Optimization of a Virtual Sustainable Closed-Loop Supply Chain Based on the Internet of Things and Blockchain under Uncertainty

Optimization of a Virtual Sustainable Closed-Loop Supply Chain Based on the Internet of Things and Blockchain under Uncertainty | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Optimization of a Virtual Sustainable Closed-Loop Supply Chain Based on the Internet of Things and Blockchain under Uncertainty Sepideh Chehreh, Mahdi Rezaei, Ali Salmasnia This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8495988/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In today’s competitive environment, the utilization of emerging technologies such as the Internet of Things and blockchain can lead to cost reduction, increased transparency, and service improvement in supply chains. In this regard, a multi-period, multi-product virtual closed-loop supply chain optimization model is developed, in which the Internet of Things and blockchain are employed to enable the timely recall of defective products and reduce disposal costs. The model is formulated as a four-echelon forward and three-echelon reverse mixed-integer linear mathematical programming and manages demand uncertainty through a fuzzy approach. The problem is solved for small- and medium-scale cases using GAMS, and for large-scale instances, due to its NP-hard nature, using the Grey Wolf Optimizer algorithm. To examine the importance of utilizing Internet of Things and blockchain technologies in the supply chain, two comparative studies are presented: the first study demonstrates the importance of the simultaneous implementation of these two technologies, and the second study focuses on the importance of blockchain. The results of the comparative studies indicate that the integration of the Internet of Things and blockchain enhances the sustainability, transparency, and profitability of the supply chain. Physical sciences/Engineering Physical sciences/Mathematics and computing Blockchain Internet of Things Sustainable Supply Chain Closed-Loop Supply Chain Uncertainty Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 27 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 23 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 08 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Feb, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 03 Feb, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 03 Feb, 2026 Editor invited by journal 22 Jan, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 06 Jan, 2026 First submitted to journal 06 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8495988","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":585337144,"identity":"008b7e12-1a1d-4729-87b6-a705039d6fde","order_by":0,"name":"Sepideh Chehreh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Qom","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sepideh","middleName":"","lastName":"Chehreh","suffix":""},{"id":585337148,"identity":"753ad555-549a-4524-acaf-9e659f27f499","order_by":1,"name":"Mahdi Rezaei","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACHgaJBDCDsfEBTOwAsVqaDYjXAmWxSeBVCAO67WcP3ni4x8aev725reJNxTYG/vYDjIcr8GgxO5OXbJHwLI1Z4szBtptzztxmkDiTwHDwDD4tB3LMJBIOHGZjuJHYdpu37TYDww0GhoMN+LScfwPS8p9H/v7DtmKQFnmCWm6AbTkgYXCDsY0ZpMWAsJY3xhYJB5INDM8kNksC/cIDZDQQcFiO4c0fB+zs5Y4ff/jhTcVtObnjhw9/xKcFFfCAESPxGsDqR8EoGAWjYBRgAABYAlTemcB3YQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Qom","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mahdi","middleName":"","lastName":"Rezaei","suffix":""},{"id":585337150,"identity":"d3fa4d94-997a-49cf-aee2-c9de31a9cfaf","order_by":2,"name":"Ali Salmasnia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Qom","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"","lastName":"Salmasnia","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-01 15:38:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8495988/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8495988/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102298559,"identity":"2c3ba482-0758-4b58-92cd-5138773ea341","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 10:46:34","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1077771,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"MainManu.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8495988/v1_covered_6de11e18-9e41-4c09-8636-f3e76cb635a8.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Optimization of a Virtual Sustainable Closed-Loop Supply Chain Based on the Internet of Things and Blockchain under Uncertainty","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Blockchain, Internet of Things, Sustainable Supply Chain, Closed-Loop Supply Chain, Uncertainty","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8495988/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8495988/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn today\u0026rsquo;s competitive environment, the utilization of emerging technologies such as the Internet of Things and blockchain can lead to cost reduction, increased transparency, and service improvement in supply chains. 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