Evaluating the Life Cycle Assessment of Rain Gardens and Green Walls for a Sustainable Environment

Evaluating the Life Cycle Assessment of Rain Gardens and Green Walls for a Sustainable Environment | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Evaluating the Life Cycle Assessment of Rain Gardens and Green Walls for a Sustainable Environment Abdul Wahed Ahmadi, Prof.Dr. Nilgun Balkaya, Prof.Dr Sean Vrielink This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7779844/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract With fast urbanization and increasing climate pressures, green infrastructure (GI) has emerged as a feasible sustainable alternative to urban environmental issues. Among the many GI strategies, rain gardens (RGs) and green walls (GWs) are frequently applied for storm water management, thermal insulation, and biodiversity. This study conducts a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of RGs and GWs on the basis of a systematic review of 25 peer-reviewed studies, adopting the ISO 14040/14044 standard. Data were taken for each life cycle stage—construction, operation, maintenance, and end-of-life—and normalized per square meter for a 50-year service life. The main environmental impact categories were global warming potential (GWP 100 ), fossil fuel consumption, water consumption, and solid waste generation. Re-CiPe 2016 method of impact assessment was used to ensure comparability between studies. The results show a balance between LCA phases. Green walls have lower construction-phase impacts (e.g.,GWP: 0.58 kg CO₂ eq/m²) due to prefabricated modular units. Rain gardens, on the other hand, have lower operational-phase impacts (e.g., 419 vs. 796 kg CO₂ eq/m² per year), due to passive water filtering and minimal maintenance needs. RGs also outperformed in delivering ecosystem services such as storm water infiltration, groundwater recharge, and urban cooling. The outcome of this study reinforces that no GI system is supreme. Instead, performance is on lifecycle stage and conditions. Deciding on a choice should rely on local objectives energy performance, water efficiency, or biodiversity. The innovation lies in combining spatial-functional performance and ecosystem service valuation with conventional LCA indicators. This hybrid approach bridges the gap between environmental science and applied sustainability by providing a new decision-support system that increases the relevance of life cycle assessment (LCA) for policymakers and urban planners. Environmental Engineering Environmental Economics Environmental Chemistry Green Infrastructure Rain Gardens Green Walls Urban Sustainability Ecosystem Services Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 1. Introduction Urbanization and climate change present urgent challenges for sustainable water and energy management. With 68% of the global population projected to live in urban areas by 2050 as it’s up from 55% in 2018 (Shafique et al., 2018 ; United Nations, 2018 ).Thus, cities face mounting pressure to reduce environmental degradation, resource depletion, and climate vulnerability. Urban areas already contribute over 70% of global CO₂ emissions due to transportation, energy consumption, and infrastructure development(Bigger & Webber, 2021 ; GIH, 2017; Dauda and Alibaba 2022; Wang et al 2022 ).Therefore, these pressures highlight the importance of sustainable infrastructure in mitigating environmental impacts and enhancing urban resilience. However, the GI, including green roofs and green walls, plays a pivotal role in sustainable urban development (Spatari et al., 2011; Saiz et al., 2006; Ishimatsu et al 2017 ; Malaviya et al 2019 ; Trenta et la 2025).Hence; these systems contribute to storm water management, reduce energy demand, and support urban biodiversity. Green roofs, categorized as extensive or intensive, offer various ecological benefits, including thermal insulation, urban cooling, and extended roof lifespan. Intensive systems provide greater biodiversity and recreational use, while the insulation provided by vegetation reduces building energy consumption, often offsetting the environmental cost of materials and installation (FLL, 2018; Hengen et al., 2016 ; Ferrer et al, 2018 ). In addition, similarly rain gardens and green walls or bio retention systems are effective in capturing, filtering, and treating storm water at its source. Additionally, such systems can significantly reduce pollutant loads, recharge groundwater, and lower peak flows, though the construction phase contributes the most environmental burden due to materials like silica sand and mulch (Sebastian et al., 2019 ; Flynn & Traver, 2013 ). Moreover, to quantify these benefits and trade-offs, LCA provides a systematic framework for evaluating the environmental performance of green infrastructure across all life stages from construction to operation and end of life. On the other hand, LCA studies have shown that while green roofs are more effective in energy conservation and urban heat island mitigation, rain gardens outperform in water quality improvement and flood control (Sousa et al., 2019 ; Wang et al., 2013 ). Integrating both systems can enhance climate resilience and maximize hydrological benefits. However, several challenges hinder broader implementation, including high upfront costs, complex maintenance, and site-specific constraints. Consequently, tools such as SimaPro, GaBi, OpenLCA, and Umberto LCA + enable researchers and policymakers to analyze environmental trade-offs with precision. For instance, studies using SimaPro indicate that green roofs reduce emissions by 35% to 83% and nearly eliminate ozone depletion effects (Rasul et al., 2020; Jennings et al., 2013 ; Chaffin et al., 2016 ;Ren & Su, 2014 ). Nevertheless, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2025) reported that green roofs can reduce surface temperatures by up to 56°F and cut cooling energy demand by as much as 70%. However, green roofs and green walls each offer unique environmental benefits. Green roofs improve energy efficiency and reduce the urban heat island effect, while rain gardens excel in water quality and stormwater management. Integrating both systems can optimize urban sustainability, though high costs and maintenance remain challenges (Ren & Su, 2014 ; Sousa et al., 2019 ; Sebastian et al., 2019 ; EPA, 2025). However, this paper aims to critically review LCA studies of green roofs and rain gardens, highlight methodological inconsistencies, and offer recommendations for standardizing future assessments. By doing so, it seeks to support data-driven decision-making in sustainable urban planning. 2. Materials and Method 2.1 Study Design This study employed an evaluated literature approach to examine recent research on LCA applications in the 3 phase of RG and GR. The purpose was to synthesize recent literature on LCA applications in the construction sector, with a focus on tools, practices, and methodological variations. This structured approach ensured transparency in article selection, data extraction, and synthesis. 2.2 Goal & Scope Definition This review aims to evaluate how LCA methodologies are applied in the construction industry, with particular focus on three key life cycle phases (construction, operation and maintenance, and dismantling). Following the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards, the scope of each study was assessed in terms of its system boundaries and functional units. Although variations exist, most studies defined their functional unit as a square meter of building area or a complete building system. Studies were included only if they assessed at least one of the targeted phases and provided sufficient detail on LCA modeling and impact evaluation. Boundaries were categorized as partial such as cradle-to-gate or full like cradle-to-grave, depending on whether they incorporated all three phases under review. This focus allowed for a deeper understanding of environmental performance across a building's lifespan. 2.3 Inventory Analysis The data were collected from the four academic databases such Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. Search terms included the Life Cycle Assessment, LCA tools, building materials, construction, and sustainable buildings, combined with Boolean operators. The timeframe was restricted to English, and Turkish language peer reviewed journal articles published between 2015 and 2025. The review considered environmental data across key phases: material extraction and production (construction), operational lifespan and maintenance, and end-of-life scenarios including deconstruction and disposal. Duplicates were removed using Mondeley software, and all selected articles were reviewed in full to ensure alignment with the research scope. 2.4 Impact Assessment The research explored a broad range of environmental impacts to analyze the comparative life cycle performance of RG and GR. The most frequently reported impact category was Global Warming Potential 100 years (GWP100), reflecting carbon footprint concerns. Other frequently utilized categories included Ozone Layer Depletion (OLD), Eutrophication Potential (EP), Acidification Potential (AP), and Abiotic Depletion (AD), which measure nutrient runoff, acidifying emissions, and non-renewable resource consumption respectively. Other types used in some of the research included Human Toxicity (HT), Marine Aquatic Eco toxicity (MAE), Freshwater Aquatic Eco toxicity (FWA), Terrestrial Eco toxicity (TE), and Photochemical Oxidation (PO), which examine emissions' effects on human health and ecology and air quality. The majority of the studies utilized LCA instruments such as Open LCA, Mobius, Ecochain both of which provide access to multiple impact assessment methods, for instance, ReCiPe, CML, and TRACI. Some studies also applied Mobius for scenario testing, although its usage was rarely elaborated upon. Ecoinvent and Ecochain were the most commonly cited life cycle inventory databases, ensuring data consistency and methodological transparency. The selection and application of impact categories varied depending on study objectives, regional relevance, and the availability of background data. 2.5 Interpretation & Selection Criteria Based on the inclusion criteria, studies had to clearly apply LCA methodologies to construction contexts and report objectives, boundaries, and impact methods in a transparent manner. Studies that were conference papers, dissertations, or sources written in languages other than English and Turkish were not included. An initial screening of titles and abstracts was followed by a full-text review as part of a two-stage screening procedure. Nonetheless, a standardized form was used for the data extraction process, which recorded details about the study's purpose, functional unit, boundary, LCA tool, geographic location, and LCA phase. To facilitate organized synthesis and comparison, the extracted data were grouped thematically. 2.6 Literature Search Strategy and Selection Criteria The selection process of articles involved three main filtering stages. First, title screening was carried out to exclude articles unrelated to LCA, rain gardens, or green walls. Second, during abstract screening, studies that did not perform an LCA analysis were removed. However, then, the full-text review was conducted to ensure that only studies meeting methodological rigor and relevance were included. Thus, this systematic process, a total of 90 studies focusing on LCA being selected, of which 22 studies specifically addressed rain gardens and green walls for in-depth analysis. Table.1 Previous LCA Studies on Sustainable Green Infrastructure Reference Focus Key Findings Peng et al., 2024 LCA of rain garden Showed significant carbon reduction potential; 810 ton CO₂eq net reduction Vineyard et al., 2015 Residential rain gardens vs. traditional systems Rain gardens had lower environmental impacts and costs MDPI, 2023 Sustainable rainwater management LCA Reviewed challenges of LCA for rainwater systems T&F, 2019 Rain garden performance under rainfall events LCA framework shows variable performance under rainfall scenarios EPA, 2015 Green vs. grey infrastructure Green infrastructure more sustainable than grey Salah et al., 2021 Felt-system green wall Cradle-to-grave LCA for felt-based living green wall Oquendo et al., 2020 Living wall systems Identified construction and materials as major impact drivers Reyhani et al., 2023 Green wall design choices Emphasized importance of component/material selection Rico et al., 2024 Systematic LCA review of green walls Production & construction stages have largest impacts Perini et al., 2023 Green façades vs. living wall systems Façades have lower environmental impacts than complex wall systems Fava et al., 2024 Living walls in Mediterranean region Assessed energy + environmental performance of 4 systems Reyhani et al.,2025 Environmental benefits of green wall systems Found key benefits in thermal regulation and carbon footprint Abdellatif et al, 2021 Green wall full life cycle Impact highest in manufacturing and maintenance Oquendo et al., 2020 Environmental impact of wall systems Focused on manufacturing impacts and suggested mitigation Manso et al., 2017 LCA of vertical greenery systems Highlighted long-term benefits in urban areas Perini & Rosasco, 2013 Comparative analysis of wall types Living walls have higher cost but greater energy savings Teotonico et al., 2022 Indoor green wall systems Showed reduced cooling demand and energy use Shafique et al., 2018 Green roofs in stormwater management Significant reduction in storm runoff in Seoul Getter et al., 2009 Carbon sequestration in green roofs Green roofs act as carbon sinks Chenani et al., 2015 Environmental impact of green roofs Emphasized green roofs as urban sustainability tools Singh et al., 2016 Green vs. blue roofs Water management and energy efficiency in urban areas Rowe, 2011 Pollution reduction via green roofs Filter pollutants from rainwater; improved air & water quality 3. Results and Discussion The comparative analysis evaluates the environmental performance of RG and GW systems using key LCA impact categories across their LCA stages such as construction Phase, operation & maintenance, and dismantling which has been explained here in the corresponding order. Based on the LCI, GRs utilize significantly more organic material specially soil and vegetation whereas GWs depend more on processed materials like steel, EPDM membranes, and backing panels. In the impact of LCA, GWs exhibited a notably higher impact in categories such as GW P100 and MAE primarily driven by operational inputs like electricity and fertilizer. Additionally, GRs showed higher impacts in fossil fuel depletion due to heavy substrate requirements and generated more organic waste during dismantling. The Fig. 1visually emphasizes these differences, illustrating that while GWs have higher emissions and toxicity impacts, GRs are more resource-intensive. These outcomes underscore how design and material choices shape the environmental footprint of urban green infrastructure systems. Table.1 LCA Inventory data for Rain Gardens and Green Walls (per1 m²) over a 15-year lifespan Phase Item Amount (GW) Amount (GR) Unit Construction EPDM / TPO Wall-integrated 1.20 kg Geotextile N/A 0.30 kg Gravel, Sand Built-in 20.00 kg PE / PVC 2 2.00 kg PVC 0.50 0.50 kg Soil, Coco Coir 20 12.00 kg Steel 10 0.20 kg Vegetation 5 1.50 kg Backing Panel 5 — kg Operation & Maintenance Electricity 1.5 15.00 kWh Emission to water — 0.60 kg Fertilizer 0.3 1.50 kg Manual Labor 3.00 3.00 kg Plant Replacement 4 6.00 kg Dismantling Chemical Waste — 0.40 kg Solid Waste 5.40 11.00 kg Vegetation Waste 5.00 15.00 kg Basic on the table 1 shows the LCA inventory data per 1 m² over a 15-year lifespan, as the comparison between GW and GR reveals key differences in material use and lifecycle impact. GW use more structural materials like steel and backing panels, while GR rely on bulk landscape materials such as gravel, sand, and a larger quantity of waterproofing membrane. During operation, GR require more resources, including electricity, fertilizer, and water, indicating higher maintenance demands. At dismantling, GR generate more waste, especially organic and solid waste. Additionally, the GW is more material-intensive during construction, whereas GR have higher operational and end-of-life impacts. This data highlights key differences in material intensity and maintenance demands, offering a comparative foundation for assessing their environmental impacts in urban green infrastructure planning. 3.1 Construction Phase The RG system shows substantially higher impacts than the GW system across most environmental indicators during the construction phase. For instance, RG has a Global Warming GWP 100 of 4.07 kg CO₂ eq, while GW has only 0.58 kg CO₂ eq. This disparity arises because RG incorporates heavier materials such as drainage layers, insulation boards, waterproof membranes, and bulk soil substrates. These components contribute to elevated emissions from material production, transportation, and installation. The use of foamed plastic insulation and adhesives can also raise OLD impacts. Furthermore, abiotic resource use, AD and ADF, is higher in RG due to its reliance on mineral and petrochemical-based materials. However, the GW system uses lighter prefabricated panels, which are more materials and energy-efficient, thereby lowering emissions and resource use. Its reduced installation demands result in lower PO and toxicity emissions. 3.2 Operation and Maintenance Phase In the part of operation and maintenance, the GW system shows higher impacts than RG across almost all categories. Overall, GW exhibits a GWP100 of 796 kg CO₂ eq, significantly higher than RG’s 419 kg CO₂ eq. This is primarily due to the continuous energy demand from irrigation systems, pumps, and sometimes lighting used in vertical garden modules. These systems often operate autonomously and require frequent fertilization, which increases impacts in categories such as EP and AP. In contrast the GW’s consistent use of liquid fertilizers and chemical additives also results in greater Eco-toxic impacts, particularly in MAE and FWAE, due to runoff and nutrient leaching. Additionally, the HT and TE are similarly elevated due to increased application of chemical agents. On the other side, RG systems, once established, are often low-maintenance and passive, typically relying on natural rainfall and needing minimal chemical inputs. This makes them more environmentally favorable during this phase. Furthermore, their soil systems help filter runoff and reduce Eco-toxic emissions. 3.3 Dismantling Phase In the Phase of dismantling, the minimal for both systems, with all categories showing negligible values. This part mainly involves manual or mechanical removal of structural elements and substrates, with no significant chemical or energy use. Hence, the rain garden shows slightly elevated GWP 100 and OLD during dismantling due to the transport and disposal of heavier elements such as soil and insulation layers, which may contain residual substances with minor environmental impacts. Nonetheless, these values are very small in absolute terms. Table.1 LCA Inventory data for Rain Gardens and Green Walls (per 1 m²) over a 15-year lifespan Phase Item Amount (GW) Amount (GR) Unit Construction EPDM / TPO Wall-integrated 1.20 kg Geotextile N/A 0.30 kg Gravel, Sand Built-in 20.00 kg PE / PVC 2 2.00 kg PVC 0.50 0.50 kg Soil, Coco Coir 20 12.00 kg Steel 10 0.20 kg Vegetation 5 1.50 kg Backing Panel 5 — kg Operation & Maintenance Electricity 1.5 15.00 kWh Emission to water — 0.60 kg Fertilizer 0.3 1.50 kg Manual Labor 3.00 3.00 kg Plant Replacement 4 6.00 kg Dismantling Chemical Waste — 0.40 kg Solid Waste 5.40 11.00 kg Vegetation Waste 5.00 15.00 kg Basic on the table 1 shows the LCA inventory data per 1 m² over a 15-year lifespan, as the comparison between GW and GR reveals key differences in material use and lifecycle impact. GW use more structural materials like steel and backing panels, while GR rely on bulk landscape materials such as gravel, sand, and a larger quantity of waterproofing membrane. During operation, GR require more resources, including electricity, fertilizer, and water, indicating higher maintenance demands. At dismantling, GR generate more waste, especially organic and solid waste. Additionally, the GW is more material-intensive during construction, whereas GR have higher operational and end-of-life impacts. This data highlights key differences in material intensity and maintenance demands, offering a comparative foundation for assessing their environmental impacts in urban green infrastructure planning. Table.2 Environmental Impact Categories for GR and GW Impact Category Unit GR GW Construction Operation & M Dismantling Total Construction Operation & M Dismantling Total Abiotic Depletion kg Sb eq 4.×10⁻³ 5.8×10⁻⁵ 0.00 ×10⁰ 4×10⁻³ 1.3×10⁻⁶ 8.5×10⁻⁵ 0.00 ×10⁰ 8.6×10⁻⁵ Fossil Fuel Depletion MJ 9.3 × 10¹ 1.2 ×10² 0.0× 10⁰ 2.1×10² 4.8×10⁰ 1.7×10² 0.00×10⁰ 1.8× 10² Acidification kg SO₂ eq 2× 10⁻² 5×10⁻² 0.0× 10⁰ 6×10⁻² 2 × 10⁻³ 7× 10⁻² 0.00 × 10⁰ 7.1 × 10⁻² Eutrophication kg PO₄ eq 4.3×10⁻³ 5×10⁻³ 0× 10⁰ 10×10⁻³ 3 × 10⁻⁴ 7.68 × 10⁻³ 0.00 × 10⁰ 8 × 10⁻³ Freshwater Toxicity kg 1,4-DB eq 5×10⁻² 7 × 10⁻² 0.0× 10⁰ 1×10⁻¹ 4× 10⁻³ 1 × 10⁻¹ 0.00 × 10⁰ 1 × 10⁻¹ Human Toxicity 1.2 × 10⁰ 2.21 × 10⁰ 0.00 × 10⁰ 3.4× 10⁰ 1.15 × 10⁻¹ 3.24 × 10⁰ 0.00 × 10⁰ 3.35 × 10⁰ Global Warming Potential kg CO₂ eq 4× 10⁰ 5 × 10² 2 × 10¹ 4.4 × 10² 5.8 × 10⁻¹ 7.96 × 10² 2.05 × 10⁰ 7.8× 10² Ozone Layer Depletion kg CFC-11 eq 2 × 10⁰ 6 ×10⁻¹ 2 × 10⁻² 2.6 × 10⁰ 2 × 10⁻⁴ 1.06 × 10⁰ 2.8 × 10⁻³ 1.06 × 10⁰ Photochemical Oxidant Formation kg C₂H₄ eq 1 × 10⁻³ 2 ×10⁻³ 0.00 × 10⁰ 3 ×10⁻³ 1 × 10⁻⁴ 3 × 10⁻³ 0.00 × 10⁰ 3 × 10⁻³ Solid Waste kg1,4-DBeq 5.4 × 10⁰ 0.0 × 10⁰ 0.00 × 10⁰ 5.4 × 10⁰ 1.10 × 10⁰ 1.1 × 10⁰ 0.0 × 10⁰ 2.2× 10⁰ Terrestrial Toxicity 3 × 10⁻² 2 × 10⁻² 0.00 × 10⁰ 4 ×10⁻² 7.3 × 10⁻⁴ 2 × 10⁻² 00 × 10⁰ 2.2 × 10⁻² Marine Eutrophication kg 1,4-DB eq 1.2 × 10³ 8.3 × 10³ 0.0 × 10⁰ 9.5 × 10³ 2.3 × 10² 1.2×10⁴ 0.00×10⁰ 1.3×10⁴ According to table.2, the LCA of GR and GW reveals diversified environmental impacts at construction, operational, and dismantling phases. GRs reflect greater impacts in resource depletion due to intensive vegetation and soil usage during construction, while GWs are more material-intensive with the use of steel and polymers. Operationally, GWs consume more water, electricity, and fertilizer, which translate to greater maintenance needs. In later stages of life, GRs perform more organic waste production, whereas GWs produce more environmental material return. These differences reflect the influence of material composition and upkeep on their environmental performance. Based on the figure.1 comparative LCA, the GR system demonstrates a superior environmental performance overall, particularly in terms of GWP with emissions of 439 kg CO₂ eq, GR contributes approximately 45% less to GW than the GR, which emits 799 kg CO₂ eq. This makes GR the more climate-friendly option, which is a critical consideration in sustainable construction and climate mitigation strategies. In other word, it is important to note that GR exhibits higher impacts in OLD about 3 kg CFC-11 eq and TE (0.04 kg 1,4-DB eq) compared to GW. Although, these increases, the significantly reduced carbon footprint of GR positions it as the more environmentally advantageous solution when global warming is prioritized as the most urgent impact category. For both systems, it is shown in a separate and comparative form in Fig. 2 – 11 . 4. Conclusion This research study critically evaluated the environmental performance of RGs and GWs throughout their life cycle using a systematic review approach with ISO-conformant LCA methodology as its basis. Results show that RGs have better performance during the operational stage due to their passive water management and low energy use, while GWs are lower in impact during the construction stage due to their prefabricated, lightweight material design. Quantitatively, GW systems also had a lower global warming during construction (0.58 kg CO₂ eq versus RG's 4.07 kg CO₂ eq), but much higher GW P100 during operation (796 kg CO₂ eq versus 419 kg CO₂ eq for RG). Although, RGs also had greater fossil fuel depletion and solid waste generation at end-of-life. These findings highlight that while GWs systems are defined by energy-efficient buildings, RGs offer more long-term environmental performance. Therefore, application of both systems together, based on priorities at the site level such as improvement of water quality or thermal management as can ensure maximum sustainability outcomes in urban infrastructure. Standardization of LCA boundaries and cyclical impact assessment methodology is critical to improve comparability and assist smart policy and design decisions in green infrastructure planning. References (EPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2025, January). 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Journal of environmental management, 254, 109743. Liu, M., Zhu, C., Cui, T., Zhang, H., Zheng, W., & You, S. (2018). An alternative algorithm of tunnel piston effect by replacing three-dimensional model with two-dimensional model. Building and Environment, 128, 55-67. OpenAI. (2025). ChatGPT (GPT-4.5) [Large language model] . https://chat.openai.com/ Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39015,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/686f445abe039dc085cb95e9.png"},{"id":92932221,"identity":"1b467823-bbc8-485c-b666-a0dbc723e17a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:22:10","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":40175,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/423f525395a311bbf0ad7d52.png"},{"id":92932222,"identity":"b1874963-eec1-4c2b-a3c6-822c57308a20","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:22:10","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74119,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of LCA impact by category for RG and GW\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/2088a429e1c66ebb97bb57bc.png"},{"id":92932226,"identity":"6fab3a1e-970b-46c2-8254-6ff83a0c4580","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:22:10","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":87862,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.1 Comparison of impact per item on Global warming\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(Made with Mobius open LCA, Method,CML-IA baseline - v2)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/504429329a5ebb957c74aed4.png"},{"id":92932225,"identity":"281e58c1-3e11-4a85-a28d-3c5eccc22ddb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:22:10","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":81256,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.2 Comparison of impact per item on Abiotic depletion\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"22.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/239d8e6adc90e589db45ade5.png"},{"id":92933039,"identity":"663be3cc-0281-41d6-bfa5-4b426eed9ca0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:30:10","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":82026,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.3 Comparison of impact per item on Abiotic depletion (fossil fuels)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"33.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/8c8c7b2cf8dba143208c315d.png"},{"id":92932231,"identity":"a029dd8e-63db-472a-af98-27de42545648","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:22:10","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":96649,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.4 Comparison of impact per item on Acidification\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"44.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/e0410bcdd05b034be32d615a.png"},{"id":92933044,"identity":"88f79c8e-1ba3-4f56-b17d-bc5b720aeed3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:30:11","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":104625,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.5 Comparison of impact per item on Eutrophication\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"55.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/d965b4325369f0169444d748.png"},{"id":92932251,"identity":"3d6e9012-7664-4b4a-a44c-928a4f453db1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:22:11","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":113912,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.6 Comparison of impact per item on Fresh water aquatic Eco-toxic\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"66.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/5ef2be9f5f07b591b6536923.png"},{"id":92932245,"identity":"b7c3d48d-4442-4141-b0ca-446f6fb6aafe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:22:10","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":105115,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.7 Comparison of impact per item on Human Toxicity\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"77.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/097153a05fcfa04ca7a9c05f.png"},{"id":92933273,"identity":"38542ef9-a2c1-461b-a0cd-c5f94df210b7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:38:10","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100075,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.8 Comparison of impact per item on Marine Aquatic Eco-toxicity\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"88.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/e38b6a08fae3a0e24094cc68.png"},{"id":92932238,"identity":"3d4462bf-5a3c-4322-b886-de3a50db6a8b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:22:10","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":98097,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.9 Comparison of impact per item on Ozone layer depletion\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"99.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/b9c44ff0f18d8e9e09430f41.png"},{"id":92932240,"identity":"1639ffb5-db75-4f78-9297-abd8bb546653","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:22:10","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":105089,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.10 Comparison of impact per item on photochemical oxidation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"100.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/16b1af9b59bd9d448d04e722.png"},{"id":92933041,"identity":"3592d6f0-ac61-4e1e-a5f8-c1ae573e45a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:30:10","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":106752,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure.11 Comparison of impact per item on Terrestrial Eco-toxicity\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"111.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/9e488cce95efc54b3ed2d269.png"},{"id":92945170,"identity":"66b53d12-9eb4-4cb5-ba81-58c4b8e3e540","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 12:30:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1976611,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7779844/v1/6f0594d3-d1b6-48c0-af6b-407a06bbdc84.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEvaluating the Life Cycle Assessment of Rain Gardens and Green Walls for a Sustainable Environment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eUrbanization and climate change present urgent challenges for sustainable water and energy management. With 68% of the global population projected to live in urban areas by 2050 as it\u0026rsquo;s up from 55% in 2018 (Shafique et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; United Nations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).Thus, cities face mounting pressure to reduce environmental degradation, resource depletion, and climate vulnerability. Urban areas already contribute over 70% of global CO₂ emissions due to transportation, energy consumption, and infrastructure development(Bigger \u0026amp; Webber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; GIH, 2017; Dauda and Alibaba 2022; Wang et al 2022 ).Therefore, these pressures highlight the importance of sustainable infrastructure in mitigating environmental impacts and enhancing urban resilience. However, the GI, including green roofs and green walls, plays a pivotal role in sustainable urban development (Spatari et al., 2011; Saiz et al., 2006; Ishimatsu et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Malaviya et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Trenta et la 2025).Hence; these systems contribute to storm water management, reduce energy demand, and support urban biodiversity. Green roofs, categorized as extensive or intensive, offer various ecological benefits, including thermal insulation, urban cooling, and extended roof lifespan. Intensive systems provide greater biodiversity and recreational use, while the insulation provided by vegetation reduces building energy consumption, often offsetting the environmental cost of materials and installation (FLL, 2018; Hengen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ferrer et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, similarly rain gardens and green walls or bio retention systems are effective in capturing, filtering, and treating storm water at its source. Additionally, such systems can significantly reduce pollutant loads, recharge groundwater, and lower peak flows, though the construction phase contributes the most environmental burden due to materials like silica sand and mulch (Sebastian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Flynn \u0026amp; Traver, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, to quantify these benefits and trade-offs, LCA provides a systematic framework for evaluating the environmental performance of green infrastructure across all life stages from construction to operation and end of life. On the other hand, LCA studies have shown that while green roofs are more effective in energy conservation and urban heat island mitigation, rain gardens outperform in water quality improvement and flood control (Sousa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Integrating both systems can enhance climate resilience and maximize hydrological benefits. However, several challenges hinder broader implementation, including high upfront costs, complex maintenance, and site-specific constraints. Consequently, tools such as SimaPro, GaBi, OpenLCA, and Umberto LCA\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;enable researchers and policymakers to analyze environmental trade-offs with precision. For instance, studies using SimaPro indicate that green roofs reduce emissions by 35% to 83% and nearly eliminate ozone depletion effects (Rasul et al., 2020; Jennings et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Chaffin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e ;Ren \u0026amp; Su, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2025) reported that green roofs can reduce surface temperatures by up to 56\u0026deg;F and cut cooling energy demand by as much as 70%. However, green roofs and green walls each offer unique environmental benefits. Green roofs improve energy efficiency and reduce the urban heat island effect, while rain gardens excel in water quality and stormwater management. Integrating both systems can optimize urban sustainability, though high costs and maintenance remain challenges (Ren \u0026amp; Su, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Sousa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Sebastian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; EPA, 2025). However, this paper aims to critically review LCA studies of green roofs and rain gardens, highlight methodological inconsistencies, and offer recommendations for standardizing future assessments. By doing so, it seeks to support data-driven decision-making in sustainable urban planning.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study employed an evaluated literature approach to examine recent research on LCA applications in the 3 phase of RG and GR. The purpose was to synthesize recent literature on LCA applications in the construction sector, with a focus on tools, practices, and methodological variations. This structured approach ensured transparency in article selection, data extraction, and synthesis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Goal \u0026amp; Scope Definition\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis review aims to evaluate how LCA methodologies are applied in the construction industry, with particular focus on three key life cycle phases (construction, operation and maintenance, and dismantling). Following the ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards, the scope of each study was assessed in terms of its system boundaries and functional units. Although variations exist, most studies defined their functional unit as a square meter of building area or a complete building system. Studies were included only if they assessed at least one of the targeted phases and provided sufficient detail on LCA modeling and impact evaluation. Boundaries were categorized as partial such as cradle-to-gate or full like cradle-to-grave, depending on whether they incorporated all three phases under review. This focus allowed for a deeper understanding of environmental performance across a building's lifespan.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Inventory Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data were collected from the four academic databases such Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. Search terms included the Life Cycle Assessment, LCA tools, building materials, construction, and sustainable buildings, combined with Boolean operators. The timeframe was restricted to English, and Turkish language peer reviewed journal articles published between 2015 and 2025. The review considered environmental data across key phases: material extraction and production (construction), operational lifespan and maintenance, and end-of-life scenarios including deconstruction and disposal. Duplicates were removed using Mondeley software, and all selected articles were reviewed in full to ensure alignment with the research scope.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Impact Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research explored a broad range of environmental impacts to analyze the comparative life cycle performance of RG and GR. The most frequently reported impact category was Global Warming Potential 100 years (GWP100), reflecting carbon footprint concerns. Other frequently utilized categories included Ozone Layer Depletion (OLD), Eutrophication Potential (EP), Acidification Potential (AP), and Abiotic Depletion (AD), which measure nutrient runoff, acidifying emissions, and non-renewable resource consumption respectively. Other types used in some of the research included Human Toxicity (HT), Marine Aquatic Eco toxicity (MAE), Freshwater Aquatic Eco toxicity (FWA), Terrestrial Eco toxicity (TE), and Photochemical Oxidation (PO), which examine emissions' effects on human health and ecology and air quality. The majority of the studies utilized LCA instruments such as Open LCA, Mobius, Ecochain both of which provide access to multiple impact assessment methods, for instance, ReCiPe, CML, and TRACI. Some studies also applied Mobius for scenario testing, although its usage was rarely elaborated upon. Ecoinvent and Ecochain were the most commonly cited life cycle inventory databases, ensuring data consistency and methodological transparency. The selection and application of impact categories varied depending on study objectives, regional relevance, and the availability of background data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5 Interpretation \u0026amp; Selection Criteria\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the inclusion criteria, studies had to clearly apply LCA methodologies to construction contexts and report objectives, boundaries, and impact methods in a transparent manner. Studies that were conference papers, dissertations, or sources written in languages other than English and Turkish were not included. An initial screening of titles and abstracts was followed by a full-text review as part of a two-stage screening procedure. Nonetheless, a standardized form was used for the data extraction process, which recorded details about the study's purpose, functional unit, boundary, LCA tool, geographic location, and LCA phase. To facilitate organized synthesis and comparison, the extracted data were grouped thematically.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.6 Literature Search Strategy and Selection Criteria\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe selection process of articles involved three main filtering stages. First, title screening was carried out to exclude articles unrelated to LCA, rain gardens, or green walls. Second, during abstract screening, studies that did not perform an LCA analysis were removed. However, then, the full-text review was conducted to ensure that only studies meeting methodological rigor and relevance were included. Thus, this systematic process, a total of 90 studies focusing on LCA being selected, of which 22 studies specifically addressed rain gardens and green walls for in-depth analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable.1 Previous LCA Studies on Sustainable Green Infrastructure\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFocus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKey Findings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLCA of rain garden\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShowed significant carbon reduction potential; 810 ton CO₂eq net reduction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVineyard et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResidential rain gardens vs. traditional systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRain gardens had lower environmental impacts and costs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMDPI, 2023\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSustainable rainwater management LCA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReviewed challenges of LCA for rainwater systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u0026amp;F, 2019\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRain garden performance under rainfall events\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLCA framework shows variable performance under rainfall scenarios\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEPA, 2015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen vs. grey infrastructure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen infrastructure more sustainable than grey\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSalah et al., 2021\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFelt-system green wall\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCradle-to-grave LCA for felt-based living green wall\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOquendo et al., 2020\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiving wall systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdentified construction and materials as major impact drivers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReyhani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen wall design choices\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmphasized importance of component/material selection\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRico et al., 2024\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSystematic LCA review of green walls\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProduction \u0026amp; construction stages have largest impacts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePerini et al., 2023\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen fa\u0026ccedil;ades vs. living wall systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFa\u0026ccedil;ades have lower environmental impacts than complex wall systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFava et al., 2024\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiving walls in Mediterranean region\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssessed energy\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;environmental performance of 4 systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReyhani et al.,2025\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental benefits of green wall systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFound key benefits in thermal regulation and carbon footprint\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAbdellatif et al, 2021\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen wall full life cycle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImpact highest in manufacturing and maintenance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOquendo et al., 2020\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental impact of wall systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFocused on manufacturing impacts and suggested mitigation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eManso et al., 2017\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLCA of vertical greenery systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHighlighted long-term benefits in urban areas\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePerini \u0026amp; Rosasco, 2013\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparative analysis of wall types\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLiving walls have higher cost but greater energy savings\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTeotonico et al., 2022\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndoor green wall systems\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShowed reduced cooling demand and energy use\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eShafique et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen roofs in stormwater management\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSignificant reduction in storm runoff in Seoul\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGetter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCarbon sequestration in green roofs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen roofs act as carbon sinks\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChenani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironmental impact of green roofs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmphasized green roofs as urban sustainability tools\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSingh et al., 2016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreen vs. blue roofs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWater management and energy efficiency in urban areas\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRowe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePollution reduction via green roofs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFilter pollutants from rainwater; improved air \u0026amp; water quality\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe comparative analysis evaluates the environmental performance of RG and GW systems using key LCA impact categories across their LCA stages such as construction Phase, operation \u0026amp; maintenance, and dismantling which has been explained here in the corresponding order. Based on the LCI, GRs utilize significantly more organic material specially soil and vegetation whereas GWs depend more on processed materials like steel, EPDM membranes, and backing panels. In the impact of LCA, GWs exhibited a notably higher impact in categories such as GW\u003csub\u003eP100\u003c/sub\u003e and MAE primarily driven by operational inputs like electricity and fertilizer. Additionally, GRs showed higher impacts in fossil fuel depletion due to heavy substrate requirements and generated more organic waste during dismantling. The Fig.\u0026nbsp;1visually emphasizes these differences, illustrating that while GWs have higher emissions and toxicity impacts, GRs are more resource-intensive. These outcomes underscore how design and material choices shape the environmental footprint of urban green infrastructure systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable.1 LCA Inventory data for Rain Gardens and Green Walls (per1 m\u0026sup2;) over a 15-year lifespan\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhase\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmount (GW)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmount (GR)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstruction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPDM / TPO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWall-integrated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeotextile\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGravel, Sand\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilt-in\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePE / PVC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePVC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil, Coco Coir\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSteel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBacking Panel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOperation \u0026amp; Maintenance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectricity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekWh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmission to water\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManual Labor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant Replacement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDismantling\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChemical Waste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSolid Waste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetation Waste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBasic on the table 1 shows the LCA inventory data per 1 m\u0026sup2; over a 15-year lifespan, as the comparison between GW and GR reveals key differences in material use and lifecycle impact. GW use more structural materials like steel and backing panels, while GR rely on bulk landscape materials such as gravel, sand, and a larger quantity of waterproofing membrane. During operation, GR require more resources, including electricity, fertilizer, and water, indicating higher maintenance demands. At dismantling, GR generate more waste, especially organic and solid waste. Additionally, the GW is more material-intensive during construction, whereas GR have higher operational and end-of-life impacts. This data highlights key differences in material intensity and maintenance demands, offering a comparative foundation for assessing their environmental impacts in urban green infrastructure planning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Construction Phase\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe RG system shows substantially higher impacts than the GW system across most environmental indicators during the construction phase. For instance, RG has a Global Warming GWP\u003csub\u003e100\u003c/sub\u003e of 4.07 kg CO₂ eq, while GW has only 0.58 kg CO₂ eq.\u0026nbsp;This disparity arises because RG incorporates heavier materials such as drainage layers, insulation boards, waterproof membranes, and bulk soil substrates. These components contribute to elevated emissions from material production, transportation, and installation. The use of foamed plastic insulation and adhesives can also raise OLD impacts. Furthermore, abiotic resource use, AD and ADF, is higher in RG due to its reliance on mineral and petrochemical-based materials. However, the GW system uses lighter prefabricated panels, which are more materials and energy-efficient, thereby lowering emissions and resource use. Its reduced installation demands result in lower PO and toxicity emissions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Operation and Maintenance Phase\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the part of operation and maintenance, the GW system shows higher impacts than RG across almost all categories. Overall, GW exhibits a GWP100 of 796 kg CO₂ eq, significantly higher than RG\u0026rsquo;s 419 kg CO₂ eq.\u0026nbsp;This is primarily due to the continuous energy demand from irrigation systems, pumps, and sometimes lighting used in vertical garden modules. These systems often operate autonomously and require frequent fertilization, which increases impacts in categories such as EP and AP. In contrast the GW\u0026rsquo;s consistent use of liquid fertilizers and chemical additives also results in greater Eco-toxic impacts, particularly in MAE and FWAE, due to runoff and nutrient leaching. Additionally, the HT and TE are similarly elevated due to increased application of chemical agents. On the other side, RG systems, once established, are often low-maintenance and passive, typically relying on natural rainfall and needing minimal chemical inputs. This makes them more environmentally favorable during this phase. Furthermore, their soil systems help filter runoff and reduce Eco-toxic emissions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Dismantling Phase\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the Phase of dismantling, the minimal for both systems, with all categories showing negligible values. This part mainly involves manual or mechanical removal of structural elements and substrates, with no significant chemical or energy use. Hence, the rain garden shows slightly elevated GWP\u003csub\u003e100\u003c/sub\u003e and OLD during dismantling due to the transport and disposal of heavier elements such as soil and insulation layers, which may contain residual substances with minor environmental impacts. Nonetheless, these values are very small in absolute terms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable.1 LCA Inventory data for Rain Gardens and Green Walls (per 1 m\u0026sup2;) over a 15-year lifespan\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhase\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmount (GW)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmount (GR)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstruction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEPDM / TPO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWall-integrated\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeotextile\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGravel, Sand\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilt-in\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePE / PVC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePVC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSoil, Coco Coir\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSteel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBacking Panel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOperation \u0026amp; Maintenance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectricity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekWh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmission to water\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManual Labor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlant Replacement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDismantling\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChemical Waste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSolid Waste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVegetation Waste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBasic on the table 1 shows the LCA inventory data per 1 m\u0026sup2; over a 15-year lifespan, as the comparison between GW and GR reveals key differences in material use and lifecycle impact. GW use more structural materials like steel and backing panels, while GR rely on bulk landscape materials such as gravel, sand, and a larger quantity of waterproofing membrane. During operation, GR require more resources, including electricity, fertilizer, and water, indicating higher maintenance demands. At dismantling, GR generate more waste, especially organic and solid waste. Additionally, the GW is more material-intensive during construction, whereas GR have higher operational and end-of-life impacts. This data highlights key differences in material intensity and maintenance demands, offering a comparative foundation for assessing their environmental impacts in urban green infrastructure planning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable.2 Environmental Impact Categories for GR and GW\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabd\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImpact Category\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGW\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConstruction\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOperation \u0026amp; M\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDismantling\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eConstruction\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOperation \u0026amp; M\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDismantling\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbiotic Depletion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg Sb eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.8\u0026times;10⁻⁵\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times;10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.3\u0026times;10⁻⁶\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.5\u0026times;10⁻⁵\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times;10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.6\u0026times;10⁻⁵\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFossil Fuel Depletion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMJ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.3 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2 \u0026times;10\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.1\u0026times;10\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.8\u0026times;10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7\u0026times;10\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026times;10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u0026times; 10\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcidification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg SO₂ eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEutrophication\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg PO₄ eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.3\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 \u0026times; 10⁻⁴\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.68 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFreshwater Toxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg 1,4-DB eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0\u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHuman Toxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.21 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.4\u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.15 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.24 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.35 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal Warming Potential\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg CO₂ eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.4 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.8 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.96 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.05 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.8\u0026times; 10\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOzone Layer Depletion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg CFC-11 eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 \u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.6 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 \u0026times; 10⁻⁴\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.06 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.8 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.06 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhotochemical Oxidant Formation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg C₂H₄ eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 \u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 \u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 \u0026times; 10⁻⁴\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSolid Waste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg1,4-DBeq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.4 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.4 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.10 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.1 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2\u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTerrestrial Toxicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 \u0026times;10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.3 \u0026times; 10⁻⁴\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e00 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.2 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarine Eutrophication\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ekg 1,4-DB eq\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.3 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0 \u0026times; 10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.5 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup3;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.3 \u0026times; 10\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2\u0026times;10⁴\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026times;10⁰\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.3\u0026times;10⁴\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to table.2, the LCA of GR and GW reveals diversified environmental impacts at construction, operational, and dismantling phases. GRs reflect greater impacts in resource depletion due to intensive vegetation and soil usage during construction, while GWs are more material-intensive with the use of steel and polymers. Operationally, GWs consume more water, electricity, and fertilizer, which translate to greater maintenance needs. In later stages of life, GRs perform more organic waste production, whereas GWs produce more environmental material return. These differences reflect the influence of material composition and upkeep on their environmental performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the figure.1 comparative LCA, the GR system demonstrates a superior environmental performance overall, particularly in terms of GWP with emissions of 439 kg CO₂ eq, GR contributes approximately 45% less to GW than the GR, which emits 799 kg CO₂ eq.\u0026nbsp;This makes GR the more climate-friendly option, which is a critical consideration in sustainable construction and climate mitigation strategies. In other word, it is important to note that GR exhibits higher impacts in OLD about 3 kg CFC-11 eq and TE (0.04 kg 1,4-DB eq) compared to GW. Although, these increases, the significantly reduced carbon footprint of GR positions it as the more environmentally advantageous solution when global warming is prioritized as the most urgent impact category. For both systems, it is shown in a separate and comparative form in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research study critically evaluated the environmental performance of RGs and GWs throughout their life cycle using a systematic review approach with ISO-conformant LCA methodology as its basis. Results show that RGs have better performance during the operational stage due to their passive water management and low energy use, while GWs are lower in impact during the construction stage due to their prefabricated, lightweight material design. Quantitatively, GW systems also had a lower global warming during construction (0.58 kg CO₂ eq versus RG's 4.07 kg CO₂ eq), but much higher GW\u003csub\u003eP100\u003c/sub\u003e during operation (796 kg CO₂ eq versus 419 kg CO₂ eq for RG). Although, RGs also had greater fossil fuel depletion and solid waste generation at end-of-life. These findings highlight that while GWs systems are defined by energy-efficient buildings, RGs offer more long-term environmental performance. Therefore, application of both systems together, based on priorities at the site level such as improvement of water quality or thermal management as can ensure maximum sustainability outcomes in urban infrastructure. Standardization of LCA boundaries and cyclical impact assessment methodology is critical to improve comparability and assist smart policy and design decisions in green infrastructure planning.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e(EPA) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2025, January). Using Green Roofs to Reduce Heat Islands. https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/using-green-roofs-reduce-heat-islands \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e(GIH)Global Infrastructure Hub (2017). 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Environmental assessment of green wall: A comparison between Australia and Italy. Science of the Total Environment, 957, 177699.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOquendo-Di Cosola, V., Olivieri, F., Ruiz-Garc\u0026iacute;a, L., \u0026amp; Bacenetti, J. (2020). An environmental life cycle assessment of living wall systems. Journal of environmental management, 254, 109743. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLiu, M., Zhu, C., Cui, T., Zhang, H., Zheng, W., \u0026amp; You, S. (2018). An alternative algorithm of tunnel piston effect by replacing three-dimensional model with two-dimensional model. Building and Environment, 128, 55-67. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOpenAI. (2025). \u003cem\u003eChatGPT (GPT-4.5) [Large language model]\u003c/em\u003e. https://chat.openai.com/\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e \u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Green Infrastructure, Rain Gardens, Green Walls, Urban Sustainability, Ecosystem Services","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7779844/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7779844/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWith fast urbanization and increasing climate pressures, green infrastructure (GI) has emerged as a feasible sustainable alternative to urban environmental issues. Among the many GI strategies, rain gardens (RGs) and green walls (GWs) are frequently applied for storm water management, thermal insulation, and biodiversity. This study conducts a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of RGs and GWs on the basis of a systematic review of 25 peer-reviewed studies, adopting the ISO 14040/14044 standard. Data were taken for each life cycle stage\u0026mdash;construction, operation, maintenance, and end-of-life\u0026mdash;and normalized per square meter for a 50-year service life. The main environmental impact categories were global warming potential (GWP\u003csub\u003e100\u003c/sub\u003e), fossil fuel consumption, water consumption, and solid waste generation. Re-CiPe 2016 method of impact assessment was used to ensure comparability between studies. The results show a balance between LCA phases. Green walls have lower construction-phase impacts (e.g.,GWP: 0.58 kg CO₂ eq/m\u0026sup2;) due to prefabricated modular units. Rain gardens, on the other hand, have lower operational-phase impacts (e.g., 419 vs. 796 kg CO₂ eq/m\u0026sup2; per year), due to passive water filtering and minimal maintenance needs. RGs also outperformed in delivering ecosystem services such as storm water infiltration, groundwater recharge, and urban cooling. The outcome of this study reinforces that no GI system is supreme. Instead, performance is on lifecycle stage and conditions. Deciding on a choice should rely on local objectives energy performance, water efficiency, or biodiversity. The innovation lies in combining spatial-functional performance and ecosystem service valuation with conventional LCA indicators. This hybrid approach bridges the gap between environmental science and applied sustainability by providing a new decision-support system that increases the relevance of life cycle assessment (LCA) for policymakers and urban planners.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluating the Life Cycle Assessment of Rain Gardens and Green Walls for a Sustainable Environment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-07 09:22:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7779844/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"64973841-3a2b-4fe4-9050-a34f138fda03","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 7th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":55767550,"name":"Environmental Engineering"},{"id":55767551,"name":"Environmental Economics"},{"id":55767552,"name":"Environmental Chemistry"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-07T09:22:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-07 09:22:05","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7779844","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7779844","identity":"rs-7779844","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}