The Origin of Unequal Childhoods: Associations between Caregiver Gender Stereotypes and Early Childhood Development in Rural China

The Origin of Unequal Childhoods: Associations between Caregiver Gender Stereotypes and Early Childhood Development in Rural China | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The Origin of Unequal Childhoods: Associations between Caregiver Gender Stereotypes and Early Childhood Development in Rural China Yue Wang, Cong Li, Shanshan Li, Hanwen Zhang, Amuna Sonomdagva, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6651508/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The challenges posed by caregivers’ gender stereotypes to a healthy and equitable environment for the development for all children are often overlooked in low-resource and traditionally gender-inegalitarian contexts. This study describes gender stereotypes among the caregivers of children aged 12–30 months in rural China (N = 697, 53.5% male) and examines the associations between these stereotypes and their children’s developmental outcomes. Results reveal prevalent gender stereotypes related to women’s roles in education, employment, marriage, and fertility. Stereotypes predicted lower levels of social-emotional development among girls but not boys. Despite the presence of stereotypes, girls outperformed boys in early language skills. Mechanism analysis suggests that gender stereotypes predicted lower levels of parenting knowledge and less stimulating home environments for girls. Social science/Cultural and media studies Social science/Development studies Social science/Education Caregiver gender stereotypes Early childhood development Parenting knowledge Family care environment Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Children experience rapid cognitive and social-emotional growth in the first few years of life (Currie & Almond, 2011; Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007). While both boys and girls benefit from growing up in a healthy, stimulated environment, they often have different trajectories of growth and development due to a synergy of biology and experience. Early experiences of gender roles through interactions with caregivers not only shape children’s gender identity, but also modify neuronal structures and act in junction with genetic and hormonal factors to determine gender differences later in life (Fiese & Skillman, 2000; Kimura, 1992). Caregivers with strong gender stereotypes are more likely to reinforce gender-stereotypical behaviors and capabilities in their children through their parenting practices, and they often determine their expectations for and investment in their children’s development and education based on stereotypes (Bigler & Liben, 1992; Endendijk et al., 2013; Mesman & Groeneveld, 2018; Rogers et al., 2024). As such, the gender stereotypes of caregivers can create lasting inequities in early childhood development (henceforth, ECD) and later achievements. While the importance of uprooting gender stereotypes among caregivers for achieving equitable child development is well established, some questions remain. First, despite the large body of literature examining the impact of caregiver gender stereotypes on the development of gender identity, which typically occurs between age 2 and 3 (Kohlberg, 1966), whether and how these stereotypes affect ECD before children develop their gender identity remain unclear. Second, existing studies of gender stereotypes and child development typically focus on stereotypes in specific contexts, such as brilliance stereotypes in schools and stereotypes about women’s roles in domestic life. There exists a need to comprehensively examine caregivers’ gender stereotypes about education, employment, and family life, and how they affect specific domains of ECD. Third, empirical evidence regarding caregiver gender stereotypes and gender disparities in ECD is particularly scarce in rural China, where low investment in stimulating parenting and gender-inegalitarian norms often prevent girls from realizing their potential in education, careers, and family life while placing high expectations on boys. To understand the association between the gender stereotypes of caregivers and gender disparities in ECD and identify stereotypes that prevent equitable development in rural China, we collected data from one county in rural China to examine how primary caregivers’ gender stereotypes influence early cognitive, language, motor and social-emotional development among children under age 3. Gender disparities in early childhood development ECD is equally important for boys and girls, but much international evidence has shown that gender disparities in development exist throughout early childhood in low- and middle-income countries (henceforth, LMICs). A recent study conducted among children aged 7 to 48 months across nine LMICs found that girls consistently outperformed boys on language tests by 0.14 standard deviations (henceforth, SD) and socio-emotional development by 0.17 SD (Bando et al., 2024). Another study of 3-to-4-year-old children in 71 LMICs found that the odds of being developmentally on track were the same for girls and boys in approximately half of the countries; But when gender disparities exist, girls are more likely than to be developmentally on track, particularly in the social-emotional domain and in countries with greater gender equality (Rey-Guerra et al., 2023). As children reach school age, there is evidence that the gender gap reverses, with a study of 5-to-16-year-old children in Mexico and Colombia showing that boys outperform girls in oral language, spatial abilities, and visual perceptual tasks, while girls only outperform boys in tactile tasks (Ardila et al., 2011). Interdisciplinary research suggests that gender disparities in ECD are caused by a synergy of biological and social forces. While genetics, hormonal levels, and brain structure and function continually shape sex differences and gender identity development since conception (McCarthy, 2016; Ristori et al., 2020), evidence for the impact of innate anatomical or physiological sex differences alone on cognitive performance is weak (Eliot et al., 2021; McCarthy, 2016). This, together with variations in the extent and direction of gender disparities in ECD in different contexts, prompted a growing body of research that associates gender disparities in ECD with cultural and social norms around gender differences in parenting styles, which manifest as differences in attitudes and behavior between the parenting of boys and girls (Feldman & Eidelman, 2009; Fiese & Skillman, 2000). Gender norms not only shape caregiving attitudes and practices in early childhood, but also influence children’s gender-related cognitions, potential educational opportunities, and social expectations in the long run (Morawska, 2020; Rogers et al., 2024; Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2002), thereby reinforcing gender inequity. For example, gender brilliance stereotypes, which portray exceptional intellectual abilities as a male attribute, have been found to cause girls to experience developmental setbacks, perform worse academically when compared to boys, and lose their interest in school (Kim et al., 2024; Master et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2022). However, the developmental stage at which caregiver gender stereotypes and gender-based parenting first start to affect child development remains an open question. With the exception of one previous study, which found that variations in caregiver-child interactions did not explain the gender gap in ECD among children aged 7 to 48 months (Bando et al., 2024), little research has examined whether caregiver gender stereotypes contributed to the gender disparities in development among children under age 3. Caregivers’ gender stereotypes, parenting knowledge, and family environment Theories of gender development propose that caregivers’ gender stereotypes influence child development by shaping caregiver-child interactions. The Social Role Theory (SRT) suggests that gender stereotypes form as people observe male and female behavior and infer that the sexes possess corresponding dispositions (Eagly, 2012; Koenig & Eagly, 2014). Caregivers, as agents of socialization, guide children toward developing personality traits and skills that align with these dispositions by encouraging gender-typical role performances. For example, boys tend to receive more encouragement from caregivers for their engagement in physical activities, while girls are encouraged to take on domestic responsibilities and nurturing roles (Eccles, 1987). Children play an active role in their gender socialization too: As the Gender Schema Theory suggests, caregivers’ gender self-concepts and gender attitudes about others affect their children’s gender-related cognitions (Bem, 1981; Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2002), which influence the information children notice and remember. As a result, girls and boys often seek out gender-typed environments that further reinforce their gender-typed expectations and interests. While these theories suggest a model of how caregiver-child interactions affect child development, empirical testing of them requires measuring caregivers’ beliefs about gender and linking these beliefs to their parenting practices and children’s developmental outcomes. Few empirical studies on this relation exist, particularly among caregivers of children under 3 years old. A separate but related body of literature has documented that gender stereotypes also limit caregivers’ parenting knowledge and cause them to selectively withhold investment in certain domains of development based on the gender of their child. Studies have shown that in environments where gender roles are strictly defined and parenting is seen as a gendered activity, female caregivers may not seek out or be offered opportunities to acquire parenting knowledge because parenting is seen as a natural rather than learned behavior (Durand, 2011). Caregivers with low levels of education are especially at risk, since stereotypes discourage them from accessing resources that improve their understanding of child development and the importance of early childhood stimulation and care (Engle et al., 2011). As a result, gender stereotypes can manifest as gendered parenting practices: Caregivers may prioritize investing their limited resources in the education and development of boys over those of girls, because they believe that boys are more suited for success in the professional sphere while girls are destined for domestic roles (Mesman & Groeneveld, 2018). Therefore, identifying the impact of caregiver gender stereotypes on child development, and the timepoint at which the impact surfaces, is crucial for designing interventions to improve both child development and equity in gender-inegalitarian contexts. The case of rural China Several characteristics of rural China make it a meaningful context to study the effects of caregiver gender stereotypes on child development. Studies have documented low levels of early childhood development (ECD) and suboptimal parenting practices (Emmers et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2019; Yue et al., 2017), both of which call for interventions. On average, the rates of cognitive and social-emotional delays among children under five years of age in rural China were 45% and 36%, respectively (Emmers et al., 2021). These high delay rates is primarily driven by the absence of interactive parenting inputs (Wang et al., 2019). However, when children are provided with an interactive, nurturing environment similar to that of healthily developed societies, girls show higher levels of development than boys of the same age in China, consistent with global trends (Gu & Jean Yeung, 2021). Supporting this, a recent work in rural China has found that a female advantage in social-emotional development appears as early as between 21 and 26 months of age (Li et al., 2024). The female advantage in ECD contrasts with persisting gender inequality and stereotypes against women in rural China, which have been assumed to disadvantage girls’ development. The traditional Chinese family has long been characterized as patriarchal (Santos & Harrell, 2016). Especially in rural areas, strict norms and stereotypes over the gender socialization of boys and girls persist. Caregivers tend to hold a less egalitarian view of girls’ roles in marriage, parenting, education. In early childhood, such stereotypes can manifest as caregivers’ choice of toys that facilitate play in domestic settings, such as dolls, jewelry, and kitchenware, for girls. Caregivers with traditional gender stereotypes also engage in fewer stimulating interactions with their child, which were significantly associated with poorer social-emotional development (Bai et al., 2022). Therefore, why girls outperform boys in early development despite gender stereotypes against women remains an important question. In addition, the second demographic transition in China in recent years, marked by low marriage and fertility rates, may be associated with increasing rejection of traditional gender beliefs (Hu & Scott, 2016). Against this backdrop, documenting the relation between caregivers’ gender stereotypes and ECD will provide important insights for scholars of gender development in China and for other gender-inegalitarian societies, such as India, Korea, and other East Asian contexts (Das Gupta et al., 2003). The present study This study aims to understand the association between the gender stereotypes of caregivers and gender disparities in ECD in rural China. We aim to achieve four specific objectives: first, to identify the prevalence of gender stereotypes among primary caregivers in rural China; second, to compare ECD outcomes between boys and girls and describe how ECD outcomes differ for boys and girls based on their caregivers’ gender stereotypes; third, to examine connections between caregivers’ gender stereotypes and their parenting knowledge and behavior; and finally, to describe the characteristics of caregivers who are more likely to hold gender stereotypes. Our contribution is novel in several ways. We provide new insights into how caregivers’ gender stereotypes shape their parenting knowledge and behavior to affect the non-cognitive development of children even before they develop their own gender identity. Our results identify the persisting gender stereotypes that might disproportionately affect ECD for young girls in rural China, thereby highlighting potential areas for intervention to promote more equitable development in gender-inegalitarian societies. By highlighting the pathways through which gender stereotypes shape caregiving practices and ECD, this study helps raise awareness for the importance of viewing gender equity and child development as interconnected issues that require joint interventions. Method Sample selection Data for the study were collected in one rural county in X, a province in central China. The county had 723,771 residents in 2020 census, of whom 61.1% (442,345) held rural legal residency status ( hukou ). Hukou categorizes whether a resident is born in a rural or an urban family and restricts which public services, such as public schools, the resident can access outside their native or registered home district. The sample county is representative of regions with low socio-economic status (SES) in rural China: In 2023, the average monthly per capita income was RMB 1,370 (USD 195) among its residents with rural hukou and RMB 2960 (USD 422) among its residents with urban hukou ; In comparison, the average monthly per capita income in rural China overall was RMB 1807 (USD 258) (Liu & Ye, 2024 ) . We first obtained birth records of the sample county from its local branch of the Women’s Federation (a government-led organization advocating for women’s rights, gender equality, and the rights of children and adolescents). Based on birth records, we randomly selected 125 villages from 17 townships using a stratified sampling method and invited all households in these villages with children aged between 12 to 30 months to participate in study. We excluded households with children born in this period but could not be reached due to emigration from the county, temporary leave, or incorrect home address registration. In July 2023, we identified and enrolled a total of 702 primary caregiver-child dyads in the study. Data collection Data were collected during a two-week field survey in July 2023. We recruited 34 enumerators and 34 testers from undergraduate and graduate students in universities across X province and trained them by a team of ECD research and fieldwork experts in June 2023. Enumerators completed a three-day training course on survey administration. Testers attended a five-day training course which included one day of experiential learning in the field. In each household, an enumerator administered a questionnaire to the primary caregiver, while a tester administered the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (Bayley-III) to the child. The primary caregiver was identified by the household as the person most responsible for the child’s daily care and was usually the child’s mother or grandmother in our sample. Due to time and logistical constraints on data collection, we administered surveys for gender stereotypes and demographic information to all participating households (N = 702) and the Bayley-III test to 588 of the sample children. All participating caregivers gave their oral consent for their own and their child’s involvement in the study. Measures Caregiver gender stereotypes To assess the gender stereotypes of the primary caregivers, we administered a structured survey where caregivers reported their agreement with a series of statements about gender differences in education, career, and family life on a five-point Likert scale. The statements reflect popular societal norms regarding gender. Statements about education capture biases about gendered academic performance and reflect research findings that emphasize the different expectations placed on males and females in education (Kollmayer et al., 2018 ). Example items include “Boys are better at math than girls” and “College education is more important for boys than girls.” Statements about careers assess agreement with traditional employment preferences and the prioritization of men in the workforce during economic downturns (Correll, 2001 ; Eccles, 1987 ). Example items include “When jobs are scarce, men deserve them more” and “Men are career-oriented and women family-oriented.” Statements about family reflect the valuation of women’s success in marriage and childbearing, particularly bearing sons (Das Gupta et al., 2003 ). Example items include “A good husband is more important than a good career” and “Women should continue the family line by bearing a son.” Caregivers indicated their agreement with the statements on a five-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Based on their responses, we estimated an index of gender stereotypes using polychoric principal component analysis to indicate the caregiver’s overall agreement with gender stereotypes. Child development with Bayley-III Children were administered the third and most recent edition of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley-III), an internationally recognized test of ECD (Weiss et al., 2010 ). The Bayley-III has been used to assess early childhood development in populations worldwide, including in rural China. The Bayley -III results are categorized into five standardized scales, four of which we used in this study: the cognitive scale, which assesses processing, counting, and number skills; the language scale, which assesses receptive and expressive communication skills; the social-emotional scale, which assesses functional emotional skills, such as self-regulation and ability to use emotions in a purposeful manner; and the motor scale, which assesses fine and gross motor skills. The cognitive, language, and motor scales evaluate the child’s performance through a series of interactive tasks, whereas the social-emotional scale is completed by caregivers, who respond to a series of questions about the child. The tasks and items account for the child’s gestational and chronological ages. Studies have found the four scales in Bayley -III to exhibit high inter- and intra-rater reliability agreement, high internal consistency, and high test-retest stability, even in diverse cultural contexts (Weiss et al., 2010 ). In line with the Bayley-III guidelines, we transformed the raw scores into standard scores. We defined children with a score of more than 1 SD below the normative sample mean of a healthily developed population in one domain as experiencing developmental delay in that domain (Johnson et al., 2014 ). Household survey of parenting practice and demographic characteristics We administered a survey to caregivers to assess their parenting knowledge and stimulating parenting practices. Parenting knowledge was evaluated through a scale developed by ECD experts at [Blinded Institution] that measured knowledge about communication, play, sleep, emotional development, and self-care. Stimulating parenting practices was measured with the Family Care Index (FCI), developed by the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) to assess the family environment (Hamadani et al., 2010 ). The survey also collected demographic information. Caregivers reported the gender of the child, the age of the child (in months), whether the child was firstborn, whether the child’s mother was the primary caregiver, the age of the primary caregiver (in years), and the education level of the primary caregiver (whether the caregiver completed junior high school or above). To assess household wealth, we generated a household asset index using polychoric principal component analysis based on whether the household owned or had access to running water, a toilet, a water heater, a washing machine, a computer, the Internet, a refrigerator, air conditioning, a motorcycle, and a car or truck. As is shown in Table 1 , we collected samples from a total of 324 boys and 373 girls in our study. T -tests revealed no significant difference in demographic characteristics between the boys and the girls. The average age of the children was 20.9 months, 6.0% of them were born premature, and 32.4% of them were the first child in their household. 67.4% of the children were primarily cared for by mothers, 25.6% of them by grandmothers, and only 6.9% by fathers or other relatives. 70.0% of the primary caregivers had completed junior high school or above. Table 1 Descriptive statistics of child and household characteristics by baby’s gender Overall Girls Boys Difference P-value (1) (2) (3) (2) vs. (3) Child characteristics Age (months) 20.931 21.032 20.843 0.190 0.611 (0.186) (0.279) (0.250) (0.373) Premature (1 = yes) 0.060 0.055 0.064 -0.009 0.622 (0.009) (0.013) (0.013) (0.018) First born (1 = yes) 0.324 0.318 0.330 -0.012 0.739 (0.018) (0.026) (0.024) (0.036) Household characteristics Primary caregiver relationship (1 = mother) 0.674 0.682 0.668 0.015 0.683 (0.018) (0.026) (0.024) (0.036) Primary caregiver age (years) 37.222 36.750 37.634 -0.884 0.351 (0.472) (0.703) (0.638) (0.947) Primary caregiver education level (1 = below 9 years) 0.702 0.710 0.694 -0.016 0.656 (0.017) (0.025) (0.024) (0.035) Asset index (PCA score) 0.000 0.046 -0.041 0.087 0.391 (0.050) (0.074) (0.068) (0.101) Parenting knowledge Parenting knowledge factor z-score 0.056 0.039 0.071 -0.032 0.639 (0.034) (0.049) (0.047) (0.069) Knowledge of children emotional development 0.000 -0.046 0.040 -0.086 0.258 (0.038) (0.054) (0.053) (0.076) Knowledge of taking care of caregiver themselves 0.000 0.013 -0.011 0.024 0.751 (0.038) (0.055) (0.053) (0.076) Knowledge of playing with children 0.000 -0.053 0.046 -0.099 0.193 (0.038) (0.055) (0.053) (0.076) Knowledge of talking with children 0.000 0.034 -0.030 0.064 0.402 (0.038) (0.057) (0.051) (0.076) Family environment FCI index z-score 0.000 0.030 -0.026 0.056 0.459 (0.038) (0.057) (0.050) (0.076) N 697 324 373 697 Proportion 1.000 0.465 0.535 [insert Table 1 here] Analytic strategy All statistical analyses were performed using STATA 17.0. Statistical significance was defined as two-sided p < 0.05. We first conducted two-tailed T-tests to compare demographic characteristics, parenting practices, and child development outcomes between boys and girls. Then, we conducted multivariate linear regressions to examine associations between caregivers’ gender stereotypes and child developmental outcomes, as well as identify parenting characteristics from caregivers that were associated with differences in the development between boys and girls. All demographic characteristics were included as potential confounders. Results Caregiver gender stereotypes As is shown in Fig. 1 , responses from the caregivers highlight the persistence of traditional gender stereotypes, especially those about employment, marriage and fertility, although there is also considerable disagreement with them. Specifically, we found an overall disagreement with traditional gender stereotypes about education, particularly regarding the importance of college education. Almost a third of the caregivers are not sure about whether boys are better at math than girls, while 36.49% agreed with the statement, slightly more than the 35.68% who disagreed. Notably, 23.1% of the caregivers strongly disagreed that a college education is more important for boys than for girls, and 49.09% of them disagreed. This trend mirrors the continued increase in the enrollment rates of girls in higher education in China (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2021 ). On the other hand, views about employment were overall inegalitarian. Almost half of the caregivers (46.63%) agreed that men deserve jobs more than women when jobs are scarce. In addition, while one-third of them (31.14%) disagreed that men are career-oriented and women are family-oriented, an even larger proportion (33.82%) agreed. Finally, views about marriage and fertility were more divided. More than one-third of the caregivers agreed or strongly agreed with the statement, “a good husband is more important than a good career.” Further, 21.2% of the caregivers agreed, and 8.17% strongly agreed, with the importance of having a male heir, one of the most typical traditional fertility beliefs in Chinese culture. [insert Fig. 1 here] Gender disparities in early childhood development To examine gender disparities in ECD, we conducted t -tests to compare standardized Bayley-III scores on cognitive, language, motor, and social-emotional development between the boys and the girls (see Fig. 2 and Table 2 ). As is shown in Fig. 2 , based on the standardized Bayley-III scores, the girls had a statistically significant advantage in language skills and slightly outperformed the boys in cognitive and social emotional skills. On average, the girls scored 0.312 SD higher than boys in language skills, significant at the 0.1% level. Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) tests found no significant difference in cognitive and social-emotional skills between the boys and girls. The boys and girls exhibited similar levels of motor development ( p = 0.524). Table 2 Descriptive statistics of child development delay Overall Girls Boys Difference P-value (1) (2) (3) (2) vs. (3) Cognitive delay (1 = yes) 0.472 0.438 0.502 -0.064 0.121 (0.020) (0.030) (0.028) (0.041) Language delay (1 = yes) 0.479 0.416 0.533 -0.116*** 0.004 (0.020) (0.030) (0.028) (0.041) Motor delay (1 = yes) 0.214 0.182 0.241 -0.059† 0.080 (0.017) (0.023) (0.024) (0.034) Social-emotional delay (1 = yes) 0.358 0.328 0.384 -0.055 0.160 (0.020) (0.028) (0.027) (0.039) N 597 274 323 597 Proportion 1.000 0.459 0.541 [insert Fig. 2 here] We estimated the rates of developmental delay among the children and found that the boys were more likely to experience language and motor development delays than the girls (See Table 2 ). The boys were significantly more likely to experience language delays than girls ( p = 0.004). There is also a higher likelihood of motor delays among boys, although the difference is only marginally significant ( p = 0.080). Differences in the likelihood of cognitive and social-emotional developmental delays suggest a similar trend, but neither was statistically significant. [insert Table 2 here] Associations between caregiver gender stereotypes and child development by child gender To determine whether the association between caregiver gender stereotypes and ECD differed between boys and girls, we examined the associations between the gender stereotype index and the standardized Bayley-III scores of the boys and the girls, respectively (See Table 3 ). The results suggest that while the caregiver’s gender stereotypes were not significantly associated with the development of the boys, they were significantly associated with lower social-emotional development among the girls ( p < 0.01). Caregivers’ gender stereotypes were also associated with lower cognitive and language scores among girls, but the associations were not statistically significant. Table 3 The correlation of the gender stereotype index on children’s standardized Bayley outcomes Standardized cognitive score Standardized language score Standardized motor score Standardized social-emotional score VARIABLES (1) (2) (3) (4) Panel A. The correlation of the gender stereotype on boys’ development Gender stereotype index 0.005 -0.022 0.062 0.006 (0.065) (0.064) (0.068) (0.072) Observations 308 308 308 308 R-squared 0.080 0.035 0.048 0.035 Control variables YES YES YES YES Mean of Y -0.0546 -0.151 -0.0249 -0.0646 Panel B. The correlation of the gender stereotype on girls’ development Gender stereotype index -0.013 -0.086 0.017 -0.192** (0.068) (0.061) (0.064) (0.068) Observations 260 260 260 260 R-squared 0.017 0.045 0.029 0.078 Control variables YES YES YES YES Mean of Y 0.0671 0.161 0.0277 0.0640 Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses; *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05, † p < 0.1 Table 4. The correlation of the gender stereotype on primary caregiver’s parenting behavior Parenting knowledge z-score Knowledge on children emotional development Knowledge on taking care of caregivers themselves Knowledge on playing with children Knowledge on talking with children Family care indicators z-score Variety of play materials z-score VARIABLES (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Panel A. The correlation of the gender stereotype on primary caregiver’s parenting behavior of boys Gender stereotype index -0.170*** -0.056 -0.033 -0.122* -0.077 -0.068 -0.013 (0.048) (0.064) (0.067) (0.057) (0.061) (0.051) (0.044) Constant 0.146 -0.671 -0.316 0.178 0.830 0.348 -0.149 (0.388) (0.488) (0.571) (0.487) (0.506) (0.472) (0.400) Observations 354 354 354 354 354 354 354 R-squared 0.310 0.048 0.041 0.164 0.154 0.192 0.146 Control variables YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Mean of Y 0.0711 0.0399 -0.0112 0.0460 -0.0296 -0.0262 -0.0312 Panel B. The correlation of the gender stereotype on primary caregiver’s parenting behavior of girls Gender stereotype index -0.290*** -0.231*** -0.045 -0.182** -0.163* -0.180** -0.147** (0.049) (0.058) (0.057) (0.058) (0.070) (0.058) (0.048) Constant 0.466 1.113* -0.517 0.823 -0.076 -0.058 0.240 (0.472) (0.558) (0.532) (0.536) (0.621) (0.678) (0.532) Observations 307 307 307 307 307 307 307 R-squared 0.257 0.102 0.043 0.214 0.076 0.141 0.135 Control variables YES YES YES YES YES YES YES Mean of Y 0.0389 -0.0460 0.0129 -0.0530 0.0341 0.0302 0.0359 Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05, † p < 0.1 [insert Table 3 here] We further examined how each stereotype belief predicted the development of their child in each domain, and how these associations differed between the boys and the girls. In Fig. 3 , the four plots correspond to the four domains of ECD, while each panel (A to F) corresponds to a stereotype belief. The regression coefficients (Coef.) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) are illustrated separately for the boys and the girls. The results show that the caregivers’ agreement with any of the stereotype beliefs predicted lower social-emotional development for girls. In contrast, the caregivers’ belief in gender stereotypes about employment and family life predicted slightly positive social-emotional development among boys, although the associations were not statistically significant (See supporting information: Table A1, column (12), (20), (24)). [insert Fig. 3 here] Associations between caregiver gender stereotypes and parenting by child gender To explain why the caregivers’ gender stereotypes predicted lower social-emotional development among girls but not boys, we examined the associations between gender stereotypes and the parenting knowledge and practices of the caregivers (See Table 4). Gender stereotypes predicted significantly lower levels of parenting knowledge and stimulating parenting behavior among caregivers of girls than those of boys, which potentially contributed to the disparities in early childhood development between boys and girls. Among caregivers of girls, we found strong, negative associations between gender stereotypes and multiple aspects of parenting knowledge and behavior, including general parenting knowledge, knowledge on children’s emotional development, and engagement in play and communication. In contrast, gender stereotypes among caregivers of boys were only negatively associated with general parenting knowledge and knowledge on playing with children, and the associations were weaker compared to those found among caregivers of girls. The associations between each gender stereotype and parenting practice are shown in supporting information: Table A2. [insert Table 4 here] Which caregivers were more likely to hold gender stereotypes? To identify caregivers who were more likely to hold gender stereotypes and, by extension, less likely to engage in stimulating parenting of girls, we compared gender stereotypes across caregivers with different education levels and relationships to the child. As is shown in Table 5, a t -test of gender stereotypes between caregiving mothers and grandmothers revealed significant differences ( p < 0.001) in every category of stereotypes. Collectively, grandmothers were more likely to raise children in adherence to traditional gender roles. Caregivers’ gender stereotypes were also significantly associated with their education level (See Table 6 ). Caregivers who only completed junior high school education or less, or less than 9 years of schooling, tended to hold more gender stereotypes. Table 5. Differences in gender stereotypes between caregiving mothers and grandmothers Full sample Mother Grandmother Difference P-value (1) (2) (3) (2) vs. (3) (4) Boys are better at math than girls. 2.982 2.840 3.352 -0.512 0.000 (0.041) (0.046) (0.083) (0.091) College education is more important for 2.234 2.047 2.726 -0.679 0.000 boys than girls. (0.042) (0.041) (0.097) (0.090) When jobs are scarce, men deserve them 3.163 3.015 3.553 -0.538 0.000 more. (0.042) (0.047) (0.085) (0.092) Men are career-oriented and women family- 2.780 2.464 3.609 -1.145 0.000 oriented. (0.047) (0.048) (0.087) (0.094) A good husband is more important than a 2.861 2.653 3.408 -0.755 0.000 good career. (0.046) (0.050) (0.092) (0.098) Women should continue the family line by 2.676 2.504 3.128 -0.624 0.000 bearing a son. (0.047) (0.050) (0.101) (0.102) N 649 470 179 649 Proportion 1.000 0.724 0.276 Table 6. Gender stereotypes by caregivers’ education level Maternal education Grandmother education P-value (1) vs. (2) P-value (3) vs. (4) <9 years ≥9 years <9 years ≥9 years (1) (2) (3) (4) Boys are better at math than girls. 3.159 2.791 3.348 3.364 0.007 0.936 (0.138) (0.048) (0.101) (0.134) College education is more important for 2.429 1.988 2.726 2.727 0.000 0.995 boys than girls. (0.137) (0.042) (0.114) (0.182) When jobs are scarce, men deserve them 3.540 2.934 3.526 3.636 0.000 0.576 more. (0.113) (0.050) (0.101) (0.153) Men are career-oriented and women family- 3.032 2.376 3.785 3.068 0.000 0.000 oriented. (0.147) (0.049) (0.098) (0.167) A good husband is more important than a 3.381 2.541 3.489 3.159 0.000 0.123 good career. (0.135) (0.051) (0.109) (0.162) Women should continue the family line by 3.159 2.403 3.207 2.886 0.000 0.170 bearing a son. (0.154) (0.051) (0.120) (0.173) N 63 407 135 44 Proportion 0.134 0.866 0.754 0.246 [insert Table 5 here] [insert Table 6 here] Discussion A healthy and equal development environment for boys and girls is crucial to improving early childhood development, especially in low- and middle-income contexts. Using data from children aged between 12 and 30 months in rural China, the current study sought to demonstrate the link between caregiver gender stereotypes and the development outcomes of boys and girls before age 3 in rural China. We found that caregivers exhibit varying degrees of gender stereotypes about education, career, marriage, and fertility. The caregivers’ stereotypes primarily predicted lower levels of ECD among girls, as evidenced by the association between more gender stereotypes and lower social-emotional development among the girls, while they did not predict the ECD outcomes of boys. Despite that, however, the girls significantly outperformed the boys in language skills as assessed by the Bayley-III. Girls also performed slightly better in cognitive and social-emotional skills, although the differences were not statistically significant. These seemingly contradictory findings highlight the need to examine how caregivers’ gender stereotypes potentially influence the gender disparities in ECD in low-resource and traditionally gender-inegalitarian contexts. Further investigation revealed that gender stereotypes predicted disproportionately lower levels of parenting knowledge and stimulating parenting behavior among caregivers of girls than those of boys. Notably, less-educated caregivers exhibited more gender stereotypes, and grandmothers exhibited more gender stereotypes than mothers, who were typically younger. The prevalent gender stereotypes we found among caregivers of children under 3 years old in rural China were consistent with previous research suggesting that caregivers, especially those in traditionally gender-inegalitarian cultures, promote gender-stereotypical behaviors and roles in their children’s first few years of life (Lobel et al., 2001 ; Weitzman et al., 1985 ). In contrast to previous studies that focus on stereotypes experienced by children, such as the encouragement of gender-stereotypical play behavior in early childhood and gender brilliance stereotypes at school (Fagot et al., 1992 ; Rogers et al., 2024 ), our study assesses gender stereotypes as a collection of implicit, rigid, and internalized values that affect the parenting practices of caregivers (Mesman & Groeneveld, 2018 ). In doing so, we show that gender stereotypes about education, career, marriage, and family life affect child development not only because children internalize stereotypes as they develop gender-based attitudes, behaviors, self-assessments and aspirations (Correll, 2001 ; Halim et al., 2017 ), but also because stereotypes shape how caregivers interact with their children even before children develop their own gender identities. One of our most notable findings is that a higher level of gender stereotypes among caregivers predicted lower social-emotional development among girls, while it was not significantly associated with the development of boys. Social-emotional development includes the skills to engage, explore, handle frustration, self-regulate, and develop relationships with peers. Therefore, healthy early social-emotional development is necessary for the smooth transition of a child from preschool into a school setting where they are expected to listen to instructions, sustain attention, build social networks among peers, and learn (Denham et al., 2014 ; DiPrete & Jennings, 2012 ). Our findings suggest that gender stereotypes may cause caregivers to discourage girls from behaviors that are crucial for early social-emotional development. Instead of promoting independence and emotional strength, caregivers with strong gender stereotypes may encourage behaviors that align with traditional expectations for women like empathy and nurturing (Fagot et al., 1992 ; Mesman & Groeneveld, 2018 ). While the internalization of these stereotypes has been associated with a decline in trait hope and self-esteem among girls later in childhood (Heaven & Ciarrochi, 2008 ), our finding further shows that caregivers’ gender stereotypes could disproportionately disadvantage the social-emotional development of girls as early as under 3 years old. This should raise alarms, since the access to early childhood education and socialization opportunities are already limited in rural China and similar resource-constrained contexts. However, even with the presence of gender stereotypes, girls still showed significantly higher levels of language development than boys and slightly outperformed them in cognitive, language, and social-emotional development. These trends are consistent with earlier studies suggesting that girls are slightly ahead of boys in early development across different languages and cultures (Eriksson et al., 2012 ; Li et al., 2024 ). The relatively gender-egalitarian view of education among the caregivers may have also contributed to the female advantage in early language development we observed, although further research is needed to determine whether the link is causal. In line with this, recent data indicates that female enrollment in higher education in China has surpassed that of males (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2021 ), suggests an increasing rejection of traditional beliefs about women’s education exemplified by the idiom, “Ignorance is women’s virtue.” However, gender stereotypes about employment and family life remain prevalent, and they predicted lower levels of development among girls but were not associated with the development of boys. Taken together, the gender stereotypes of caregivers in rural China contributes to an unequal start in life between boys and girls that calls for timely intervention. As one of the first works to illustrate the pathway between caregiver gender stereotypes and child development, we found that caregivers with strong gender stereotypes had less parenting knowledge and provided less home stimulation for their children, especially for the girls. This could be because caregivers with stronger gender stereotypes are often grandmothers and those with lower levels of education, both of whom tend to have more difficulty accessing information about scientific parenting. As a result, they could rely on stereotypes rather than scientific knowledge to provide emotional and cognitive stimulation for their children. In rural China, the scarcity of public childcare services has led to a predominant reliance on family members, especially grandparents, to assist in raising children. Our results illustrate that the reliance on grandparents for childcare without interventions to educate and support them could lead to the perpetuation of traditional gender stereotypes, as grandparents often adhere to the parenting practices they used to rear their own children (Dolbin-MacNab, 2006 ). Our findings underscore the importance of addressing visible and invisible gender stereotypes in early childhood environments as a pathway to improving ECD, human capital, and social equity. Educating caregivers, especially those with limited formal education, maybe an effectively way to reduce stereotypes and improve developmental outcomes for girls. Targeted interventions, such as community-based workshops on gender-neutral parenting, can empower caregivers with the knowledge needed to create an equitable environment for both boys and girls. Additionally, early childhood education programs should take active steps to dismantle gender stereotypes by promoting a variety of activities that support the development of a wide range of skills, regardless of gender. It is also important to train educators and caregivers to recognize and challenge their own biases and create an environment where children can thrive without being restricted by rigid gender norms. The findings from this study will guide future researchers and policymakers, both in China and internationally, in addressing gender stereotypes and promoting more equitable ECD in the future. Two limitations of this study warrant mention. First, previous studies conducted in Western or developed settings have shown that the gender of adult caregivers had different behavior and impacts on boys and girls (Cabrera et al., 2018 ; Fiese & Skillman, 2000 ). Unfortunately, there were only 46 (6.6%) male primary caregivers in our dataset, half of whom were fathers, which were too few for a meaningful empirical analysis of the difference in parenting between male and female caregivers. We contend that the absence of fathers and other male family members from child-rearing in our sample reflects the persisting gendered division of roles in rural China and warrants further investigation as a separate research topic. Second, our use of cross-sectional data restricts our ability to analyze the relation between changes in the gender stereotypes of caregivers and the long-term developmental trajectories of their children. The influence of shifting societal perceptions of gender on individual caregivers make long-term trends an important direction of further exploration. Future research should aim to understand differences in stereotypes and parenting behavior between male and female caregivers and conduct long-term surveys to strengthen the validity of our findings. Declarations Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Ethical approval: Approval for all data collection activities was granted by the China Center for Behavioral Economics and Finance Research Ethics Committee of Southwestern University of Finance and Economics on May 9, 2023 (without approval number). The procedure used in this study complies with the tents of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all participating caregivers for both their own and their children involvement before the data was collected. We informed each participant of their rights, the purpose of the study and to safeguard their personal information. Author Contribution Y.W. and Y.M. conducted the investigation and formal analysis; Y.W. handled data visualization and wrote the original draft; S.L., C.L., and S.R. reviewed the draft while supervising data analysis and writing; H.Z. and A.S. edited and modified the manuscript. Acknowledgement We thank the local collaborators and survey enumerators for their assistance in contacting local families and helping with the surveys. We also thank the children and families who participated in this study. Data Availability Data will be made available on request. References Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., Matute, E., & Inozemtseva, O. (2011). Gender differences in cognitive development. Developmental Psychology , 47 (4), 984–990. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023819 Bai, Y., Guo, D., & Liu, C. (2022). Caregiver’s Attitude towards Gender Socialization and Early Childhood Development. 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10:10:19","extension":"html","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":197999,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6651508/v1/8c77d3f62813e2c219e4c12f.html"},{"id":95287231,"identity":"55128188-86bd-494a-b8ab-93bcd63545c8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:10:19","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":91482,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe gender stereotype of primary caregivers\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6651508/v1/0ff6f7eb46cc854336558ee1.png"},{"id":95287234,"identity":"c100a9d6-a3a6-43f4-b0f8-54abd7dd95dd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:10:19","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":79169,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eKernel density estimates of child development outcomes by baby gender\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6651508/v1/ba1919b986dec28706df6de9.png"},{"id":95287235,"identity":"03a8387e-dfa3-40dd-a4d6-a75d023f4a2a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 10:10:19","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":214884,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe coefficient of gender stereotype on child development by baby gender\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6651508/v1/1f742797166acb38f3e3cd60.png"},{"id":95524144,"identity":"8baff14f-c32b-42d8-873e-504f64ed9f1a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-10 10:02:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1733570,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6651508/v1/f56fd7ab-1fc9-4d8c-b721-0abfe743b785.pdf"},{"id":95314757,"identity":"46c20757-9d40-4d34-a60e-c9cc1af05d2a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-06 15:53:18","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":47306,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6651508/v1/15f96653f7b5cc2a604403da.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Origin of Unequal Childhoods: Associations between Caregiver Gender Stereotypes and Early Childhood Development in Rural China","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eChildren experience rapid cognitive and social-emotional growth in the first few years of life (Currie \u0026amp; Almond, 2011; Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007). While both boys and girls benefit from growing up in a healthy, stimulated environment, they often have different trajectories of growth and development due to a synergy of biology and experience. Early experiences of gender roles through interactions with caregivers not only shape children\u0026rsquo;s gender identity, but also modify neuronal structures and act in junction with genetic and hormonal factors to determine gender differences later in life (Fiese \u0026amp; Skillman, 2000; Kimura, 1992). Caregivers with strong gender stereotypes are more likely to reinforce gender-stereotypical behaviors and capabilities in their children through their parenting practices, and they often determine their expectations for and investment in their children\u0026rsquo;s development and education based on stereotypes (Bigler \u0026amp; Liben, 1992; Endendijk et al., 2013; Mesman \u0026amp; Groeneveld, 2018; Rogers et al., 2024). As such, the gender stereotypes of caregivers can create lasting inequities in early childhood development (henceforth, ECD) and later achievements.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile the importance of uprooting gender stereotypes among caregivers for achieving equitable child development is well established, some questions remain. First, despite the large body of literature examining the impact of caregiver gender stereotypes on the development of gender identity, which typically occurs between age 2 and 3 (Kohlberg, 1966), whether and how these stereotypes affect ECD before children develop their gender identity remain unclear. Second, existing studies of gender stereotypes and child development typically focus on stereotypes in specific contexts, such as brilliance stereotypes in schools and stereotypes about women\u0026rsquo;s roles in domestic life. There exists a need to comprehensively examine caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes about education, employment, and family life, and how they affect specific domains of ECD. Third, empirical evidence regarding caregiver gender stereotypes and gender disparities in ECD is particularly scarce in rural China, where low investment in stimulating parenting and gender-inegalitarian norms often prevent girls from realizing their potential in education, careers, and family life while placing high expectations on boys. To understand the association between the gender stereotypes of caregivers and gender disparities in ECD and identify stereotypes that prevent equitable development in rural China, we collected data from one county in rural China to examine how primary caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes influence early cognitive, language, motor and social-emotional development among children under age 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender disparities in early childhood development\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eECD is equally important for boys and girls, but much international evidence has shown that gender disparities in development exist throughout early childhood in low- and middle-income countries (henceforth, LMICs). A recent study conducted among children aged 7 to 48 months across nine LMICs found that girls consistently outperformed boys on language tests by 0.14 standard deviations (henceforth, SD) and socio-emotional development by 0.17 SD (Bando et al., 2024). Another study of 3-to-4-year-old children in 71 LMICs found that the odds of being developmentally on track were the same for girls and boys in approximately half of the countries; But when gender disparities exist, girls are more likely than to be developmentally on track, particularly in the social-emotional domain and in countries with greater gender equality (Rey-Guerra et al., 2023). As children reach school age, there is evidence that the gender gap reverses, with a study of 5-to-16-year-old children in Mexico and Colombia showing that boys outperform girls in oral language, spatial abilities, and visual perceptual tasks, while girls only outperform boys in tactile tasks (Ardila et al., 2011).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInterdisciplinary research suggests that gender disparities in ECD are caused by a synergy of biological and social forces. While genetics, hormonal levels, and brain structure and function continually shape sex differences and gender identity development since conception (McCarthy, 2016; Ristori et al., 2020), evidence for the impact of innate anatomical or physiological sex differences alone on cognitive performance is weak (Eliot et al., 2021; McCarthy, 2016). This, together with variations in the extent and direction of gender disparities in ECD in different contexts, prompted a growing body of research that associates gender disparities in ECD with cultural and social norms around gender differences in parenting styles, which manifest as differences in attitudes and behavior between the parenting of boys and girls (Feldman \u0026amp; Eidelman, 2009; Fiese \u0026amp; Skillman, 2000). Gender norms not only shape caregiving attitudes and practices in early childhood, but also influence children\u0026rsquo;s gender-related cognitions, potential educational opportunities, and social expectations in the long run (Morawska, 2020; Rogers et al., 2024; Tenenbaum \u0026amp; Leaper, 2002), thereby reinforcing gender inequity. For example, gender brilliance stereotypes, which portray exceptional intellectual abilities as a male attribute, have been found to cause girls to experience developmental setbacks, perform worse academically when compared to boys, and lose their interest in school (Kim et al., 2024; Master et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2022). However, the developmental stage at which caregiver gender stereotypes and gender-based parenting first start to affect child development remains an open question. With the exception of one previous study, which found that variations in caregiver-child interactions did not explain the gender gap in ECD among children aged 7 to 48 months (Bando et al., 2024), little research has examined whether caregiver gender stereotypes contributed to the gender disparities in development among children under age 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCaregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes, parenting knowledge, and family environment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTheories of gender development propose that caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes influence child development by shaping caregiver-child interactions. The Social Role Theory (SRT) suggests that gender stereotypes form as people observe male and female behavior and infer that the sexes possess corresponding dispositions (Eagly, 2012; Koenig \u0026amp; Eagly, 2014). Caregivers, as agents of socialization, guide children toward developing personality traits and skills that align with these dispositions by encouraging gender-typical role performances. For example, boys tend to receive more encouragement from caregivers for their engagement in physical activities, while girls are encouraged to take on domestic responsibilities and nurturing roles (Eccles, 1987). Children play an active role in their gender socialization too: As the Gender Schema Theory suggests, caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender self-concepts and gender attitudes about others affect their children\u0026rsquo;s gender-related cognitions (Bem, 1981; Tenenbaum \u0026amp; Leaper, 2002), which influence the information children notice and remember. As a result, girls and boys often seek out gender-typed environments that further reinforce their gender-typed expectations and interests. While these theories suggest a model of how caregiver-child interactions affect child development, empirical testing of them requires measuring caregivers\u0026rsquo; beliefs about gender and linking these beliefs to their parenting practices and children\u0026rsquo;s developmental outcomes. Few empirical studies on this relation exist, particularly among caregivers of children under 3 years old.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA separate but related body of literature has documented that gender stereotypes also limit caregivers\u0026rsquo; parenting knowledge and cause them to selectively withhold investment in certain domains of development based on the gender of their child. Studies have shown that in environments where gender roles are strictly defined and parenting is seen as a gendered activity, female caregivers may not seek out or be offered opportunities to acquire parenting knowledge because parenting is seen as a natural rather than learned behavior (Durand, 2011). Caregivers with low levels of education are especially at risk, since stereotypes discourage them from accessing resources that improve their understanding of child development and the importance of early childhood stimulation and care (Engle et al., 2011). As a result, gender stereotypes can manifest as gendered parenting practices: Caregivers may prioritize investing their limited resources in the education and development of boys over those of girls, because they believe that boys are more suited for success in the professional sphere while girls are destined for domestic roles (Mesman \u0026amp; Groeneveld, 2018). Therefore, identifying the impact of caregiver gender stereotypes on child development, and the timepoint at which the impact surfaces, is crucial for designing interventions to improve both child development and equity in gender-inegalitarian contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe case of rural China\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral characteristics of rural China make it a meaningful context to study the effects of caregiver gender stereotypes on child development. Studies have documented low levels of early childhood development (ECD) and suboptimal parenting practices (Emmers et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2019; Yue et al., 2017), both of which call for interventions. On average, the rates of cognitive and social-emotional delays among children under five years of age in rural China were 45% and 36%, respectively (Emmers et al., 2021). These high delay rates is primarily driven by the absence of interactive parenting inputs (Wang et al., 2019). However, when children are provided with an interactive, nurturing environment similar to that of healthily developed societies, girls show higher levels of development than boys of the same age in China, consistent with global trends (Gu \u0026amp; Jean Yeung, 2021). Supporting this, a recent work in rural China has found that a female advantage in social-emotional development appears as early as between 21 and 26 months of age (Li et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe female advantage in ECD contrasts with persisting gender inequality and stereotypes against women in rural China, which have been assumed to disadvantage girls\u0026rsquo; development. The traditional Chinese family has long been characterized as patriarchal (Santos \u0026amp; Harrell, 2016). Especially in rural areas, strict norms and stereotypes over the gender socialization of boys and girls persist. Caregivers tend to hold a less egalitarian view of girls\u0026rsquo; roles in marriage, parenting, education. In early childhood, such stereotypes can manifest as caregivers\u0026rsquo; choice of toys that facilitate play in domestic settings, such as dolls, jewelry, and kitchenware, for girls. Caregivers with traditional gender stereotypes also engage in fewer stimulating interactions with their child, which were significantly associated with poorer social-emotional development (Bai et al., 2022). Therefore, why girls outperform boys in early development despite gender stereotypes against women remains an important question. In addition, the second demographic transition in China in recent years, marked by low marriage and fertility rates, may be associated with increasing rejection of traditional gender beliefs (Hu \u0026amp; Scott, 2016). Against this backdrop, documenting the relation between caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes and ECD will provide important insights for scholars of gender development in China and for other gender-inegalitarian societies, such as India, Korea, and other East Asian contexts (Das Gupta et al., 2003).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe present study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to understand the association between the gender stereotypes of caregivers and gender disparities in ECD in rural China. We aim to achieve four specific objectives: first, to identify the prevalence of gender stereotypes among primary caregivers in rural China; second, to compare ECD outcomes between boys and girls and describe how ECD outcomes differ for boys and girls based on their caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes; third, to examine connections between caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes and their parenting knowledge and behavior; and finally, to describe the characteristics of caregivers who are more likely to hold gender stereotypes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur contribution is novel in several ways. We provide new insights into how caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes shape their parenting knowledge and behavior to affect the non-cognitive development of children even before they develop their own gender identity. Our results identify the persisting gender stereotypes that might disproportionately affect ECD for young girls in rural China, thereby highlighting potential areas for intervention to promote more equitable development in gender-inegalitarian societies. By highlighting the pathways through which gender stereotypes shape caregiving practices and ECD, this study helps raise awareness for the importance of viewing gender equity and child development as interconnected issues that require joint interventions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eSample selection\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eData for the study were collected in one rural county in X, a province in central China. The county had 723,771 residents in 2020 census, of whom 61.1% (442,345) held rural legal residency status (\u003cem\u003ehukou\u003c/em\u003e). \u003cem\u003eHukou\u003c/em\u003e categorizes whether a resident is born in a rural or an urban family and restricts which public services, such as public schools, the resident can access outside their native or registered home district. The sample county is representative of regions with low socio-economic status (SES) in rural China: In 2023, the average monthly per capita income was RMB 1,370 (USD 195) among its residents with rural \u003cem\u003ehukou\u003c/em\u003e and RMB 2960 (USD 422) among its residents with urban \u003cem\u003ehukou\u003c/em\u003e; In comparison, the average monthly per capita income in rural China overall was RMB 1807 (USD 258) (Liu \u0026amp; Ye, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) .\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe first obtained birth records of the sample county from its local branch of the Women\u0026rsquo;s Federation (a government-led organization advocating for women\u0026rsquo;s rights, gender equality, and the rights of children and adolescents). Based on birth records, we randomly selected 125 villages from 17 townships using a stratified sampling method and invited all households in these villages with children aged between 12 to 30 months to participate in study. We excluded households with children born in this period but could not be reached due to emigration from the county, temporary leave, or incorrect home address registration. In July 2023, we identified and enrolled a total of 702 primary caregiver-child dyads in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were collected during a two-week field survey in July 2023. We recruited 34 enumerators and 34 testers from undergraduate and graduate students in universities across X province and trained them by a team of ECD research and fieldwork experts in June 2023. Enumerators completed a three-day training course on survey administration. Testers attended a five-day training course which included one day of experiential learning in the field. In each household, an enumerator administered a questionnaire to the primary caregiver, while a tester administered the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (Bayley-III) to the child. The primary caregiver was identified by the household as the person most responsible for the child\u0026rsquo;s daily care and was usually the child\u0026rsquo;s mother or grandmother in our sample. Due to time and logistical constraints on data collection, we administered surveys for gender stereotypes and demographic information to all participating households (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;702) and the Bayley-III test to 588 of the sample children. All participating caregivers gave their oral consent for their own and their child\u0026rsquo;s involvement in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eCaregiver gender stereotypes\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo assess the gender stereotypes of the primary caregivers, we administered a structured survey where caregivers reported their agreement with a series of statements about gender differences in education, career, and family life on a five-point Likert scale. The statements reflect popular societal norms regarding gender. Statements about education capture biases about gendered academic performance and reflect research findings that emphasize the different expectations placed on males and females in education (Kollmayer et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Example items include \u0026ldquo;Boys are better at math than girls\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;College education is more important for boys than girls.\u0026rdquo; Statements about careers assess agreement with traditional employment preferences and the prioritization of men in the workforce during economic downturns (Correll, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Eccles, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). Example items include \u0026ldquo;When jobs are scarce, men deserve them more\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Men are career-oriented and women family-oriented.\u0026rdquo; Statements about family reflect the valuation of women\u0026rsquo;s success in marriage and childbearing, particularly bearing sons (Das Gupta et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Example items include \u0026ldquo;A good husband is more important than a good career\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Women should continue the family line by bearing a son.\u0026rdquo; Caregivers indicated their agreement with the statements on a five-point Likert scale from \u0026ldquo;strongly disagree\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;strongly agree.\u0026rdquo; Based on their responses, we estimated an index of gender stereotypes using polychoric principal component analysis to indicate the caregiver\u0026rsquo;s overall agreement with gender stereotypes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eChild development with Bayley-III\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChildren were administered the third and most recent edition of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development (Bayley-III), an internationally recognized test of ECD (Weiss et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The Bayley-III has been used to assess early childhood development in populations worldwide, including in rural China. The Bayley -III results are categorized into five standardized scales, four of which we used in this study: the cognitive scale, which assesses processing, counting, and number skills; the language scale, which assesses receptive and expressive communication skills; the social-emotional scale, which assesses functional emotional skills, such as self-regulation and ability to use emotions in a purposeful manner; and the motor scale, which assesses fine and gross motor skills. The cognitive, language, and motor scales evaluate the child\u0026rsquo;s performance through a series of interactive tasks, whereas the social-emotional scale is completed by caregivers, who respond to a series of questions about the child. The tasks and items account for the child\u0026rsquo;s gestational and chronological ages. Studies have found the four scales in Bayley -III to exhibit high inter- and intra-rater reliability agreement, high internal consistency, and high test-retest stability, even in diverse cultural contexts (Weiss et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn line with the Bayley-III guidelines, we transformed the raw scores into standard scores. We defined children with a score of more than 1 SD below the normative sample mean of a healthily developed population in one domain as experiencing developmental delay in that domain (Johnson et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eHousehold survey of parenting practice and demographic characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe administered a survey to caregivers to assess their parenting knowledge and stimulating parenting practices. Parenting knowledge was evaluated through a scale developed by ECD experts at [Blinded Institution] that measured knowledge about communication, play, sleep, emotional development, and self-care. Stimulating parenting practices was measured with the Family Care Index (FCI), developed by the United Nations International Children\u0026rsquo;s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) to assess the family environment (Hamadani et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). The survey also collected demographic information. Caregivers reported the gender of the child, the age of the child (in months), whether the child was firstborn, whether the child\u0026rsquo;s mother was the primary caregiver, the age of the primary caregiver (in years), and the education level of the primary caregiver (whether the caregiver completed junior high school or above). To assess household wealth, we generated a household asset index using polychoric principal component analysis based on whether the household owned or had access to running water, a toilet, a water heater, a washing machine, a computer, the Internet, a refrigerator, air conditioning, a motorcycle, and a car or truck.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs is shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, we collected samples from a total of 324 boys and 373 girls in our study. \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e-tests revealed no significant difference in demographic characteristics between the boys and the girls. The average age of the children was 20.9 months, 6.0% of them were born premature, and 32.4% of them were the first child in their household. 67.4% of the children were primarily cared for by mothers, 25.6% of them by grandmothers, and only 6.9% by fathers or other relatives. 70.0% of the primary caregivers had completed junior high school or above.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of child and household characteristics by baby\u0026rsquo;s gender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2) vs. (3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChild characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge (months)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.931\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.032\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.843\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.611\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.186)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.279)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.250)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.373)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePremature (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.622\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.009)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.013)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.013)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.018)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFirst born (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.324\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.318\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.330\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.018)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.026)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.036)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHousehold characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary caregiver relationship (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;mother)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.674\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.682\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.668\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.683\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.018)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.026)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.036)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary caregiver age (years)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.222\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.750\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.634\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.884\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.351\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.472)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.703)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.638)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.947)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary caregiver education level (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;below 9 years)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.702\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.710\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.694\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.656\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.017)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.025)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.035)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsset index (PCA score)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.041\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.087\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.391\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.050)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.074)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.068)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.101)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParenting knowledge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParenting knowledge factor z-score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.071\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.032\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.639\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.034)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.049)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.047)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.069)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKnowledge of children emotional development\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.046\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.086\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.258\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.038)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.054)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.053)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.076)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKnowledge of taking care of caregiver themselves\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.751\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.038)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.055)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.053)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.076)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKnowledge of playing with children\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.193\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.038)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.055)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.053)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.076)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKnowledge of talking with children\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.402\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.038)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.057)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.051)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.076)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFamily environment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFCI index z-score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.026\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.459\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.038)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.057)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.050)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.076)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e697\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e324\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e373\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e697\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProportion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.465\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.535\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eAnalytic strategy\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll statistical analyses were performed using STATA 17.0. Statistical significance was defined as two-sided p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. We first conducted two-tailed T-tests to compare demographic characteristics, parenting practices, and child development outcomes between boys and girls. Then, we conducted multivariate linear regressions to examine associations between caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes and child developmental outcomes, as well as identify parenting characteristics from caregivers that were associated with differences in the development between boys and girls. All demographic characteristics were included as potential confounders.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eCaregiver gender stereotypes\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs is shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, responses from the caregivers highlight the persistence of traditional gender stereotypes, especially those about employment, marriage and fertility, although there is also considerable disagreement with them. Specifically, we found an overall disagreement with traditional gender stereotypes about education, particularly regarding the importance of college education. Almost a third of the caregivers are not sure about whether boys are better at math than girls, while 36.49% agreed with the statement, slightly more than the 35.68% who disagreed. Notably, 23.1% of the caregivers strongly disagreed that a college education is more important for boys than for girls, and 49.09% of them disagreed. This trend mirrors the continued increase in the enrollment rates of girls in higher education in China (National Bureau of Statistics of China, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, views about employment were overall inegalitarian. Almost half of the caregivers (46.63%) agreed that men deserve jobs more than women when jobs are scarce. In addition, while one-third of them (31.14%) disagreed that men are career-oriented and women are family-oriented, an even larger proportion (33.82%) agreed. Finally, views about marriage and fertility were more divided. More than one-third of the caregivers agreed or strongly agreed with the statement, \u0026ldquo;a good husband is more important than a good career.\u0026rdquo; Further, 21.2% of the caregivers agreed, and 8.17% strongly agreed, with the importance of having a male heir, one of the most typical traditional fertility beliefs in Chinese culture.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[insert Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eGender disparities in early childhood development\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo examine gender disparities in ECD, we conducted \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-tests to compare standardized Bayley-III scores on cognitive, language, motor, and social-emotional development between the boys and the girls (see Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). As is shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, based on the standardized Bayley-III scores, the girls had a statistically significant advantage in language skills and slightly outperformed the boys in cognitive and social emotional skills. On average, the girls scored 0.312 SD higher than boys in language skills, significant at the 0.1% level. Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) tests found no significant difference in cognitive and social-emotional skills between the boys and girls. The boys and girls exhibited similar levels of motor development (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.524).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics of child development delay\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2) vs. (3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCognitive delay (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.472\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.438\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.502\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.121\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.030)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.028)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.041)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLanguage delay (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.479\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.416\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.533\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.116***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.030)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.028)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.041)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMotor delay (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.214\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.182\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.241\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.059\u0026dagger;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.017)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.023)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.034)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSocial-emotional delay (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;yes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.358\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.328\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.384\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.160\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.028)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.027)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.039)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e274\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e323\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e597\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProportion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.459\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.541\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[insert Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe estimated the rates of developmental delay among the children and found that the boys were more likely to experience language and motor development delays than the girls (See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The boys were significantly more likely to experience language delays than girls (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004). There is also a higher likelihood of motor delays among boys, although the difference is only marginally significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.080). Differences in the likelihood of cognitive and social-emotional developmental delays suggest a similar trend, but neither was statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eAssociations between caregiver gender stereotypes and child development by child gender\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo determine whether the association between caregiver gender stereotypes and ECD differed between boys and girls, we examined the associations between the gender stereotype index and the standardized Bayley-III scores of the boys and the girls, respectively (See Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The results suggest that while the caregiver\u0026rsquo;s gender stereotypes were not significantly associated with the development of the boys, they were significantly associated with lower social-emotional development among the girls (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). Caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes were also associated with lower cognitive and language scores among girls, but the associations were not statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe correlation of the gender stereotype index on children\u0026rsquo;s standardized Bayley outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandardized cognitive score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandardized language score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandardized motor score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStandardized social-emotional score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVARIABLES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePanel A. The correlation of the gender stereotype on boys\u0026rsquo; development\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender stereotype index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.065)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.064)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.068)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.072)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eObservations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e308\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e308\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e308\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e308\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR-squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl variables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean of Y\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0546\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.151\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0249\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0646\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePanel B. The correlation of the gender stereotype on girls\u0026rsquo; development\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender stereotype index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.086\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.192**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.068)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.061)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.064)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.068)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eObservations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR-squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.029\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.078\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl variables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean of Y\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0671\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.161\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0277\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0640\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNote: Robust standard errors in parentheses; *** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, ** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, * p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, \u0026dagger;\u0026nbsp;p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;4. The correlation of the gender stereotype on primary caregiver\u0026rsquo;s parenting behavior\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParenting knowledge z-score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKnowledge on children emotional development\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKnowledge on taking care of caregivers themselves\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKnowledge on playing with children\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKnowledge on talking with children\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFamily care indicators z-score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariety of play materials z-score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVARIABLES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePanel A. The correlation of the gender stereotype on primary caregiver\u0026rsquo;s parenting behavior of boys\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender stereotype index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.170***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.033\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.122*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.048)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.064)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.067)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.057)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.061)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.051)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.044)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.671\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.316\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.178\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.830\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.348\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.149\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.388)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.488)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.571)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.487)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.506)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.472)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.400)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eObservations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR-squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.310\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.164\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.154\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.192\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl variables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean of Y\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0711\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0112\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0460\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0296\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0262\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0312\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePanel B. The correlation of the gender stereotype on primary caregiver\u0026rsquo;s parenting behavior of girls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender stereotype index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.290***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.231***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.182**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.163*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.180**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.147**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.049)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.058)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.057)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.058)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.070)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.058)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.048)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.466\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.113*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.517\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.823\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.076\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.058\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.472)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.558)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.532)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.536)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.621)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.678)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.532)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eObservations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e307\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e307\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e307\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e307\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e307\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e307\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e307\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR-squared\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.257\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.102\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.214\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.076\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.141\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.135\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl variables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean of Y\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0389\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0460\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0129\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.0530\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0341\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0302\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0359\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNote: Robust standard errors in parentheses\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, ** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, * p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, \u0026dagger; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[insert Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe further examined how each stereotype belief predicted the development of their child in each domain, and how these associations differed between the boys and the girls. In Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the four plots correspond to the four domains of ECD, while each panel (A to F) corresponds to a stereotype belief. The regression coefficients (Coef.) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) are illustrated separately for the boys and the girls. The results show that the caregivers\u0026rsquo; agreement with any of the stereotype beliefs predicted lower social-emotional development for girls. In contrast, the caregivers\u0026rsquo; belief in gender stereotypes about employment and family life predicted slightly positive social-emotional development among boys, although the associations were not statistically significant (See supporting information: Table A1, column (12), (20), (24)).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[insert Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eAssociations between caregiver gender stereotypes and parenting by child gender\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo explain why the caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes predicted lower social-emotional development among girls but not boys, we examined the associations between gender stereotypes and the parenting knowledge and practices of the caregivers (See Table\u0026nbsp;4). Gender stereotypes predicted significantly lower levels of parenting knowledge and stimulating parenting behavior among caregivers of girls than those of boys, which potentially contributed to the disparities in early childhood development between boys and girls. Among caregivers of girls, we found strong, negative associations between gender stereotypes and multiple aspects of parenting knowledge and behavior, including general parenting knowledge, knowledge on children\u0026rsquo;s emotional development, and engagement in play and communication. In contrast, gender stereotypes among caregivers of boys were only negatively associated with general parenting knowledge and knowledge on playing with children, and the associations were weaker compared to those found among caregivers of girls. The associations between each gender stereotype and parenting practice are shown in supporting information: Table A2.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[insert Table\u0026nbsp;4 here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eWhich caregivers were more likely to hold gender stereotypes?\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo identify caregivers who were more likely to hold gender stereotypes and, by extension, less likely to engage in stimulating parenting of girls, we compared gender stereotypes across caregivers with different education levels and relationships to the child. As is shown in Table 5, a \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test of gender stereotypes between caregiving mothers and grandmothers revealed significant differences (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) in every category of stereotypes. Collectively, grandmothers were more likely to raise children in adherence to traditional gender roles. Caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes were also significantly associated with their education level (See Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Caregivers who only completed junior high school education or less, or less than 9 years of schooling, tended to hold more gender stereotypes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 5. Differences in gender stereotypes between caregiving mothers and grandmothers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"731\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFull sample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrandmother\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifference\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2) vs. (3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBoys are better at math than girls.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.982\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.840\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.352\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.512\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.041)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.046)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.083)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.091)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCollege education is more important for\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.234\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.047\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.726\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.679\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eboys than girls.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.042)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.041)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.097)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.090)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhen jobs are scarce, men deserve them\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.163\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.553\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.538\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emore.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.042)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.047)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.085)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.092)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMen are career-oriented and women family-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.780\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.464\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.609\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.145\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eoriented.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.047)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.048)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.087)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.094)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA good husband is more important than a\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.861\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.653\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.408\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.755\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egood career.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.046)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.050)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.092)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.098)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWomen should continue the family line by\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.676\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.504\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.128\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.624\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebearing a son.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.047)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.050)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.101)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.102)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e649\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e470\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e179\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e649\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 41.5825%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProportion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.2694%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.724\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15.1515%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.276\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.6263%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 10.101%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"626\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\" style=\"width: 626px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 6. Gender stereotypes by caregivers\u0026rsquo; education level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaternal education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrandmother education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(1) vs. (2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(3) vs. (4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;9 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;9 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;9 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;9 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBoys are better at math than girls.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.791\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.348\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.364\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.936\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.138)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.048)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.101)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.134)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCollege education is more important for\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.988\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.726\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.727\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.995\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eboys than girls.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.137)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.042)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.114)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.182)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhen jobs are scarce, men deserve them\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.540\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.934\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.526\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.636\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.576\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003emore.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.113)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.050)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.101)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.153)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMen are career-oriented and women family-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.032\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.376\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.785\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eoriented.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.147)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.049)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.098)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.167)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA good husband is more important than a\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.381\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.541\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.489\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.123\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egood career.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.135)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.051)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.109)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.162)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWomen should continue the family line by\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.403\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.207\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.886\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.170\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebearing a\u0026nbsp;son.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.154)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.051)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.120)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.173)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e407\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 266px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProportion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.134\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.866\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.754\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.246\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[insert Table\u0026nbsp;5 here]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e[insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eA healthy and equal development environment for boys and girls is crucial to improving early childhood development, especially in low- and middle-income contexts. Using data from children aged between 12 and 30 months in rural China, the current study sought to demonstrate the link between caregiver gender stereotypes and the development outcomes of boys and girls before age 3 in rural China. We found that caregivers exhibit varying degrees of gender stereotypes about education, career, marriage, and fertility. The caregivers\u0026rsquo; stereotypes primarily predicted lower levels of ECD among girls, as evidenced by the association between more gender stereotypes and lower social-emotional development among the girls, while they did not predict the ECD outcomes of boys. Despite that, however, the girls significantly outperformed the boys in language skills as assessed by the Bayley-III. Girls also performed slightly better in cognitive and social-emotional skills, although the differences were not statistically significant. These seemingly contradictory findings highlight the need to examine how caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes potentially influence the gender disparities in ECD in low-resource and traditionally gender-inegalitarian contexts. Further investigation revealed that gender stereotypes predicted disproportionately lower levels of parenting knowledge and stimulating parenting behavior among caregivers of girls than those of boys. Notably, less-educated caregivers exhibited more gender stereotypes, and grandmothers exhibited more gender stereotypes than mothers, who were typically younger.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe prevalent gender stereotypes we found among caregivers of children under 3 years old in rural China were consistent with previous research suggesting that caregivers, especially those in traditionally gender-inegalitarian cultures, promote gender-stereotypical behaviors and roles in their children\u0026rsquo;s first few years of life (Lobel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Weitzman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast to previous studies that focus on stereotypes experienced by children, such as the encouragement of gender-stereotypical play behavior in early childhood and gender brilliance stereotypes at school (Fagot et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Rogers et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), our study assesses gender stereotypes as a collection of implicit, rigid, and internalized values that affect the parenting practices of caregivers (Mesman \u0026amp; Groeneveld, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In doing so, we show that gender stereotypes about education, career, marriage, and family life affect child development not only because children internalize stereotypes as they develop gender-based attitudes, behaviors, self-assessments and aspirations (Correll, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Halim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), but also because stereotypes shape how caregivers interact with their children even before children develop their own gender identities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne of our most notable findings is that a higher level of gender stereotypes among caregivers predicted lower social-emotional development among girls, while it was not significantly associated with the development of boys. Social-emotional development includes the skills to engage, explore, handle frustration, self-regulate, and develop relationships with peers. Therefore, healthy early social-emotional development is necessary for the smooth transition of a child from preschool into a school setting where they are expected to listen to instructions, sustain attention, build social networks among peers, and learn (Denham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; DiPrete \u0026amp; Jennings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Our findings suggest that gender stereotypes may cause caregivers to discourage girls from behaviors that are crucial for early social-emotional development. Instead of promoting independence and emotional strength, caregivers with strong gender stereotypes may encourage behaviors that align with traditional expectations for women like empathy and nurturing (Fagot et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Mesman \u0026amp; Groeneveld, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). While the internalization of these stereotypes has been associated with a decline in trait hope and self-esteem among girls later in childhood (Heaven \u0026amp; Ciarrochi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), our finding further shows that caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes could disproportionately disadvantage the social-emotional development of girls as early as under 3 years old. This should raise alarms, since the access to early childhood education and socialization opportunities are already limited in rural China and similar resource-constrained contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, even with the presence of gender stereotypes, girls still showed significantly higher levels of language development than boys and slightly outperformed them in cognitive, language, and social-emotional development. These trends are consistent with earlier studies suggesting that girls are slightly ahead of boys in early development across different languages and cultures (Eriksson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe relatively gender-egalitarian view of education among the caregivers may have also contributed to the female advantage in early language development we observed, although further research is needed to determine whether the link is causal. In line with this, recent data indicates that female enrollment in higher education in China has surpassed that of males (National Bureau of Statistics of China, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), suggests an increasing rejection of traditional beliefs about women\u0026rsquo;s education exemplified by the idiom, \u0026ldquo;Ignorance is women\u0026rsquo;s virtue.\u0026rdquo; However, gender stereotypes about employment and family life remain prevalent, and they predicted lower levels of development among girls but were not associated with the development of boys. Taken together, the gender stereotypes of caregivers in rural China contributes to an unequal start in life between boys and girls that calls for timely intervention.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs one of the first works to illustrate the pathway between caregiver gender stereotypes and child development, we found that caregivers with strong gender stereotypes had less parenting knowledge and provided less home stimulation for their children, especially for the girls. This could be because caregivers with stronger gender stereotypes are often grandmothers and those with lower levels of education, both of whom tend to have more difficulty accessing information about scientific parenting. As a result, they could rely on stereotypes rather than scientific knowledge to provide emotional and cognitive stimulation for their children. In rural China, the scarcity of public childcare services has led to a predominant reliance on family members, especially grandparents, to assist in raising children. Our results illustrate that the reliance on grandparents for childcare without interventions to educate and support them could lead to the perpetuation of traditional gender stereotypes, as grandparents often adhere to the parenting practices they used to rear their own children (Dolbin-MacNab, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur findings underscore the importance of addressing visible and invisible gender stereotypes in early childhood environments as a pathway to improving ECD, human capital, and social equity. Educating caregivers, especially those with limited formal education, maybe an effectively way to reduce stereotypes and improve developmental outcomes for girls. Targeted interventions, such as community-based workshops on gender-neutral parenting, can empower caregivers with the knowledge needed to create an equitable environment for both boys and girls. Additionally, early childhood education programs should take active steps to dismantle gender stereotypes by promoting a variety of activities that support the development of a wide range of skills, regardless of gender. It is also important to train educators and caregivers to recognize and challenge their own biases and create an environment where children can thrive without being restricted by rigid gender norms. The findings from this study will guide future researchers and policymakers, both in China and internationally, in addressing gender stereotypes and promoting more equitable ECD in the future.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo limitations of this study warrant mention. First, previous studies conducted in Western or developed settings have shown that the gender of adult caregivers had different behavior and impacts on boys and girls (Cabrera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Fiese \u0026amp; Skillman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Unfortunately, there were only 46 (6.6%) male primary caregivers in our dataset, half of whom were fathers, which were too few for a meaningful empirical analysis of the difference in parenting between male and female caregivers. We contend that the absence of fathers and other male family members from child-rearing in our sample reflects the persisting gendered division of roles in rural China and warrants further investigation as a separate research topic. Second, our use of cross-sectional data restricts our ability to analyze the relation between changes in the gender stereotypes of caregivers and the long-term developmental trajectories of their children. The influence of shifting societal perceptions of gender on individual caregivers make long-term trends an important direction of further exploration. Future research should aim to understand differences in stereotypes and parenting behavior between male and female caregivers and conduct long-term surveys to strengthen the validity of our findings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eApproval for all data collection activities was granted by the China Center for Behavioral Economics and Finance Research Ethics Committee of Southwestern University of Finance and Economics on May 9, 2023 (without approval number). The procedure used in this study complies with the tents of the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e Informed consent was obtained from all participating caregivers for both their own and their children involvement before the data was collected. We informed each participant of their rights, the purpose of the study and to safeguard their personal information.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eY.W. and Y.M. conducted the investigation and formal analysis; Y.W. handled data visualization and wrote the original draft; S.L., C.L., and S.R. reviewed the draft while supervising data analysis and writing; H.Z. and A.S. edited and modified the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank the local collaborators and survey enumerators for their assistance in contacting local families and helping with the surveys. We also thank the children and families who participated in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData will be made available on request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eArdila, A., Rosselli, M., Matute, E., \u0026amp; Inozemtseva, O. 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The acquisition of the gender-brilliance stereotype: Age trajectory, relation to parents\u0026rsquo; stereotypes, and intersections with race/ethnicity. \u003cem\u003eChild Development\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e93\u003c/em\u003e(5), e581\u0026ndash;e597. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13809\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Caregiver gender stereotypes, Early childhood development, Parenting knowledge, Family care environment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6651508/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6651508/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe challenges posed by caregivers\u0026rsquo; gender stereotypes to a healthy and equitable environment for the development for all children are often overlooked in low-resource and traditionally gender-inegalitarian contexts. This study describes gender stereotypes among the caregivers of children aged 12\u0026ndash;30 months in rural China (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;697, 53.5% male) and examines the associations between these stereotypes and their children\u0026rsquo;s developmental outcomes. Results reveal prevalent gender stereotypes related to women\u0026rsquo;s roles in education, employment, marriage, and fertility. Stereotypes predicted lower levels of social-emotional development among girls but not boys. Despite the presence of stereotypes, girls outperformed boys in early language skills. Mechanism analysis suggests that gender stereotypes predicted lower levels of parenting knowledge and less stimulating home environments for girls.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Origin of Unequal Childhoods: Associations between Caregiver Gender Stereotypes and Early Childhood Development in Rural China","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-06 10:10:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6651508/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-31T07:58:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-10T08:20:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-08T06:59:08+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"156951490927149511376011493332689482854","date":"2025-11-02T14:17:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"203336749777201606346685076244031988224","date":"2025-10-27T23:34:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-27T13:03:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-22T09:42:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-03T10:40:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-03T10:40:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","date":"2025-05-13T05:04:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5def75e8-862a-44c4-93c6-d51f27fb3e61","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[{"id":57293547,"name":"Social science/Cultural and media studies"},{"id":57293548,"name":"Social science/Development studies"},{"id":57293549,"name":"Social science/Education"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-24T14:08:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-06 10:10:14","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6651508","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6651508","identity":"rs-6651508","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}