 19.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.3 years and a current age of 28.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.1 for both groups (Table\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter propensity score matching, 1.20% of men who received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD medications were found to have a subsequent diagnosis of testosterone hypofunction within 5 years compared to 0.67% in men with ADHD but never received ADHD medications who were diagnosed with testicular hypofunction (risk ratio (RR) 1.78, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.42\u0026ndash;2.23).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNext we compared these men with chronic ADHD medication use to the population without ADHD and who had never received any ADHD medication. Prior to matching we identified 19 498 men who had a diagnosis of ADHD and received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD stimulant medications and 2 416 153 men who had never had a diagnosis of ADHD nor had received any ADHD medications. After matching a total of 17 217 patients were included with age of ADHD diagnosis occurring at 19.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.3 years and a current age of 28.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.2 for both groups (Table\u0026nbsp;2). After propensity score matching, we found 1.20% of men who received at least 36 prescriptions of ADHD medications had a subsequent diagnosis of testosterone hypofunction compared to 0.68% of men without a history of ADHD or ADHD medication use (RR: 1.75, 95% CI 1.39\u0026ndash;2.19).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis large-scale retrospective claims database study explored the impact stimulant medication use for ADHD has on future testicular hypofunction risk. The key finding is an increased relative risk for a subsequent diagnosis of hypogonadism among adult male patients who have received long-term pharmaceutical treatment for ADHD with dextroamphetamine, lisdexamfetamine, amphetamine, or dexmethylphenidate. This increased risk was found to be significant when compared to both individuals without ADHD and those with ADHD not using stimulant medications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings have major similarities and a key difference from the previous large Taiwanese cohort study, which found an association between an ADHD diagnosis and testicular dysfunction (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Both studies utilized large cohorts to compare rates of testosterone hypofunction in individuals with ADHD retrospectively. While our study did not evaluate the risk of testosterone hypofunction for individuals with ADHD regardless of medication use, we found a significant risk increase among individuals with long-term stimulant use. This conflicts with findings from Wang et al., who found no associated increase in the risk of testicular dysfunction with methylphenidate use among individuals with ADHD but did find a significant increase in testicular dysfunction risk with an ADHD diagnosis. Notably, our study evaluated multiple stimulant ADHD medications in addition to methylphenidate. Wang et al. focused on the effects of hypogonadism on development and puberty, a much younger study population with nearly a 10-year lower mean age (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYet, our findings support conclusions made by the case study from Abdalla et al. that identified a case of reversible pituitary failure leading to hypogonadism believed to be caused by amphetamine-dextroamphetamine (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Another case report by Ramasamy et al. from 2014 reported on a case of testicular failure and delayed puberty in a 20-year-old male with a 17-year history of methylphenidate use despite cessation of drug use years prior. This patient was treated with supplemental testosterone and human chorionic gonadotropin (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne longitudinal study explored this between 2005 and 2011 and found a significantly decreased growth rate among adolescents with a 3-year history of stimulant medication use (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). This treatment length matches the criteria used in our study, but the patient population of focus was on adolescents rather than adults, like the research by Wang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). With hypothalamic influence over puberty and development involving the release of GnRH and subsequently, LH and FSH (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e), a shared physiological pathway may be involved. Methylphenidate has also been found to decrease testosterone levels in male rhesus monkeys, and that dose-dependent decrease in testicular size further supports this idea (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). The same axis is involved in folliculogenesis in females and was found to be impacted in rats with methylphenidate exposure (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). Wang et al. postulated higher dosing relative to mass compared to typical pharmaceutical dosing in many of these animal studies as a reason they did not translate to the results of their research (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Our study did not have access to medication dosage, so we cannot comment on the potential impact on gonadal functioning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo our knowledge, this study is the first to identify a significant relative risk of hypogonadism and testicular hypofunction with long-term ADHD medication use. With the number of patients found in TriNet, the power of this analysis is a particular strength, with most current literature supporting our hypothesis consisting of case reports (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The study size also allowed for propensity matching to minimize treatment selection bias in this population. Limitations of this study design include the lack of information available on the cause of hypogonadism or hormone levels. Also, an inherent bias exists because medication status was not randomized among individuals in the study, and factors such as symptom severity could impact who received pharmaceutical treatment. Despite these drawbacks, the study\u0026rsquo;s results are significant in helping determine all risks associated with the drug that should be considered by both the patient and healthcare provider when prescribing stimulant medication for ADHD.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eLong-term ADHD stimulant medication use in men was found to be associated with a significant increase in relative risk for a subsequent testicular hypofunction diagnosis. This difference was found when compared to both those with ADHD not using pharmaceutical therapy and those without ADHD. These results indicate that impaired gonadal function is a potential side effect of stimulant medications. Future studies should explore the exact physiologic pathways responsible for this effect in men and women and the impact of the medications on GnRH, FSH, LH, testosterone levels, and fertility. This will enhance understanding of the adverse effects of stimulant use in treating ADHD.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eACKNOWLEDGMENTS:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAUTHOR CONTRIBUTION STATEMENT:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTK and CD created the idea and design for the study. TK collected and analyzed the study\u0026rsquo;s data. GOW, KB, CD, and TK were involved in the drafting and revision of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFUNDING:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo financial assistance was received or utilized for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eETHICAL APPROVAL:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was exempt from Institutional Review Board because only de-identified patient records were utilized. Individually identifiable data was never collected, used, or transmitted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCOMPETING INTERESTS:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBitsko RH, Claussen AH, Lichstein J, Black LI, Jones SE, Danielson ML, et al. Mental Health Surveillance Among Children - United States, 2013\u0026ndash;2019. MMWR Suppl. 2022;71(2):1\u0026ndash;42..\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, Biederman J, Conners CK, Demler O, et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(4):716\u0026ndash;23.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCaye A, Swanson JM, Coghill D, Rohde LA. Treatment strategies for ADHD: an evidence-based guide to select optimal treatment. Mol Psychiatry. 2019;24(3):390\u0026ndash;408.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdalla TE, Kotsonis D, Best J, Ramasamy R, Wood E. Stimulant-Induced Pituitary Failure and Reversible Azoospermia. Cureus. 2021;13(4):e14269.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRamasamy R, Dadhich P, Dhingra A, Lipshultz L. Case Report: Testicular failure possibly associated with chronic use of methylphenidate. F1000Res. 2014;3:207.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkaltun İ. Report of a 14-Year-Old Boy Whose Testosterone Level Decreased After Starting on Methylphenidate. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2016;26(2):181.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDanborg PB, Simonsen AL, G\u0026oslash;tzsche PC. Impaired reproduction after exposure to ADHD drugs: Systematic review of animal studies. Int J Risk Saf Med. 2017;29(1\u0026ndash;2):107\u0026ndash;24.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMattison DR, Plant TM, Lin HM, Chen HC, Chen JJ, Twaddle NC, et al. Pubertal delay in male nonhuman primates (Macaca mulatta) treated with methylphenidate. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(39):16301\u0026ndash;6.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChatterjee-Chakrabarty S, Miller BT, Collins TJ, Nagamani M. Adverse effects of methylphenidate on the reproductive axis of adolescent female rats. Fertil Steril. 2005;84 Suppl 2:1131\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu X, Herbison AE. Dopamine regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neuron excitability in male and female mice. Endocrinology. 2013;154(1):340\u0026ndash;50.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBabu SR, Sadhnani MD, Swarna M, Padmavathi P, Reddy PP. Evaluation of FSH, LH and testosterone levels in different subgroups of infertile males. Indian J Clin Biochem. 2004;19(1):45\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang LJ, Lee SY, Chou WJ, Lee MJ, Tsai CS, Lee TL, et al. Testicular Function After Long-Term Methylphenidate Treatment in Boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2019;29(6):433\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePoulton AS, Melzer E, Tait PR, Garnett SP, Cowell CT, Baur LA, et al. Growth and pubertal development of adolescent boys on stimulant medication for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Med J Aust. 2013;198(1):29\u0026ndash;32.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSpaziani M, Tarantino C, Tahani N, Gianfrilli D, Sbardella E, Lenzi A, et al. Hypothalamo-Pituitary axis and puberty. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2021;520:111094.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTables 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-impotence-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijir","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Impotence Research](http://www.nature.com/ijir/)","snPcode":"41443","submissionUrl":"https://mts-ijir.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"International Journal of Impotence Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3117834/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3117834/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMale hypogonadism is not a risk associated with ADHD stimulant medications, but recent studies have explored this connection. Though the exact pathophysiologic connection remains unclear, we predicted that long-term use of ADHD stimulant medications could increase the risk of hypogonadism in post-pubertal males. Utilizing the national TriNetX, LLC Research Network, individuals older than 18 with a diagnosis of ADHD receiving long-term stimulant medication (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;36 monthly prescriptions) were selected for the study population. Two control groups were constructed: individuals with ADHD but no stimulant medication use, and individuals without ADHD or stimulant medication use. A diagnosis of testicular hypofunction (ICD-10: E29.1) within five years of long-term ADHD stimulant medication use was chosen as the primary outcome. After propensity score matching, 17 224 men were analyzed in each group. Of the men with long-term ADHD stimulant medication use, 1.20% were subsequently diagnosed with testicular hypofunction compared to 0.67% of individuals with ADHD but no associated medication use (RR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.42\u0026ndash;2.23) and 0.68% in men without an ADHD diagnosis or stimulant medication use (RR: 1.75, 95% CI: 1.39\u0026ndash;2.19). Therefore, chronic ADHD stimulant medication use was found to be significantly associated with a subsequent diagnosis of testicular hypofunction.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Prolonged Use of ADHD Medications is Associated with Testosterone Hypofunction – Results from a National Claims Database Analysis","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2023-07-05 20:42:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3117834/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"revise","date":"2023-08-08T13:37:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2023-08-08T01:59:52+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2023-07-26T22:20:21+00:00","index":2,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2023-07-11T17:17:14+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"This content is not available.","date":"2023-07-11T17:00:25+00:00","index":1,"fulltext":"This content is not available."},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2023-06-30T05:13:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2023-06-28T12:00:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2023-06-28T01:34:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Impotence Research","date":"2023-06-28T01:34:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-impotence-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijir","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Impotence Research](http://www.nature.com/ijir/)","snPcode":"41443","submissionUrl":"https://mts-ijir.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"International Journal of Impotence Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"727f2339-a5a0-4737-9842-6dfeae988206","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 5th, 2023","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":22856474,"name":"Health sciences/Risk factors"},{"id":22856475,"name":"Health sciences/Health care/Therapeutics/Adverse effects"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2023-12-22T08:08:19+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-3117834","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41443-023-00805-2","journal":{"identity":"international-journal-of-impotence-research","isVorOnly":false,"title":"International Journal of Impotence Research"},"publishedOn":"2023-12-21 05:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"December 21st, 2023"},"versionCreatedAt":"2023-07-05 20:42:05","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41443-023-00805-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41443-023-00805-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3117834","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3117834","identity":"rs-3117834","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"7rjqhiLT3MXkJMwkYKINL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}