Prevalence of Trypanosoma and Sodalis in Wild Populations of Tsetse Flies: Impact on Sit Programmes for Tsetse Eradication

Prevalence of Trypanosoma and Sodalis in Wild Populations of Tsetse Flies: Impact on Sit Programmes for Tsetse Eradication | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Prevalence of Trypanosoma and Sodalis in Wild Populations of Tsetse Flies: Impact on Sit Programmes for Tsetse Eradication Mouhamadou M. Dieng, Kiswend-sida M. Dera, Percy Moyaba, Gisele M. S. Ouedraogo, and 14 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1136039/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Tsetse flies, the vectors of African Trypanosoma, have a highly regulated and defined microbial fauna composed of three bacterial symbionts that may have a role to play in the establishment of Trypanosoma infections in the flies and hence, may influence the vectorial competence of the released sterile males. Sodalis bacteria seem to interact with Trypanosoma infection in tsetse flies. Field-caught tsetse flies of ten different taxa and from 15 countries were screened using PCR to detect the presence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma species and their interaction. The results indicate that the prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma varied with country and tsetse species. Trypanosome prevalence was higher in east, central and southern African countries than in west African countries. Tsetse fly infection rates with Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanozoon spp were higher in west African countries, whereas tsetse infection with Trypanosoma congolense and T. simiae, T. simiae (tsavo) and T. godfreyi infection prevalence were higher in east, central and south African countries. Sodalis prevalence was high in Glossina morsitans morsitans and G. pallidipes but absent in Glossina tachinoides. Double and triple infections with Trypanosoma taxa and coinfection of Sodalis and Trypanosoma were rarely observed but it occurs in some taxa and locations. A significant Chi square value (< 0.05) seems to suggest that Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection correlate in Glossina palpalis gambiensis , Glossina pallidipes and Glossina medicorum . Trypanosoma infection significantly increased the density of Sodalis in wild G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes flies however no significant impact of Sodalis infection on trypanosome density. Systems Biology Molecular Biology General Microbiology Glossina Trypanozoon spp Sodalis glossinidius microbiota infection rate interactions PCR qPCR Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Background Tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) are distributed in sub-Saharan Africa between 15° north and 26° south latitude 1 . Glossina spp. are the cyclic vectors 2 of unicellular protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma that cause African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) or nagana and human African trypanosomosis (HAT) or sleeping sickness 3 , 4 . Nagana in cattle is mainly caused by Trypanosoma congolense , Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma brucei brucei 5 and causes annual losses to agriculture estimated at $ 4.75 billion 6 . In addition, around 35 million doses of trypanocidal drugs are administered to livestock per year for managing AAT 7 . Human African trypanosomosis is fatal without treatment 8 and is caused by two Trypanosoma subspecies, i.e. Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense responsible for the acute form of HAT in East Africa and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense for the chronic form of HAT in western and central Africa 9 . The lack of effective vaccines and the development of resistance to the available trypanocidal drugs makes the control of AAT in the vertebrate host unsustainable 10 , 11 . Consequently, an effective tool to reduce Trypanosoma transmission would be the control of the tsetse vector. One effective method to manage populations of tsetse flies is the sterile insect technique (SIT) when used as part of an area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) approach 12 , 13 . The SIT method relies on the mass-production and sterilization of male flies by ionizing radiation. The sterile males are released in the target area for mating with wild females and the absence of offspring will gradually reduce the density of the targeted tsetse populations 14 . The biological transmission of the Trypanosoma species requires the parasite to undergo a series of proliferation and differentiation steps in the tsetse alimentary tract and finally mature into an infective form in the mouthparts ( T. congolense ) or salivary glands ( T. brucei spp.) 15 . However, tsetse flies are refractory to Trypanosoma infection meaning that the probability that Trypanosoma ingested during a blood meal complete their developmental cycle in the fly to result in a mature infection is rather low 16 – 18 . The endogenous bacterial microbiome seems important in providing tsetse flies the natural ability to mitigate Trypanosoma infections 19 . Three major endosymbiotic bacteria have been identified in tsetse flies, i.e. Wigglesworthia glossinidia , Sodalis glossinidius (hereafter mentioned as Sodalis ) and Wolbachia pipientis 20 . Some studies suggested that the obligate mutualist Wigglesworthia must be present in the larval stage during the development of a mature tsetse fly to properly develop a well-functioning immune system contributing to a refractory phenotype against Trypanosoma 5 , 19 . Sodalis , the second mutualistic symbiont, can be found in the midgut, hemolymph, muscles, fat body, milk glands, and salivary glands of certain tsetse species and is inherited by the progeny through transovarial transmission 21 . The biological role/importance of Sodalis for tsetse remain unclear and needs to be clarified 22 . This symbiont might provide some benefits to the host as flies without Sodalis have a significantly shorter lifespan compared to flies with it 23 , however the establishment of Sodalis free colony was feasible 24 . Sodalis also presents many ideal characteristics to be used for expressing molecular effectors in paratransgenic tsetse 25 . In addition, previous work suggested that Sodalis may modulate the ability of Trypanosoma to establish an infection in the tsetse midgut as some studies reported that the elimination of this bacterial endosymbiont results in an increased tsetse fly refractoriness to Trypanosoma infection 23 , 26 , 27 . Moreover, Geiger et al., 28 suggested that specific genotypes of Sodalis presents in G. p. gambiensis from insectary colonies facilitate Trypanosoma infection. Soumana et al., 29 revealed that a variation in the Sodalis population caused by a hosted prophage can influence the trypanosome infections. In contrast, a recent study of Trappeniers et al 24 demonstrated that the absence or presence of S. glossinidius in the tsetse fly does not affect the fly’s susceptibility toward Trypanosoma infection. In conclusion from the above-described results, it is clear that our knowledge on the impact of Sodalis on Trypanosoma infection in tsetse remains limited and fragmented and is still under debate 23 . Moreover, exploring on a large scale the occurrence and possible association between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection in wild flies is highly required. The above described potential impact of Sodalis to facilitate Trypanosoma infection in tsetse, and the fact that Sodalis is found in all laboratory-reared tsetse colonies and some wild populations 21 indicates that mitigating action, such as feeding the flies 2-3 times on blood supplemented with trypanocidal drugs before release, is required in SIT programs to minimize the risk of disease transmission by the large number of released males that harbour Sodalis . Field studies in two HAT foci in Cameroon used PCR to detect Trypanosoma and Sodalis in Glossina palpalis palpalis and the results indicate that the presence of Sodalis favours Trypanosoma infections especially by T. brucei s.l. 30 . Furthermore, in the wildlife-livestock-human interface in the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya, it was shown that Glossina pallidipes infected with Sodalis was associated with increased Trypanosoma infection rates 31 . However, other studies have found no strong association between trypanosome and Sodalis in some tsetse species collected in four locations in Kenya 32 . Channumsin et al., 33 suggested that the association between Trypanosoma infection and the presence of Sodalis will varies based tsetse and Trypanosoma species. Similarly, studies carried out in the Fontem focus in Cameroon did not find a relationship between the endosymbiont and the parasite in G. p. palpalis 34 , and no significant Sodalis - Trypanosoma infection association was found in Glossina tachinoides in two sites of the Faro and Déo Division in Adamawa region of Cameroon 35 . Likewise, no association between the presence of the parasite and Sodalis was found in Glossina brevipalpis , G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes in the Luambe National Park of Zambia 36 . The overall objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma in wild tsetse populations at a continental scale, i.e. Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Senegal, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe and analyse these data in the context of a possible association between the occurrence of Sodalis and a Trypanosoma infection in tsetse. Such information might guide the decision maker for SIT programmes to take the appropriate action, if necessary, to minimize any potential risk of an increased transmission. Results Trypanosoma prevalence Infection with Trypanozoon spp (Tz) (T . b. brucei, T. b. gambiense, T. b. rhodensiense, T. evansi) , Tc ( T. congolense savannah; T. congolense kilifi; T. congolense forest); Tsg ( T. simiae ; T. simiae tsavo; T. godfreyi) and Tv ( T. vivax) was screened in 6860 adult tsetse. The results indicate that 1736 (25.30%) adults were infected with one or more Trypanosoma taxa ( Tables 2, 3 and 4 ), The Trypanosoma prevalence varied significantly between tsetse taxa ( X 2 = 750.18, df = 9, P << 0.001) and between countries ( X 2 = 2038.1, df = 14, P << 0.001). The Permanova analysis as well indicated significant differences between countries ( P = 0.009) and taxa ( P =0.041) ( Table 5 ) As all taxa were not collected from all countries, the interaction between taxa and countries was only analyzed where a taxon was collected from several countries. Regardless of tsetse taxon, in west African countries the average Trypanosoma prevalence was 20% ( n = 3733), with the highest prevalence recorded in Ghana (61%) and the lowest recorded in Guinea (2.2%). The prevalence in Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal was 21.9, 6.9 and 14.2% respectively ( Figure 1, and Table 2 ). In east, central and southern African countries, the Trypanosoma infection prevalence was a bit higher than in west African countries with an averaged infection of 31.5% ( n = 3127), with the highest prevalence (53.6%) in Zimbabwe and lowest prevalence (2.9%) in DRC. No Trypanosoma infection was detected in Eswatini ( Figure 1 and Table 2 ). Regardless of the country, Trypanosoma prevalence varied from one taxon to another, and G. m. morsitans showed the highest Trypanosoma prevalence (41%) followed by G. pallidipes (38.5%) and the lowest prevalence was detected in G. brevipalpis (9.71%) in east, central and southern Africa. In west Africa, G. medicorum showed the highest Trypanosoma prevalence (39.5%) and the lowest prevalence was detected in G. p. palpalis (2.8%) (Table 3) . Some tsetse taxa were collected from several countries as presented in Figure 2 and Table 4 . The highest Trypanosoma prevalence was recorded in G. tachinoides in Ghana (61%). This was followed by high prevalence in G. m. morsitans collected from Zimbabwe (53.9%), Tanzania (53%) and Zambia (48,4%). G. pallidipes from Zimbabwe, Kenya, Zambia and Tanzania also showed high Trypanosoma prevalence of 52.7%, 50.9%, 45.2% and 37.3%, respectively. The lowest Trypanosoma prevalence was found in G. p. gambiensis from Guinea (2.2%). Based on the Trypanosoma prevalence presented in Figure 2 and Table 4 , the tested samples can be categorized as: (i) tsetse samples with high prevalence (> 35%) detected in G. tachinoides from Ghana; G. medicorum from Burkina Faso, G. pallidipes from Kenya, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, G. m. morsitans from Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; (ii) tsetse samples with medium prevalence (10-35%) detected in G. austeni from South Africa, G. f. fuscipes from Kenya and Uganda, G. m. submorsitans from Burkina Faso, G. p. gambiense from Burkina Faso and Senegal and G. tachinoides from Burkina Faso; (iii) tsetse samples with low prevalence (< 10%) detected in the rest of the samples listed in Table 4 except the G. austeni collected from Eswatini. Despite the difference in Trypanosoma prevalence for each tsetse species, the differences were significant only in G. p. gambiensis ( X 2 = 26.71, df = 4, P < 0.001) and G. tachinoides , ( X 2 = 9.38, df = 1,2, P = 0.002). In contrast, no significant difference was detected between countries for G. austeni ( X 2 = 1.47, df = 4, P = 0.688), G. brevipalpis ( X 2 = 0.34, df = 2, P = 0.559), G. f. fuscipes ( X 2 = 0.15, df = 2, P = 0.702), G. m. morsitans ( X 2 = 1.04, df = 3, P = 0.593) and G. pallidipes ( X 2 = 4.983, df= 1,6, P = 0.418) ( Table 4 ). No Trypanosoma infection was recorded in G. austeni from Eswatini. The best glm model (lowest AICc) selected for the overall Trypanosoma prevalence retained the countries as variables that fitted the data well (AICc = 1521.35) ( Supplementary file 1 ). Prevalence of different Trypanosoma taxa and mixed infections The above-mentioned prevalence of Trypanosoma infection was comprised of several different Trypanosoma species and sub-species. Based on the size of the amplified fragment by PCR, the Trypanosoma infection was categorized into four groups: (i) the Tc group including the different forms of Trypanosoma congolense ; (ii) Tv group including Trypanosoma vivax infections; (iii) Trypanozoon (Tz) group including T. b. brucei, T. b. gambiense, T. b. rhodesiense, and infections; and (iv) Tsg group including the infections with T. simiae, T. simiae tsavo and T. godfreyi . The screening results revealed that tsetse flies could be infected with single or multiple (double or triple) taxa of Trypanosoma , and the proportion of the infections with the different Trypanosoma taxa and the mixed infection varied with country ( X 2 = 63.56, df = 14, P <0.001) and species ( X 2 = 21.86, df = 9, P <0.001) ( Supplementary file 1 ). The prevalence of the different Trypanosoma species with respect to the above-mentioned groups, indicate that infections with the Tsg group was the highest regardless of countries or tsetse species with an average of 7.06%. The infection rate was higher (14.13%) in east, central and southern African countries than in west Africa (1.13%). Tv infection averaged at 6.75% but with higher prevalence in west African countries (10.37%) than in east, central and southern Africa (2.43%). The prevalence of Tc infection was lower than Tv and Tsg group with an average of 4.78% with higher prevalence in central and southern Africa (8.38%) than in west Africa (1.77%). The Tz group had the lowest prevalence with an average of 2.29%. Like Tv infection, the Tz prevalence was higher in west Africa (3.16%) than central and southern Africa (1.25 %). The prevalence of infection by a single Trypanosoma group varied significantly from one country to another and from one tsetse species to another. For Tc, Tv, Tz and Tsg the infection prevalence varied significantly with country ( X 2 = 47.74, df = 14, P < 0.001, X 2 = 27.40, df = 14, P = 0.01705, X 2 = 106.11, df = 14, P = 0. 001 and, X 2 = 44.74, df = 14, P = 0. 001 respectively). Regardless of tsetse species, the highest infection rate for Tc, Tv, Tz and Tsg was found in Tanzania (14.20%), Ghana (14.10%), Ghana (19.66%) and Zimbabwe (39.81%), respectively ( Supplementary Table 3 ). Similarly, the prevalence of Tc, Tz and Tsg varied significantly with tsetse species ( X 2 = 40.364, df = 1,9, P << 0.001, X 2 = 58.253, df = 1,9, P << 0. 001 and X 2 = 34.871, df = 1,9, P << 0. 001, respectively), however no significant difference was found in Tv prevalence between tsetse species ( X 2 = 5.475, df = 1,9, P = 0.07868). Regardless of the country, the highest infection rate of Tc, Tv, Tz and Tsg was found in G. pallidipes (10.68%), G. tachinoides (12.92%), G. medicorum (13.64%) and G. m. morsitans (22.76%), respectively ( Supplementary Table 4 ). No Tc infection was found in samples of G. austeni collected from Eswatini and Tanzania, G. brevipalpis from Mozambique, G. p. palpalis from Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and G. p. gambiensis from Guinea. In addition, no Tv infection was detected in G. austeni collected from Eswatini and Mozambique, G. m. morsitans from Kenya and Zambia, G. pallidipes from Uganda and Zimbabwe. For Tz, G. austeni collected from Eswatini and Mozambique, G. brevipalpis from Mozambique, G. f. fuscipes from Kenya, G. m. morsitans from Kenya and Zambia, G. p. palpalis from DRC and G. p. gambiensis from Guinea did not show any infection ( Figure 2 and Supplementary Table 5). Mixed infections of Trypanosoma groups (double or triple) are rare events with an average prevalence between 0.09 and 1.71% regardless of country or tsetse species. However, double infections seem to be more frequent in some countries than others ( X 2 = 35.01, df = 14, P = 0.00) for Tv-Tz and in some tsetse species than others ( X 2 = 21.20, df = 9, P = 0.012) for Tv-Tz ( Supplementary file 1 ). The highest prevalence of the mixed infections Tv-Tz and Tc-Tz were observed in Ghana with 12.39% and 10.68%, respectively, regardless of tsetse species. Although the average Tc-Tsg prevalence was higher than that of Tv-Tz and Tc-Tz, the highest mixed infection with it was found in Zambia with 9.05%. Regardless of the country, the highest mixed infection of Tc-Tsg detected per tsetse species was ~5% in G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes . The mixed infection of Tsg with either Tv or Tz or both was lower than 2% regardless of the country or tsetse species. Taking into account both the country and tsetse species, the highest mixed infection of Tc-Tsg (12.5%) was detected in G. m. morsitans in Zambia. However, the highest prevalence of Tc-Tz (10.68%) and Tv-Tz (12.39%) was detected in G. tachinoides from Ghana. Although the average prevalence of Tv-Tsg was low (0.54%), a relative high infection rate of 6.17% was found in G. m. morsitans from Tanzania. A triple infection of Trypanosoma groups (Tc-Tv-Tz) was only detected in G. medicorum from Burkina Faso (1.30%) and G. tachinoides from Ghana (1.71%) ( Figure 2 and Supplementary Table 5, Supplementary file 1 ). Prevalence of Sodalis infection The prevalence of Sodalis infection based on the PCR results varied significantly with country ( X 2 = 108.02, df = 1, 14, P << 0.001) and tsetse species ( X 2 = 69.60, df = 9, P < 0.001). The best glm model (lowest AICc) selected for the overall Sodalis prevalence retained the countries, the species and their interaction (where possible) as variables that fitted the data well (AICc = 1296.12). Similar to the prevalence of Trypanosoma , the average Sodalis prevalence in east, central and southern Africa (24.6%) was higher than in west Africa (2.70%). Regardless of tsetse species, the highest prevalence of Sodalis infection was found in Tanzania (67.1%) followed by Uganda (43.3%), Kenya (28.5%) and Ethiopia (20.48%) ( Table 2 ). The highest prevalence of Sodalis infection in west Africa was found in Guinea (28.6%). No Sodalis infection was found in Ghana, Mali, Senegal or Eswatini. Regardless of the country, the highest Sodalis prevalence per tsetse species was detected in G. m. morsitans (42.27%) followed by G. pallidipes (30.74%). No Sodalis infection was detected in G. tachinoides. The prevalence of Sodalis infection changed when both the countries and tsetse species are taken into consideration. Based on the Sodalis prevalence the tsetse samples can be categorized into four groups: (i) samples with high prevalence (> 50%) (ii) samples with medium prevalence (between 50%) (iii) samples with low prevalence (between >0% and 10%) and (iv) samples with no Sodalis infection as shown in Figure 2 and Table 5 . The samples showing high Sodalis prevalence includes G. m. morsitans from Kenya (63.5%) and Tanzania (76.5%) and G. pallidipes from Tanzania (74.6%) and Uganda (75%), however the samples with no Sodalis infection includes G. austeni from Eswatini, G. p. gambiensis from Mali and Senegal and G. tachinoides from Burkina Faso and Ghana indicating that there is 95% confidence that the infection rate is less than or equal to 10%, 0.82%, 0.55%, 1.28% and 0.36%, respectively. Interactions between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infections Prevalence of co-infections of Sodalis with Trypanosoma The screening results indicated that the single infection rate was 9.3% (n = 638) and 21.9% (n = 1503) for Sodalis and Trypanosoma, respectively, over all taxa and countries ( Figure 3A ). No Sodalis infection was found in G. tachinoides , and therefore was excluded from the analysis. A Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel test for repeated tests of independence showed that infection with Sodalis and Trypanosoma did deviate from independence across all taxa (χ 2 MH = 41.73, df = 1, P < 0.001) and individual Chi squared tests for independence for each taxon showed significant deviation from independence at the Bonferroni corrected α = 0.00833 in G. pallidipes ( P < 0.001) and G. p. gambiensis ( P < 0.001) ( Supplementary Table 6) . The prevalence of coinfection of Sodalis and Trypanosoma in wild tsetse populations varied with tsetse taxon and location. No coinfection was found in many taxa and many locations. The co-infection was found only in G. f. fuscipes (2.73%), G. m. morsitans (15.72%) and G. pallidipes (9.22%) in east, central and southern Africa ( Figure 3B , Table 6 and Supplementary Table 6 ). Impact of co infection on Trypanosoma and Sodalis density Attempts to assess the density of Trypanosoma and Sodalis under single (S - /T + ) and (S + /T - ) or double infection (S + /T + ) was conducted using qPCR with primers mentioned in Supplementary Table 2 . The results show that Sodalis infections do not have any significant impact on Trypanosoma density ( X 2 = 0.648, df = 2, P = 0.723). However, Trypanosoma infections significantly reduced the density of Sodalis in flies with (S + /T + ) comparing to the flies with (S + /T - ) ( P = 0.014) ( Figure 4 ). No significant different was found in the Trypanosoma density determined by qPCR in the flies tested negative (S + /T - ) or positive (S + /T + ) and (S - /T + ) with the standard PCR, however, Sodalis density showed significant difference between flies with different infection type ( X 2 = 14.54, df = 2, P < 0.001) ( Figure 4 ). The results showed no correlation between Sodalis and Trypanosoma density (r = 0.007, t = 0.055, df = 69, P = 0.9561) Supplementary Figure 2 , Supplementary File 1 ). Discussion The implementation of the SIT in the context of an area-wide integrated pest management strategy to eradicate tsetse flies relies on the release of sterile males in the targeted area. This was successful in eradicating a population of G. austeni from Unguja Island of Zanzibar 37 and significant progress was made in the eradication programme implemented against G. p. gambiensis in the Niayes area of Senegal 38 . However, as both male and female tsetse flies are vectors of Trypanosoma species, the release of large numbers of sterile male flies bears a potential risk of temporarily increasing disease transmission during the initial release phase of an SIT programme 39 . Therefore, mitigating measures are required to reduce or eliminate this potential risk, especially in areas where sleeping sickness (HAT) is endemic. To date, to mitigate such risks, sterile males are offered two-three blood meals mixed with the trypanocidal drug isometamidium chloride, before being released which reduces the risk of Trypanosoma transmission significantly but does not eliminate it 40 , 41 . In addition, other approaches were proposed to minimize such risks such as paratransgenesis 42 , 43 and combining paratransgenesis with SIT 44 . Several previous studies reported a potential positive correlation between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infections 28,30,32,36,45−48 , leading to the hypothesis that Sodalis might facilitate the establishment of Trypanosoma infections in the tsetse midgut 23 , 26 , 27 . This would be possible through the production of a chitinase enzyme encoded by Sodalis which, through its chitinolytic activity, enhances the permeability of the peritrophic membrane in the tsetse midgut, making it easier for the Trypanosoma to cross the barrier and establish an infection in the fly’s ectoperitrophic space 49 , 50 . This process results in the accumulation of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, which would further facilitate the establishment of a Trypanosoma infection by inhibiting the activity of the anti-parasitic tsetse lectins 51 . Although these theories have never been experimentally proven, it is supported by the positive correlation between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infections in various studies 45 , 46 , 48 . Moreover, the positive correlation between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infections might be affected by the genotype of Sodalis and the Trypanosoma taxon 28 . These previous reports contrast with the results of Trappeniers et al 24 , who demonstrated no difference in Trypanosoma infection in tsetse flies infected or not with Sodalis and other previous report indicating the lack on correlation between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection 34 – 36 . The dynamics of Sodalis infections in tsetse colonies has been well studied and previous studies indicate that Sodalis is more frequently present in colonized tsetse flies than in wild tsetse populations 36 , 52 . The prevalence of Sodalis was 80 and 100% in colonized G. m. morsitans and G. p. gambiensis , respectively 52 , 53 , which is higher than the prevalence of Sodalis reported in wild populations of these tsetse species. This seems to indicate that the colonizing and rearing process of tsetse flies favours the transmission and spread of Sodalis infections. Recently, colonies of G. pallidipes, G. p. gambiensis, G. f. fuscipes, G. m. morsitans, G. m. centralis and G. m. submorsitans maintained at the FAO/IAEA Insect Pest Control Laboratory were screened for Sodalis infections and showed a prevalence of 100%, only G. brevipalpis had a lower prevalence of 95% (data not shown). Similarly, the prevalence of other symbionts such as Wolbachia was 100% for colonized species such as G. m. morsitans , G. m. centralis , and G. swynnertoni 48 . Taken into consideration that mass-rearing conditions enhances Sodalis infections and that Sodalis infections might facilitate the establishment of a Trypanosoma infection in the midgut, sterile male tsetse flies that are derived from colonies might be effective vectors of Trypanosoma species and, therefore, might increase the Trypanosoma transmission. It is therefore important that the managers and planners of SIT programmes are aware which tsetse species show a positive correlation between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infections to be able to take the necessary mitigating actions. Many previous studies have examined the prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma species in wild tsetse populations 30 , 32 , 35 , 45 , 54 , but this study presents for the first time the prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma species on a continental scale. In addition, the methods used were standardized and all carried out in one laboratory that avoided discrepancies in the results due to different handling of tsetse samples, DNA extraction, and PCR methods as observed in these other studies that were done in different laboratories. Our results indicate that Sodalis and Trypanosoma prevalence varied with tsetse species and geographical location (with an overall trypanosome prevalence of 23,5%), which agrees with many previous studies 55 . High Trypanosoma prevalence (> 30%) was also found in G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes from central and east Africa which is in agreement with the high prevalence of Trypanosoma species found in G. m. morsitans in Zambia with infection rates of 73.7%, 35.3% and 32.9% for T. brucei s.l., T. b. rhodesiense and T. vivax , respectively 36 . In addition, 23% of G. m. centralis sampled in Zambia 55 and 33% of G. m. morsitans sampled in Malawi 56 were positive for a Trypanosoma infection. Our results agreed with the high prevalence of Trypanosoma infection in G. pallidipes were similar studies done in Tanzania 57 and Kenya 33 . However, the study in Tanzania reported low prevalence of Trypanosoma infection in G. m. morsitans . Contrary to our results, G. pallidipes from Zambia did not show a high infection rate of any of the Trypanosoma species 36 . Also, in Tanzania, both G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes showed a low prevalence of Trypanosoma infection (< 10%) 58 . Our study showed that the prevalence of different Trypanosoma species and or subspecies can be different in different tsetse taxa. In G. tachinoides in Ghana, the Trypanosoma vivax infection was high (>10%) as well as the infections of the Trypanozoon (Tz) and Tsg group and the mixed infections of Tv-Tsg. However, the prevalence of T. congolense was very low. These results are in agreement with the prevalence of T. brucei s.l (11%) and T. congolense forest type (2.6%) reported in the same tsetse species in Cameroon. However, the same study reported a prevalence of 13.7% of T. congolense savannah type 35 , which was not observed in our study. Our results agree with the results of Lefrançois et al., 59 , i.e. in Côte d’Ivoire, G. tachinoides showed a high rate of Trypanosoma infection (61%) with Tv (27.2%), Tc (31.8%.), and Tz (2.3%) 60 . The high overall high prevalence of Trypanosoma and the high infection rate with Tv and Tz group agree with our results, but the high Tc prevalence conflicts with our result. In our study, the Tc infection rate was high in G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes , which does not agree with the reported Trypanosoma infection in G. m. morsitans from Malawi where T. brucei prevalence was 64.4% but all other Trypanosoma infections were < 10% 61 . The mixed infection of Trypanosoma species/subspecies is in agreement with previous reports 35 , 55 , 60 , 62 . Likewise, the prevalence of Sodalis infection varied significantly with tsetse taxon and location and the highest prevalence was found in G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes . Our results agree with the high prevalence of Sodalis reported in G. pallidipes (~50%) in one location in Kenya regardless of the fly age 33 ; however, the same study reported low Sodalis prevalence in another location. In another study in Kenya, Wamwiri et al., 32 reported moderate Sodalis prevalence in G. pallidipes (16%) and low prevalence in G. austeni (3.7%), which is in agreement with our results. On other hand, our results are different from the low prevalence (< 8%) found in G. m. morsitans and G. pallidipes in Zambia 36 . In another study in Zambia, Sodalis prevalence in G. m. centralis , was reported to be 15.9% with no significant difference between inter-site prevalence 55 . In our study, the prevalence of Sodalis in G. brevipalpis was low (< 2.3%) which contradicts the high prevalence (93.7%) found in this species in Zambia 36 . In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the global prevalence of Sodalis in Glossina fuscipes quanzensis midgut averaged 15.5%, but in certain locations the prevalence exceeded 40% 63 . In Nigeria, Sodalis prevalence in G. p. palpalis and G. tachinoides was 35.7% 64 which is higher that the prevalence reported in our study for both species. The data from our study indicate that the Trypanosoma and Sodalis infections were very low or absent in some tsetse taxa from certain locations such as G. austeni in Eswatini for Trypanosoma and Sodalis infections and several species in west Africa for Sodalis infections. The lack of Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection in these samples might be due to (i) low number of tested samples (ii) the use of the DNA extracted from the whole body of tsetse adults (iii) the possibility of the collected samples being infected with different strains/genotypes that might not be detected with the primers used and (iv) the infection of Sodalis and Trypanosoma are under the detection limit of the used PCR. It is important to note that due to the high number of samples tested in our study, the nested PCR to detect low infection level was excluded for technical reasons. The first reason might apply for G. austeni in Eswatini (n=30) where we can only state with 95% confidence that the true rate of Sodalis or Trypanosoma infection is 10% or less, following the method of Couey and Chew 65 . Our results indicate significant deviation from independence (correlation) of Sodalis and Trypanosoma infections in G. medicorum, G. p. gambiensis and G. pallidipes . However, the lack of detection of any tsetse adult with co-infection of Sodalis and Trypanosoma in G. medicorum , and G. p. gambiensis might indicate a negative correlation. Such negative trend might be supported by the lower density of Sodalis in the flies with co-infection (S + /T +) compared to these with Sodalis infection only (S + /T − ). On other hand the lack of impact of Sodalis infection on Trypanosoma density does not support the negative trend and agreed with the results of Trappeniers et al., 24 reported on colonized flies. This results also agreed with previous results reporting the absence of direct correlation between the presence of Sodalis and the acquisition of a Trypanosoma infection 66 . However, an inverse correlation was reported between Sodalis and the vector competence where the presence of Sodalis in both midgut and proboscis of G. p. gambiensis was associated with its status as a poor vector, whereas it is not found in the proboscis of G. m. morsitans (major vector). It is worth noting that all previous studies of Sodalis infection in G. p. gambiensis and its interaction with Trypanosoma infection was carried out with flies reared under laboratory conditions 28 , 29 , 67 . The correlation between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection in G. pallidipes is positive, evidenced with the relative high number (n = 170) of tsetse with co-infection. This positive correlation was also found in G. pallidipes from Kenya although with too few flies with co-infection to enable us to draw a definite conclusion 32 . Although co-infections were found in G. m. morsitans and G. f. fuscipes in some locations, the global correlation was missing. This is in agreement with the positive correlation found between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection in G. m. centralis in Zambia, in which there was a 6.2 fold increase in the likelihood of a fly being infected with Trypanosoma if Sodalis was present 55 . More studies are needed to enhance the potential control interventions mediated by endosymbionts to reduce parasitic infections 64 . The results of this study clearly indicate that the interaction between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection is complex, species-specific and remains unclear and requires further investigation. The prevalence results indicate that Sodalis and Trypanosoma infections are not independent in some species, such as G. p. gambiensis and G. medicorum in west Africa and G. pallidipes in central and east Africa, and this requires further investigations to clarify this relationship. In case of a positive correlation between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection in these species, additional measures should be taken when implementing the SIT to reduce the Sodalis density in the sterile males released in the targeted area to maximize the safe implementation of the SIT. These measures might include the mixing of Sodalis phage(s) 29 , 68 with the blood meals to feed the mass-reared flies to reduce the Sodalis density in these flies. This certainly would require the isolation and propagation of the Sodalis phage(s). In addition, the blood meal offered to the males before release can be supplemented with one or more of the following antimicrobial products to reduce Sodalis density, i.e. streptozotocin 23 , indolicidin and OaBAC 5 mini 69 , or with the trypanocidal drug isometamidium chloride. The use of the Sodalis phage as well as these antimicrobial products requires further studies to 1) develop methods to isolate the phage, 2) determine the conditions (e.g. suitable concentration) for its use, and 3) determine the impact on Sodalis density, tsetse productivity and survival. The quantification of Sodalis and Trypanosoma density showed that in G. m morsitans and G. pallidipes , Sodalis infection does not have an impact on Trypanosoma infection indicating no additional measures need to be taken during the implementation of SIT against these species. Conclusion Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection varied with tsetse taxon and location. There is a significant positive correlation between Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection in G. medicorum , G. p. gambiensis and G. pallidipes ; however, no significant correlation was found in other tsetse taxa and locations. The results of this study will enable the decision makers of SIT projects to better plan and take the necessary measures to fine-tune and optimize SIT efficiency and safety. Methods Tsetse collection and DNA extractions Tsetse flies were collected in 1995 and between 2005 and 2018 from 95 different geographical locations in fifteen countries in east, central, southern, and western Africa ( Table 1, Supplementary Table 1 ). The tsetse flies were collected with species-specific traps which included the biconical trap 70 , the monoconical trap 71 , the Vavoua trap 72 , the Ngu trap 73,74 , the odour-baited Epsilon trap 75 , the NZI trap 76 , and the odour baited H trap 77 . A total of 6860 tsetse flies, belonging to ten tsetse species, were collected for this study ( Table 1 ). The majority of the samples were collected in Burkina Faso (2274), Kenya (1008), Senegal (547) and South Africa (526). As the distribution of most tsetse species is allopatric (only few species are sympatric), not all tsetse species were collected from each country. Following collection, fly samples were preserved in 95% ethanol or propylene glycol and shipped to the FAO/IAEA Insect Pest Control Laboratory (IPCL) in Seibersdorf, Austria and stored at -20 °C until analysis. Total DNA was extracted from individual whole fly bodies using the DNeasy tissue kit (QIAGEN Inc., Valencia, CA) following the supplier’s instructions. The DNA quality and concentration were measured by spectrophotometry (Synergy H1 Multi-Mode Reader, BioTek, Instruments, Inc., USA) and subsequently kept at 4°C until screened for Sodalis and Trypanosoma infections . To verify the quality of the extracted DNA, a set of specific primers amplifying the Glossina spp. microsatellite GpCAG133 sequence ( Supplementary Table 2 ) and only the successful samples were included in the analysis 21,78 . Trypanosoma prevalence and genotyping Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), following the method of Njiru et al. 79 that used the primers ITS1-CF and ITS1-BR ( Supplementary Table 2 ) previously designed to amplify the internal transcribed spacer (ITS1) of the ribosomal DNA, was used to detect Trypanosoma infection and Trypanosoma species in the fly samples. The PCR was carried out in 25 μl reaction mixtures containing 22.5 µl of 1.1x Pre-Aliquoted PCR Master Mix (0.625 units Thermoprime Plus DNA Polymerase, 75 mM Tris–HCl (pH 8.8 at 25°C), 20 mM (NH 4 )2SO 4 , 2.0 mM MgCl 2 , 0.01% (v/v) Tween-20 and 0.2 mM each of the dNTPs (ABgene, UK), 1 µl primers (at 200 nM final concentration of forward and reverse primer) and 1.5µl of template DNA. PCR cycles were: 94°C for 15 min, followed by 40 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, 60°C for 30 s, 72°C for 30 s, and final extension 72°C for 5 min. Interpretation of the results after resolving the amplification products in a 2% agarose gel (Fisher Biotech) stained with SafeGreen or ethidium bromide, was based on the characteristic band size of Trypanosoma taxa: all members of the subgenus Trypanozoon ( T. b. brucei , T. b. gambiense , T. b. rhodesiense : 480 bp); T. congolense savannah (700 bp); T. congolense Kilifi (620 bp); T. congolense forest (710 bp); T. simiae (400 bp); T. simiae Tsavo (370 bp); T. godfreyi (300 bp) and T. vivax (250 bp). The positive control DNA was from T. congolense savannah, T. congolense forest, T. b. brucei , T. b. gambiense , T. b. rhodensiense , T. evansi , and T. vivax . DNA samples validated with GpCAG133 primer amplification were screened for trypanosome infection. A tsetse sample was recorded as positive if one or more of the indicated band sizes was detected. Trypanosoma infection status and species were recorded for each fly. Prevalence of Sodalis infection The detection of Sodalis in natural tsetse samples was based on the Sodalis fliC (flagellin) gene which results in an amplicon length of about 508 base pairs with the Sodalis specific primers Sod-fliC-F and Sod-fliC-R ( Supplementary Table 2 ) 80 . These primers were used in single pairs or in multiplex PCR with GpCAG133 primers. For all PCR reactions, 22.5 µl of 1.1x Pre-Aliquoted PCR Master Mix (ABgene, UK) was used. In a final volume of 25 µl, 1.5 µl of template DNA plus forward and reverse primers were added to a final concentration of 0.2 mM per primer in a volume of 1µl. Samples were considered Sodalis -infected if the expected symbiont PCR product amplicon was detected. Data were accepted only if the control gene GpCAG133 sequence was amplified. The PCR cycling conditions were: 95°C for 5min followed by 34 cycles of 95°C for 30 s, 52.5°C for 30 s, 72°C for 30 s and lastly at 72 °C for 10 min; PCR products were separated by agarose (2%) gel electrophoresis and SafeGreen or ethidium bromide staining. Analysis of the Trypanosoma and Sodalis infection in wild tsetse populations Co-infection of tsetse adults with Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection The co-infection of Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection was evaluated based on the PCR prevalence. The infection status was divided into four categories Sodalis positive and Trypanosoma positive (Sod + /Tryp + ), Sodalis positive and Trypanosoma negative (Sod + /Tryp - ), Sodalis negative and Trypanosoma positive (Sod - /Tryp + ) and Sodalis negative and Trypanosoma negative (Sod - /Tryp - ). Analysis of the Trypanosoma and Sodalis density Samples showing Trypanosoma infection with Sodalis (Sod + /Tryp + ) and samples not infected with Trypanosoma but infected with Sodalis (Sod + /Tryp - ) were evaluated with quantitative PCR (qPCR) to assess the impact of Trypanosoma infection (regardless the Trypanosoma type) on Sodalis density. The qPCR was performed using a CFX96 Real Time PCR Detection System (Bio-Rad). The fliC gene was amplified with the following primers: sodqPCR-FliCF and sodqPCR-FliCR 81 ( Supplementary Table 2 ) to assess the density of the symbiont present within Trypanosoma infected and noninfected, additional criteria for the selection of the samples was the presence of the two groups (Sod + /Tryp + ) and (Sod + /Tryp - ) in a given population. Based on the preceding criteria 96 individual flies (52 and 44 flies with infection status of (Sod + /Tryp + ) and (Sod + /Tryp - ), respectively, were selected from the G. pallidipes and G. m. morsitans collected in Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe . In addition, samples with (Sod + /Tryp + ) and (Sod - /Tryp + ) were used to assess the impact of Sodalis infection on Trypanosoma density. Trypanosomatidae 18S specific primers (18S_Typ_F and18S_Typ_R) ( Supplementary Table 2 ) were used to assess the Trypanosoma density in the tested samples. The DNA from all selected samples was diluted to a final concentration of 4 ng/μl and 5 μl of the diluted DNA was used for qPCR to determine Sodalis and Trypanosoma DNA density normalized to the housekeeping β-tubulin gene. The amplification mixture contained 5 μl of DNA template, 200 nM of each primer, and 7.5 μl iQ TM SYBER Green Supermix (Bio-Rad). qPCR cycling conditions for Sodalis were as follows: initial denaturation at 95 °C for 2 min; 39 cycles of 95 °C for 5 s, 55 °C for 30 s, one step at 95 °C for 5 s and a melting curve constructed from 65°C to 95 °C in increments of 0.5 °C for 5 s. The same conditions were used for Trypanosoma except the annealing temperature was at 60 °C. The analysis of the Sodalis, Trypanosoma and Tubulin densities was based only on qPCR data with the expected melting curve at 81.5°C, 85.5°C and 86°C, respectively. Data analysis The prevalence data were recorded and analyzed with the general linear model (GLM) 82 . The prevalence of Sodalis , Trypanosoma species and each Trypanosoma species and co-infection were tested for differences between the tsetse taxa and between countries. For each country, the prevalence was assessed again for differences between the localities where the flies were collected and between the tsetse species present in each country. In the absence of Sodalis or Trypanosoma infection, the probability of infection was calculated following the method of Couey and Chew 65 . Trypanosoma prevalence between taxa was compared between species by a pairwise comparison of proportions with a Bonferroni correction and Benjamini-Hochberg correction. The analyses were executed in R v 4.0.5 83 using RStudio V 1.4.1106 84,85 with the packages ggplot2 v3.3.2.1 86 , lattice v0.20-41 87 , car 88 , ggthems 89 and MASS v7.3-51.6 90 except for the Chi squared tests for independence, Spearman correlation coefficient and Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel test for repeated tests of independence, which were performed using Excel 2013 The R Markdown file is available in Supplementary File 1. To analyse the qPCR data, normalized density of Trypanosoma and Sodalis against the house keeping gene (tubulin) was extracted from the CFX Maestro software. Samples giving a valid density (not N/A) for both Trypanosoma and Sodalis were retained for further statistical analysis in R. Similarities in the structure of Sodalis and Trypanosoma (single and multiple) infection and the role of different factors such as countries and tsetse taxa, were assessed using the matrix display and metric multidimensional scaling (mMDS) plot with bootstrap averages in PRIMER version 7+. The bootstrap averages plots were displayed with a Bray and Curtis matrix based on the square-root transformation of the Sodalis and Trypanosoma (single and multiple) infection abundance data 91 . The tests were based on the multivariate null hypothesis via the use of the non-parametric statistical method PERMANOVA 92 . The Permanova test was conducted on the average of the abundance data based on the country-species after excluding the data of Eswatini (low number of tested samples). Abbreviations SIT: sterile insect techniques; qPCR: quantitative polymerase chain reaction; BKF: Burkina Faso; ETH: Ethiopia; GHA: Ghana; GUI: Guinea; KEN: Kenya; MLI: Mali; MOZ: Mozambique; SAF: South Africa; SWA: Eswatini; ZAI: Democratic Republic of the Congo; ZAM: Zambia; ZIM: Zimbabwe. Tsetse species were abbreviated as following: Ga: Glossina austeni ; Gb: G. brevipalpis ; Gff: G. fuscipes fuscipes , Gmm: G. morsitans morsitans ; Gmsm: G. m. submorsitans ; Gpg: G. palpalis gambiensis ; Gpp: G. p. palpalis; Tc: Trypanosoma congolense; Tv: Trypanosoma vivax; Tz: Trypanoson spp . Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials Materials described in the paper, including all relevant raw data, are available in this link https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/WOTAIY ) Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests Funding This study was supported by the Joint FAO/IAEA Insect Pest Control Subprogramme. Authors' contributions A.M.M.A., R.L.M. and M.J.B.V Conceived and designed Research; M.M.D., M.K.D., P.M., G.M.S.O., G.D-U., F.G., F.C.M., L.N., S.M., J-P.R., A.M.G.B., SP and C.J.B., collected data and conducted research; A.M.M.A., M.M.D., M.K.D., J.V.D.A . and A.G.P. analyzed and interpreted data; A.M.M.A., M.M.D., M.K.D wrote the initial paper; A.M.M.A., A.G.P., J.V.D.A., R.L.M., and M.J.B.V. revised the paper; A.M.M.A had primary responsibility for final content. 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Tables Table 1: List of collections of tsetse adults with valid DNA screened for Sodalis and Trypanosomes* infection in wild tsetse population in East, Central, South and West Africa Country No. of locations No. of collection flies with valid DNA Collection year Ethiopia 1 459 2007 Kenya 11 1008 2007, 2008, 2009 Uganda 5 210 2007 Tanzania 5 338 2005, 2009 Democratic R. of Congo 1 35 1995 Zambia 1 210 2007 Zimbabwe 7 211 2006 South Africa 7 526 1995, 2018, 2019 Mozambique 1 100 2019 Swaziland 1 30 2018, 2019 Burkina Faso 14 2274 2008, 2010, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2019 Ghana* 11 234 2008 Guinea* 8 314 2008, 2009 Mali* 10 364 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 Senegal 12 547 2008, 2009 Total 95 6860 *Part of the trypanosome infection in West Africa was screened by Ouedraogo et al. 2018 Table 2 : Global prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosomes in tsetse samples analyzed per countries Region Country Sodalis prevalence (%)* Trypanosome prevalence (%) Ethiopia 94/459 (20.48) abe 92/459 (20.04) ade East, central and southern Africa Kenya 288/1008 (28.57) ab 448/1008 (44.44)abe Democratic R. of Congo 4/35 (11.43) abe 1/35 (2.86) ae Mozambique 7/100 (7.00) abe 80/526 (15.21) ae South Africa 9/526 (1.71) ace 0/30 (0.00) ae Eswatini 0/30 (0.00) abce 8/100 (8.00) ae Tanzania 227/338 (67.16) adc 128/338 (37.87) ae Uganda 91/210 (43.33) d 19/210 (9.05) ace Zambia 11/210 (5.24) abe 97/210 (46.19) ade Zimbabwe 39/211(18.48) abe 113/211 (53.55) ae Subtotal 770/3127 (24.62) 986/3127 (31.53) West Africa Burkina Faso 11/2274 (0.48) ae 498/2274 (21.90 )ae Ghana 0/234 (0.00) ae 143/234 (61.11) ad Guinea 90/314 (28.66) ae 7/314 (2.22) ac Mali 0/364 (0.00) ae 25/364 (6.86) ace Senegal 0/547 (0.00) ae 78/547 (14.25) ae Subtotal 101/3733 (2.70) 750/3733 (20.09) Total (Average) 871/6860 (12.69) 1736/6860 (25.30) * Values indicated by the same lower-case letter do not differ significantly at the 5% level. Table 3 : Global prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosomes in tsetse samples analyzed per tsetse species Species Sodalis prevalence (%)* Trypanosome prevalence (%) G. austeni 5/346 (1.44) a 58/346 (16.76) a G. brevipalpis 14/350 (4) a 34/350 (9.71) a G. f. fuscipes 24/183 (13.11) ab 31/183 (16.93) a G. medicorum 8/154 (5.2) a 61/154 (39.6) ab G. m. morsitans 156/369 (42.27) b 152/369 (41.19) a G. m. submorsitans 1/343 (0.29) a 62/343 (18.07) a G. pallidipes 567/1844 (30.74) b 711/1844 (38.55) ab G. p. gambiensis 92/2168 (4.24) a 343/2168 (15.82) a G. p. palpalis 4/35 (11.4) ab 1/ 35 (2.8) ab G. tachinoides 0/1068 (0.0) a 283/1068 (26.49) b Total ( average ) 871/6860 (12.6) 1736/6860 (25.3) *Values indicated by the same lower-case letter do not differ significantly at the 5% level. Table 4: Global prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosomes in tsetse samples analyzed per country and tsetse species Species Country Sodalis prevalence (%)* Trypanosome prevalence (%) G. austeni Mozambique 0/50 (0.00) 5/50 (10.00) South Africa 2/226 (0.88) 49/226 (21.68) Swaziland 0/30 (0.00) 0/30 (0.00) Tanzania 3/40 (7.50) 4/40 (10.00) G. brevipalpis Mozambique 7/50 (14.00) a 3/50 (6.00) South Africa 7/300 (2.33) b 31/300 (10.33) G. f. fuscipes Kenya 20/89 (22.47) 21/89 (23.60) Uganda 4/94 (4.25) 10/ 94 (10.63) G. medicorum Burkina Faso 8/154 (5.20) 61/154 ( 39.61 ) G. m. morsitans Kenya 54/85 ( 63.52 ) a 2/ 85 (2.35) Tanzania 62/81 ( 76.54 ) a 43/81 ( 53.08 ) Zambia 8/64 (12.50) b 31/64 ( 48.43 ) Zimbabwe 32/139 (23.02) b 75/139 ( 53.95 ) G. m. submorsitans Burkina Faso 1/343 (0.30) 62/343 (18.07) G. pallidipes Ethiopia 94/459 (20.48) abc 92/459 (20.04) Kenya 214/834 (25.65) ac 425/834 ( 50.95 ) Tanzania 162/217 ( 74.65 ) ab 81/217 ( 37.32 ) Uganda 87/116 ( 75.00 ) ab 9/116 (7.75) Zimbabwe 7/72 (9.72) ac 38/72 ( 52.77 ) Zambia 3/146 (2.05) abc 66/146 ( 45.20 ) G. p. palpalis Democratic R. of Congo 4/35 (11.42) 1/ 35 (2.86) G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso 2/943 (0.21) 235/943 (24.92) a Guinea 90/314 (28.66) 7/314 (2.22) b Mali 0/364 (0.00) 25/364 (6.87) bc Senegal 0/547 (0.00) 78/547 (14.25) c G. tachinoides Burkina Faso 0/834 (0.00) 140/834 (16.79) a Ghana 0/234 (0.00) 143/234 ( 61.11 ) b Total ( average ) 871/6860 (12.69) 1736/6860 (25.30) * Values indicated by the same lower-case letter do not differ significantly at the 5% level. Table 5. Permanova analysis for Countries and tsetse species for Sodalis and trypanosomes (single and multiple) infection prevalence Source df SS MS Pseudo-F P(perm) Unique perms Countries 11 13040 1185.4 2.6004 0.009 998 Species 7 7899.8 1128.5 2.4756 0.041 999 Residuals 5 2279.3 455.87 Total 25 34074 Within the table, statistically significant differences ( P < 0.05) can be seen in bold values in countries and tsetse species. Perm(s) = permutations. Table 6 : Distribution of the association between the presence of Trypanosoma spp and the presence of Sodalis according to the tsetse species and the country Glossina taxon Country (Area, Collection Date) N S+/T+ S+/T- S-/T+ S-/T- χ 2 P G. austeni Tanzania (Jozani, 1997) 4 0 0 1 3 G. austeni Tanzania (Zanzibar, 1995) 6 0 1 0 5 G. austeni Tanzania (Uguja Island, 1995) 30 0 2 3 25 G. austeni South Africa (North eastern Kwazulu Natal, 1999) 39 0 2 2 35 G. austeni South Africa (Lower Mkuze, 2018) 53 0 0 23 30 G. austeni South Africa (Saint Lucia, 2018) 57 0 0 22 35 G. austeni South Africa (False Bay Park, 2018) 77 0 0 2 75 G. austeni Mozambique (Reserva Especial de Maputo, 2019) 50 0 0 5 45 G. austeni Swaziland (Mlawula Nature Reserve, 2019) 30 0 0 0 30 G. austeni All locations 346 0 5 58 283 1.02 0.31 G. brevipalpis South Africa (North eastern Kwazulu Natal, 1995) 50 0 0 2 48 G. brevipalpis South Africa (Phinda, 2018) 170 0 7 0 163 G. brevipalpis South Africa (Saint Lucia, 2018) 30 0 0 13 17 G. brevipalpis South Africa (Hluhluwe, 2018) 50 0 0 16 34 G. brevipalpis Mozambique (Reserva Especial de Maputo, 2019) 50 0 7 3 40 G. brevipalpis All locations 350 0 14 34 302 1.57 0.21 G. f. fuscipes Uganda (Buvuma island, 1994) 94 0 4 10 80 G. f. fuscipes Kenya (Ikapolock, 2007) 1 51 5 15 14 17 G. f. fuscipes Kenya (Obekai, 2007) 38 0 0 2 36 G. f. fuscipes All locations 183 5 19 26 133 0.3 0.59 G. medicorum Burkina Faso (Comoe, 2008) 94 0 8 32 54 G. medicorum Burkina Faso (Folonzo, 2008) 60 0 0 29 31 G. medicorum All locations 154 0 8 61 85 5.53 0.02 G. m. submorsitans Burkina Faso (Comoe, 2007) 206 0 0 20 186 G. m. submorsitans Burkina Faso (Folonzo, 2008) 134 0 1 42 91 G. m. submorsitans Burkina Faso (Sissili, 2008) 3 0 0 0 3 G. m. submorsitans All locations 343 0 1 62 280 0.22 0.64 G. p. palpalis Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire, 1995) 35 0 4 1 30 G. m. morsitans Tanzania (Masang-tanga, 2005) 81 35 27 9 10 G. m. morsitans Zambia (MFWE, Eastern Zambia, 2007) 64 1 7 30 26 G. m. morsitans Zimbabwe (Mukondore, 2007) 13 1 2 0 10 G. m. morsitans Zimbabwe (M. chiuyi, 2007) 9 0 1 0 8 G. m. morsitans Zimbabwe (Rukomeshi, 2006) 15 0 3 0 12 G. m. morsitans Zimbabwe (Kemukura, NA) 18 0 4 1 13 G. m. morsitans Zimbabwe (Mushumashi, 2006) 6 0 0 2 4 G. m. morsitans Zimbabwe (Makuti, 2006) 78 19 2 52 5 G. m. morsitans Kenya (Kari, 2006) 85 2 52 0 31 G. m. morsitans All locations 369 58 98 94 119 1.8 0.18 Glossina taxon Country (Area, Collection Date) N S+/T+ S+/T- S-/T+ S-/T- χ 2 P G. pallidipes Zambia (MFWE, Eastern Zambia, 2007) 146 2 1 64 79 G. pallidipes Kenya (Mwea, Katotoi, Emsos, Kari, Kiria, Koibos,Meru and Ruma national park, 2007) 834 88 126 337 283 G. pallidipes Ethiopia (Arba Minch, 2007) 459 15 79 77 288 G. pallidipes Tanzania (Masang-Tanga, 2005) 217 54 108 27 28 G. pallidipes Zimbabwe (Mushumashi, 2006) 26 1 0 4 21 G. pallidipes Zimbabwe (Cokwe, 2006) 4 0 0 0 4 G. pallidipes Zimbabwe (Rukomeshi, 2006) 4 0 0 0 4 G. pallidipes Zimbabwe (Makuti, 2006) 38 6 0 27 5 G. pallidipes Uganda (Lira,Omogo, Budaka, Moyo, NA) 116 4 83 5 24 G. pallidipes All locations 1844 170 397 541 736 25.4 0 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Lorepeni) 10 0 0 8 2 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Bouroum bouroum) 18 0 0 16 2 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Kourignon) 24 0 0 10 14 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Kampty) 98 0 0 85 13 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Ouarkoye) 5 0 0 5 0 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Dedougou) 57 0 0 33 24 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Bama) 77 0 0 0 77 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Comoe) 123 0 0 3 120 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Folonzo) 212 0 2 25 185 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Kartasso) 136 0 0 0 136 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Kenedougou) 41 0 0 0 41 G. p. gambiensis Burkina Faso (Mossoudogou) 142 0 0 49 93 G. p. gambiensis Guinea (Bafing) 33 0 0 1 32 G. p. gambiensis Guinea (Dekonkore) 16 0 0 1 15 G. p. gambiensis Guinea (Kangoliya 126 0 90 0 36 G. p. gambiensis Guinea (Karifale) 13 0 0 1 12 G. p. gambiensis Guinea (Kifala) 30 0 0 0 30 G. p. gambiensis Guinea (Lemonako) 20 0 0 0 20 G. p. gambiensis Guinea (Mini) 45 0 0 1 44 G. p. gambiensis Guinea (Tinkisso) 31 0 0 2 29 G. p. gambiensis Mali 364 0 0 25 339 G. p. gambiensis Senegal 547 0 0 79 469 G. p. gambiensis All locations 2168 0 92 343 1733 18.06 0 G. tachinoides Burkina Faso 834 0 0 140 694 G. tachinoides Ghana 234 0 0 143 91 G. tachinoides All locations 1068 0 0 283 785 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Ouedraogo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Insectarium de Bobo Dioulasso – Campagne d’Eradication de la mouche tsetse et de la Trypanosomose (IBD-CETT), 01 BP 1087, Bobo Dioulasso 01,","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gisele","middleName":"M. S.","lastName":"Ouedraogo","suffix":""},{"id":68683991,"identity":"87662b10-f365-409a-949f-049d353711e4","order_by":4,"name":"Guler Demirbas-Uzel","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"International Atomic Energy Agency","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Guler","middleName":"","lastName":"Demirbas-Uzel","suffix":""},{"id":68683992,"identity":"6d81944e-52d8-468a-932d-5d6e9a881591","order_by":5,"name":"Fabian Gstöttenmayer","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"International Atomic Energy Agency","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fabian","middleName":"","lastName":"Gstöttenmayer","suffix":""},{"id":68683993,"identity":"3317c3eb-b3d7-43fb-a9c1-a48acb51d952","order_by":6,"name":"Fernando C. Mulandane","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Biotechnology Centre, Eduardo Mondlane University, Av. de Moçambique Km 1.5, Maputo","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fernando","middleName":"C.","lastName":"Mulandane","suffix":""},{"id":68683994,"identity":"96646ece-b08e-4d16-b3a2-dda3e07c7174","order_by":7,"name":"Luis Neves","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Eduardo Mondlane University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Luis","middleName":"","lastName":"Neves","suffix":""},{"id":68683995,"identity":"f31295b2-9c9a-4c76-8b98-ee984bf80bd3","order_by":8,"name":"Sihle Mdluli","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Pretoria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sihle","middleName":"","lastName":"Mdluli","suffix":""},{"id":68683996,"identity":"2db7a03a-04a8-475b-a69a-d76c5d151031","order_by":9,"name":"Jean-Baptiste Rayaisse","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Centre International de Recherche-Développement sur l’Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), 01 BP 454, Bobo-Dioulasso 01","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jean-Baptiste","middleName":"","lastName":"Rayaisse","suffix":""},{"id":68683997,"identity":"a7c7e69d-95ae-4ad8-90cf-1bea964260ac","order_by":10,"name":"Adrien M. G. Belem","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universite´ Nazi Boni (UNB), Bobo-Dioulasso","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adrien","middleName":"M. G.","lastName":"Belem","suffix":""},{"id":68683998,"identity":"6c02f784-03c7-4e65-bbbe-2d8bf0b5388c","order_by":11,"name":"Soumaïla Pagabeleguem","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dedougou, B.P. 176, Dédougou 01,9 University of Dedougou, B.P. 176, Dédougou 01,","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Soumaïla","middleName":"","lastName":"Pagabeleguem","suffix":""},{"id":68683999,"identity":"a94b5a8b-578a-4571-b9f9-5148be368dd9","order_by":12,"name":"Chantel J. Beer","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"International Atomic Energy Agency","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chantel","middleName":"J.","lastName":"Beer","suffix":""},{"id":68684000,"identity":"ad3a05fd-fb3b-477e-8928-19448d477293","order_by":13,"name":"Andrew G. Parker","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Roppersbergweg 15, 2381, Laab im Walde,","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Andrew","middleName":"G.","lastName":"Parker","suffix":""},{"id":68684001,"identity":"778727a6-af1f-488d-8974-4b1e7984bb52","order_by":14,"name":"Jan van Den Abbeele","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Tropical Medicine Antwerp (ITM)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jan","middleName":"van Den","lastName":"Abbeele","suffix":""},{"id":68684002,"identity":"4dcf4241-6c57-4851-9a53-9bee7c79b7bd","order_by":15,"name":"Robert L. Mach","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Vienna University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Robert","middleName":"L.","lastName":"Mach","suffix":""},{"id":68684003,"identity":"503e99cb-3ba1-4131-ad13-f707dc683eb9","order_by":16,"name":"Marc J. B. Vreysen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"International Atomic Energy Agency","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marc","middleName":"J. B.","lastName":"Vreysen","suffix":""},{"id":68684004,"identity":"fc31192d-c37d-4036-a99a-a3d85a299423","order_by":17,"name":"Adly M. M. Abd-Alla","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBCDBIYDDIwHHjDY8JCkheFAAkMa6VoOE1bK38CdwHSDwS6P7wDzgwMJNedl+NubHzB83FOLU4vEAd4NzDkMycWSB9gMDiQcu80jceaYAeOMZ8dxWwPRwpy44f4DoBa22zwMNxIMmHkOHMOpQx6ipT5xwwH2DwcS/p3jkb///ANeLQYQLYeBWngMDiS2AckbPCBbanBqMTzMu+FwjsFxoF94Cg4k9iXzGJ7JKTg448ABnFrkjvdufJxTUQ0MMfaNDz58s7OXO34cyDhQh9v7zMAQYDBAEwRaQUQEoQM8toyCUTAKRsFIAwDHrV11cr9jtwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"International Atomic Energy Agency","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adly","middleName":"M. M.","lastName":"Abd-Alla","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2021-12-02 21:29:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1136039/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1136039/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":16440920,"identity":"9236d36a-4484-44bd-bfce-fac6744eed97","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:20:37","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":303092,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"The geographical locations of tsetse samples in Africa. Circles indicate the global prevalence of Sodalis and Trypanosoma per country. ","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/ce4c396ab7d27cb667840a89.png"},{"id":16440933,"identity":"acbf4b5a-0fc5-497b-b87f-2477053155bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:20:38","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":706142,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Prevalence of the Sodalis and Trypanosoma (single and multiple) infections per country (A) and tsetse species (B). Prevalence data were square root transformed and averaged based on country-species and the matrix display was conducted in PRIMER version 7+ software. Country abbreviations follow the UNDP list of country codes https://web.archive.org/web/20060713221355/http://refgat.undp.org/genericlist.cfm?entid=82\u0026pagenumber=1\u0026requesttimeout=360 as follows: BKF: Burkina Faso; ETH: Ethiopia; GHA: Ghana; GUI: Guinea; KEN: Kenya; MLI: Mali; MOZ: Mozambique; SAF: South Africa; SWA: Eswatini; ZAI: Democratic Republic of the Congo; ZAM: Zambia; ZIM: Zimbabwe. Tsetse, Sodalis and Trypanosoma taxa were abbreviated as following: Ga: Glossina austeni; Gb: Glossina brevipalpis; Gff: Glossina fuscipes fuscipes, Gmm: Glossina morsitans morsitans; Gmsm: Glossina morsitans submorsitans; Gpg: Glossina palpalis gambiensis; Gpp: Glossina palpalis palpalis. Sod: Sodalis, Tc: Trypanosoma. congolense savannah; Trypanosoma congolense kilifi; Trypanosoma congolense forest, Tsg: Trypanosoma simiae; Trypanosoma simiae Tsavo; Trypanosoma godfreyi , Tv: Trypanosoma vivax, Tz: Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, Trypanosoma brucei rhodensiense, Trypanosoma evansi, ","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/c0ce21b8c98277e55bd4fd37.png"},{"id":16441316,"identity":"4ed015f8-6e37-4b60-a228-4a296cf3cbe0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:23:37","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":496237,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Prevalence of coinfection of Sodalis and Trypanosoma infection in wild tsetse populations. A: global prevalence of coinfection, B: prevalence of coinfection by tsetse taxa.","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/fde7a3cf83b2fe3a328a73f7.png"},{"id":16440921,"identity":"937cbfb4-a1a2-4faf-98bb-c654006f12f2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:20:37","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":130645,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Impact of Trypanosoma infection on Trypanosoma (A) and Sodalis (B) density in G. pallidpes and G. m. morsitans. ","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/6204c3f3a81868bb38302ab6.png"},{"id":16441334,"identity":"63e71878-b2af-4970-ab89-8edab0bbc3f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:23:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1096898,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/c08fb490-28da-4dc9-9cfe-3dbcd7b792ae.pdf"},{"id":16440925,"identity":"2f0974c4-0932-4610-b96a-19b7c9432f42","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:20:37","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":236052,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Suplementaryfile1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/ca481ded2fca80a87b9c018f.docx"},{"id":16441317,"identity":"82330169-324a-41a2-b184-b7ca92afde6c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:23:37","extension":"xlsx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":15509,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarytable1.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/3b6f6c5d4f8b49f5c67c7394.xlsx"},{"id":16440924,"identity":"7d82e843-2665-4946-97bf-36d403a19a68","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:20:37","extension":"docx","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":55644,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarytable25.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/42ac923eae95de2365f4893a.docx"},{"id":16440922,"identity":"a558c904-77a5-4449-a0c1-504d382b4d00","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:20:37","extension":"xlsx","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":27575,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarytable6.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/c89789b5e8a49ca0227734bf.xlsx"},{"id":16441318,"identity":"e694ba6a-649d-4d6e-b999-8fa9a0a19203","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:23:37","extension":"tif","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":976362,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementaryfig1.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/b594451a9a02404b07979e3e.tif"},{"id":16440927,"identity":"c7efad78-0e71-431b-80f5-50b0733d6cb1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2021-12-14 15:20:37","extension":"tif","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":396248,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarfig2.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1136039/v1/85102d1ac765ee39752d192b.tif"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003ePrevalence of Trypanosoma and Sodalis in Wild Populations of Tsetse Flies: Impact on Sit Programmes for Tsetse Eradication\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003e Tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) are distributed in sub-Saharan Africa between 15\u0026deg; north and 26\u0026deg; south latitude\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e spp. are the cyclic vectors\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e of unicellular protozoa of the genus \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e that cause African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) or nagana and human African trypanosomosis (HAT) or sleeping sickness\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. Nagana in cattle is mainly caused by \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma congolense\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma vivax\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma brucei brucei\u003c/em\u003e \u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e and causes annual losses to agriculture estimated at \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e4.75 billion\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, around 35 million doses of trypanocidal drugs are administered to livestock per year for managing AAT\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. Human African trypanosomosis is fatal without treatment\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e and is caused by two \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e subspecies, i.e. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma brucei rhodesiense\u003c/em\u003e responsible for the acute form of HAT in East Africa and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma brucei gambiense\u003c/em\u003e for the chronic form of HAT in western and central Africa\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. The lack of effective vaccines and the development of resistance to the available trypanocidal drugs makes the control of AAT in the vertebrate host unsustainable\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. Consequently, an effective tool to reduce \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e transmission would be the control of the tsetse vector. One effective method to manage populations of tsetse flies is the sterile insect technique (SIT) when used as part of an area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) approach\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. The SIT method relies on the mass-production and sterilization of male flies by ionizing radiation. The sterile males are released in the target area for mating with wild females and the absence of offspring will gradually reduce the density of the targeted tsetse populations\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe biological transmission of the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species requires the parasite to undergo a series of proliferation and differentiation steps in the tsetse alimentary tract and finally mature into an infective form in the mouthparts (\u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u003c/em\u003e) or salivary glands (\u003cem\u003eT. brucei\u003c/em\u003e spp.)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, tsetse flies are refractory to \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection meaning that the probability that \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e ingested during a blood meal complete their developmental cycle in the fly to result in a mature infection is rather low\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The endogenous bacterial microbiome seems important in providing tsetse flies the natural ability to mitigate \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Three major endosymbiotic bacteria have been identified in tsetse flies, i.e. \u003cem\u003eWigglesworthia glossinidia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSodalis glossinidius\u003c/em\u003e (hereafter mentioned as \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eWolbachia pipientis\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Some studies suggested that the obligate mutualist \u003cem\u003eWigglesworthia\u003c/em\u003e must be present in the larval stage during the development of a mature tsetse fly to properly develop a well-functioning immune system contributing to a refractory phenotype against \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e, the second mutualistic symbiont, can be found in the midgut, hemolymph, muscles, fat body, milk glands, and salivary glands of certain tsetse species and is inherited by the progeny through transovarial transmission\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The biological role/importance of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e for tsetse remain unclear and needs to be clarified\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This symbiont might provide some benefits to the host as flies without \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e have a significantly shorter lifespan compared to flies with it\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, however the establishment of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e free colony was feasible\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e also presents many ideal characteristics to be used for expressing molecular effectors in paratransgenic tsetse\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, previous work suggested that \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e may modulate the ability of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e to establish an infection in the tsetse midgut as some studies reported that the elimination of this bacterial endosymbiont results in an increased tsetse fly refractoriness to \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, Geiger et al.,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e suggested that specific genotypes of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e presents in \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e from insectary colonies facilitate \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection. Soumana et al.,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e revealed that a variation in the \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e population caused by a hosted prophage can influence the trypanosome infections. In contrast, a recent study of Trappeniers et al \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e demonstrated that the absence or presence of \u003cem\u003eS. glossinidius\u003c/em\u003e in the tsetse fly does not affect the fly\u0026rsquo;s susceptibility toward \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection. In conclusion from the above-described results, it is clear that our knowledge on the impact of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e on \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in tsetse remains limited and fragmented and is still under debate\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, exploring on a large scale the occurrence and possible association between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in wild flies is highly required. The above described potential impact of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e to facilitate \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in tsetse, and the fact that \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e is found in all laboratory-reared tsetse colonies and some wild populations\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e indicates that mitigating action, such as feeding the flies 2-3 times on blood supplemented with trypanocidal drugs before release, is required in SIT programs to minimize the risk of disease transmission by the large number of released males that harbour \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eField studies in two HAT foci in Cameroon used PCR to detect \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e in \u003cem\u003eGlossina palpalis palpalis\u003c/em\u003e and the results indicate that the presence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e favours \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections especially by \u003cem\u003eT. brucei\u003c/em\u003e s.l.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Furthermore, in the wildlife-livestock-human interface in the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya, it was shown that \u003cem\u003eGlossina pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e infected with \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e was associated with increased \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection rates\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, other studies have found no strong association between trypanosome and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e in some tsetse species collected in four locations in Kenya\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Channumsin et al.,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e suggested that the association between \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection and the presence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e will varies based tsetse and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species. Similarly, studies carried out in the Fontem focus in Cameroon did not find a relationship between the endosymbiont and the parasite in \u003cem\u003eG. p. palpalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and no significant \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e-\u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection association was found in \u003cem\u003eGlossina tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e in two sites of the Faro and D\u0026eacute;o Division in Adamawa region of Cameroon\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Likewise, no association between the presence of the parasite and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e was found in \u003cem\u003eGlossina brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e in the Luambe National Park of Zambia\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe overall objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e in wild tsetse populations at a continental scale, i.e. Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Senegal, South Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe and analyse these data in the context of a possible association between the occurrence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and a \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in tsetse. Such information might guide the decision maker for SIT programmes to take the appropriate action, if necessary, to minimize any potential risk of an increased transmission.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;prevalence\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInfection with \u003cem\u003eTrypanozoon\u003c/em\u003e spp (Tz) (T\u003cem\u003e. b. brucei, T. b. gambiense, T. b. rhodensiense, T. evansi)\u003c/em\u003e, Tc (\u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u003c/em\u003e savannah; \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u003c/em\u003e kilifi; \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u003c/em\u003e forest); Tsg (\u003cem\u003eT. simiae\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003eT. simiae\u003c/em\u003e tsavo; \u003cem\u003eT. godfreyi)\u003c/em\u003e and Tv (\u003cem\u003eT. vivax)\u003c/em\u003e was screened in 6860 adult tsetse. The results indicate that 1736 (25.30%) adults were infected with one or more \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e taxa (\u003cstrong\u003eTables 2, 3 and 4\u003c/strong\u003e), The \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence varied significantly between tsetse taxa (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 750.18, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 9, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;\u0026lt; 0.001) and between countries (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 2038.1, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 14, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;\u0026lt; 0.001). The Permanova analysis as well indicated significant differences between countries (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.009) and taxa (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e =0.041) (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u003c/strong\u003e) As all taxa were not collected from all countries, the interaction between taxa and countries was only analyzed where a taxon was collected from several countries.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegardless of tsetse taxon, in west African countries the average \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence was 20% (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 3733), with the\u0026nbsp;highest prevalence recorded in Ghana (61%) and the lowest recorded in Guinea (2.2%). The prevalence in Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal was 21.9, 6.9 and 14.2% respectively (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 1,\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e). In east, central and southern African countries, the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection prevalence was a bit higher than in west African countries with an averaged infection of 31.5% (\u003cem\u003en\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 3127), with the highest prevalence (53.6%) in Zimbabwe and lowest prevalence (2.9%) in DRC. No \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection was detected in Eswatini (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 1 and\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e). Regardless of the country, \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence varied from one taxon to another, and \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e showed the highest \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence (41%) followed by \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e (38.5%) and the lowest prevalence was detected in \u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(9.71%)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ein east, central and southern Africa. In west Africa, \u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e showed the highest \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence (39.5%) and the lowest prevalence was detected in \u003cem\u003eG. p. palpalis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(2.8%)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(Table 3)\u003c/strong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSome tsetse taxa were collected from several countries as presented in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e. The highest \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence was recorded in \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e in Ghana (61%). This was followed by high prevalence in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e collected from Zimbabwe (53.9%), Tanzania (53%) and Zambia (48,4%). \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e from Zimbabwe, Kenya, Zambia and Tanzania also showed high \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence of 52.7%, 50.9%, 45.2% and 37.3%, respectively. The lowest \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence was found in \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e from Guinea (2.2%). Based on the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence presented in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e, the tested samples can be categorized as: (i) tsetse samples with high prevalence (\u0026gt; 35%) detected in \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e from Ghana; \u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e from Burkina Faso, \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e from Kenya, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e from Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; (ii) tsetse samples with medium prevalence (10-35%) detected in \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efrom South Africa, \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efrom Kenya and Uganda, \u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efrom Burkina Faso, \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiense\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efrom Burkina Faso and Senegal and \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e from Burkina Faso; (iii) tsetse samples with low prevalence (\u0026lt; 10%) detected in the rest of the samples listed in \u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e except the \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e collected from Eswatini. Despite the difference in \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence for each tsetse species, the differences were significant only in \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e= 26.71, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 4, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001) and \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e, (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e= 9.38, \u003cem\u003edf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 1,2, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.002). In contrast, no significant difference was detected between countries for \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e= 1.47, \u003cem\u003edf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 4, \u003cem\u003eP\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.688), \u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e= 0.34, \u003cem\u003edf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 2, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.559), \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e= 0.15, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 2, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.702), \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e= 1.04, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e= 3, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.593) and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e= 4.983, df= 1,6, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.418) (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e). No \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection was recorded in \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efrom Eswatini. The best glm model (lowest AICc) selected for the overall \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence retained the countries as variables that fitted the data well (AICc = 1521.35) (\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary file 1\u003c/strong\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence of different \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e taxa and mixed infections\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe above-mentioned prevalence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection was comprised of several different \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species and sub-species. Based on the size of the amplified fragment by PCR, the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection was categorized into four groups: (i) the Tc group including the different forms of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma congolense\u003c/em\u003e; (ii)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eTv group including \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma vivax\u003c/em\u003e infections; (iii) Trypanozoon (Tz) group including \u003cem\u003eT. b. brucei, T. b. gambiense, T. b. rhodesiense,\u003c/em\u003e and\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003einfections; and (iv) Tsg group including the infections with \u003cem\u003eT. simiae, T. simiae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003etsavo and \u003cem\u003eT. godfreyi\u003c/em\u003e. The screening results revealed that tsetse flies could be infected with single or multiple (double or triple) taxa of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e, and the proportion of the infections with the different \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e taxa and the mixed infection varied with country (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 63.56, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 14, P \u0026lt;0.001) and species (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 21.86, \u003cem\u003edf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 9, P \u0026lt;0.001) (\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary file 1\u003c/strong\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prevalence of the different \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species with respect to the above-mentioned groups, indicate that infections with the Tsg group was the highest regardless of countries or tsetse species with an average of 7.06%. The infection rate was higher (14.13%) in east, central and southern African countries than in west Africa (1.13%). Tv infection averaged at 6.75% but with higher prevalence in west African countries (10.37%) than in east, central and southern Africa (2.43%). The prevalence of Tc infection was lower than Tv and Tsg group with an average of 4.78% with higher prevalence in central and southern Africa (8.38%) than in west Africa (1.77%). The Tz group had the lowest prevalence with an average of 2.29%. Like Tv infection, the Tz prevalence was higher in west Africa (3.16%) than central and southern Africa (1.25 %).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prevalence of infection by a single \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e group varied significantly from one country to another and from one tsetse species to another. For Tc, Tv, Tz and Tsg the infection prevalence varied significantly with country (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 47.74, \u003cem\u003edf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 14, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001, \u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 27.40, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 14, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.01705, \u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 106.11, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 14, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0. 001 and, \u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 44.74,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;df\u003c/em\u003e = 14, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0. 001 respectively). Regardless of tsetse species, the highest infection rate for Tc, Tv, Tz and Tsg was found in Tanzania (14.20%), Ghana (14.10%), Ghana (19.66%) and Zimbabwe (39.81%), respectively (\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table 3\u003c/strong\u003e). Similarly, the prevalence of Tc, Tz and Tsg varied significantly with tsetse species (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 40.364, df = 1,9, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;\u0026lt; 0.001, \u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 58.253, df = 1,9, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;\u0026lt; 0. 001 and \u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 34.871, df = 1,9, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;\u0026lt; 0. 001, respectively), however no significant difference was found in Tv prevalence between tsetse species (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 5.475, df = 1,9, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.07868). Regardless of the country, the highest infection rate of Tc, Tv, Tz and Tsg was found in \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e (10.68%), \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e (12.92%), \u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e (13.64%) and \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(22.76%), respectively (\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table 4\u003c/strong\u003e). No Tc infection was found in samples of \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e collected from Eswatini and Tanzania, \u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e from Mozambique, \u003cem\u003eG. p. palpalis\u003c/em\u003e from Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efrom Guinea. In addition, no Tv infection was detected in \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e collected from Eswatini and Mozambique, \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e from Kenya and Zambia, \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e from Uganda and Zimbabwe. For Tz, \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e collected from Eswatini and Mozambique, \u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e from Mozambique, \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e from Kenya, \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efrom Kenya and Zambia, \u003cem\u003eG. p. palpalis\u003c/em\u003e from\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eDRC and \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e from Guinea did not show any infection (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2 and Supplementary Table 5).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMixed infections of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e groups (double or triple) are rare events with an average prevalence between 0.09 and 1.71% regardless of country or tsetse species. However, double infections seem to be more frequent in some countries than others (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 35.01,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;df\u003c/em\u003e = 14, \u003cem\u003eP\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.00) for Tv-Tz and in some tsetse species than others (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 21.20, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 9, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.012) for Tv-Tz (\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary file 1\u003c/strong\u003e). The highest prevalence of the mixed infections Tv-Tz and Tc-Tz were observed in Ghana with 12.39% and 10.68%, respectively, regardless of tsetse species. Although the average Tc-Tsg prevalence was higher than that of Tv-Tz and Tc-Tz, the highest mixed infection with it was found in Zambia with 9.05%. Regardless of the country, the highest mixed infection of Tc-Tsg detected per tsetse species was ~5% in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;G. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e. The mixed infection of Tsg with either Tv or Tz or both was lower than 2% regardless of the country or tsetse species. Taking into account both the country and tsetse species, the highest mixed infection of Tc-Tsg (12.5%) was detected in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e in Zambia. However, the highest prevalence of Tc-Tz (10.68%) and Tv-Tz (12.39%) was detected in \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e from Ghana. Although the average prevalence of Tv-Tsg was low (0.54%), a relative high infection rate of 6.17% was found in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e from Tanzania.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA triple infection of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e groups (Tc-Tv-Tz) was only detected in \u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efrom Burkina Faso (1.30%) and \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e from Ghana (1.71%) (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2 and Supplementary Table 5,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary file 1\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prevalence of\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Sodalis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003einfection based on the\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ePCR results varied significantly with country\u0026nbsp;(\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 108.02, df = 1, 14, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;\u0026lt; 0.001) and tsetse species (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e = 69.60, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 9, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001). The best glm model (lowest AICc) selected for the overall \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence retained the countries, the species and their interaction (where possible) as variables that fitted the data well (AICc = 1296.12). Similar to the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e, the average \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence in east, central and southern Africa (24.6%) was higher than in west Africa (2.70%). Regardless of tsetse species, the highest prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection was found in Tanzania (67.1%) followed by Uganda (43.3%), Kenya (28.5%) and Ethiopia (20.48%) (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e). The highest prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection in west Africa was found in Guinea (28.6%). No \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection was found in Ghana, Mali, Senegal or Eswatini. Regardless of the country, the highest \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence per tsetse species was detected in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(42.27%) followed by\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;G. pallidipes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(30.74%). No \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection was detected in \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThe prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection changed when both the countries and tsetse species are taken into consideration. Based on the \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence the tsetse samples can be categorized into four groups: (i) samples with high prevalence (\u0026gt; 50%) (ii) samples with medium prevalence (between \u0026lt;10% and \u0026gt;50%) (iii) samples with low prevalence (between \u0026gt;0% and 10%) and (iv) samples with no \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection as shown in \u003cstrong\u003eFigure 2\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u003c/strong\u003e. The samples showing high \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eprevalence includes \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e from Kenya (63.5%) and Tanzania (76.5%) and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e from Tanzania (74.6%) and Uganda (75%), however the samples with no \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003einfection includes \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e from Eswatini, \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e from Mali and Senegal and \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e from Burkina Faso and Ghana indicating that there is 95% confidence that the infection rate is less than or equal to 10%, 0.82%, 0.55%, 1.28% and 0.36%, respectively.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInteractions between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence of co-infections of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e with \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe screening results indicated that the single infection rate was 9.3% (n = 638) and 21.9% (n = 1503) for \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma,\u003c/em\u003e respectively, over all taxa and countries (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 3A\u003c/strong\u003e). No \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection was found in \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e, and therefore was excluded from the analysis. A Cochran\u0026ndash;Mantel\u0026ndash;Haenszel test for repeated tests of independence showed that infection with \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e did deviate from independence across all taxa (\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003eMH\u003c/sub\u003e = 41.73, df = 1, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001) and individual Chi squared tests for independence for each taxon showed significant deviation from independence at the Bonferroni corrected \u0026alpha; = 0.00833 in \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eP\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.001) and \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eP\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.001)\u0026nbsp;(\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table 6)\u003c/strong\u003e. The prevalence of coinfection of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e in wild tsetse populations varied with tsetse taxon and location. No coinfection was found in many taxa and many locations. The co-infection was found only in \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(2.73%), \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(15.72%) and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(9.22%) in east, central and southern Africa (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 3B\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003eTable 6 and Supplementary Table 6\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImpact of co infection on \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e density\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAttempts to assess the density of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e under single (S\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) and (S\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e) or double infection (S\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) was conducted using qPCR with primers mentioned in \u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table 2\u003c/strong\u003e. The results show that \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infections do not have any significant impact on \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e density (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e= 0.648, \u003cem\u003edf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 2, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.723). However, \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections significantly reduced the density of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e in flies with (S\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) comparing to the flies with (S\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e) (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.014) (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 4\u003c/strong\u003e). \u0026nbsp;No significant different was found in the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e density determined by qPCR in the flies tested negative (S\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e) or positive (S\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) and (S\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) with the standard PCR, however, \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e density showed significant difference between flies with different infection type (\u003cem\u003eX\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e=\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e14.54, df = 2, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001) (\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 4\u003c/strong\u003e). The results showed no correlation between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e density (r = 0.007, t = 0.055, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 69, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.9561) \u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Figure 2\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary File 1\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe implementation of the SIT in the context of an area-wide integrated pest management strategy to eradicate tsetse flies relies on the release of sterile males in the targeted area. This was successful in eradicating a population of \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e from Unguja Island of Zanzibar\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and significant progress was made in the eradication programme implemented against \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e in the Niayes area of Senegal\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, as both male and female tsetse flies are vectors of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species, the release of large numbers of sterile male flies bears a potential risk of temporarily increasing disease transmission during the initial release phase of an SIT programme\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, mitigating measures are required to reduce or eliminate this potential risk, especially in areas where sleeping sickness (HAT) is endemic. To date, to mitigate such risks, sterile males are offered two-three blood meals mixed with the trypanocidal drug isometamidium chloride, before being released which reduces the risk of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e transmission significantly but does not eliminate it\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, other approaches were proposed to minimize such risks such as paratransgenesis\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and combining paratransgenesis with SIT\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral previous studies reported a potential positive correlation between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections\u003csup\u003e28,30,32,36,45\u0026minus;48\u003c/sup\u003e, leading to the hypothesis that \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e might facilitate the establishment of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections in the tsetse midgut\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This would be possible through the production of a chitinase enzyme encoded by \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e which, through its chitinolytic activity, enhances the permeability of the peritrophic membrane in the tsetse midgut, making it easier for the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e to cross the barrier and establish an infection in the fly\u0026rsquo;s ectoperitrophic space\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This process results in the accumulation of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, which would further facilitate the establishment of a \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection by inhibiting the activity of the anti-parasitic tsetse lectins\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Although these theories have never been experimentally proven, it is supported by the positive correlation between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections in various studies\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, the positive correlation between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections might be affected by the genotype of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e taxon\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These previous reports contrast with the results of Trappeniers et al \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, who demonstrated no difference in \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in tsetse flies infected or not with \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and other previous report indicating the lack on correlation between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR35\" citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dynamics of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infections in tsetse colonies has been well studied and previous studies indicate that \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e is more frequently present in colonized tsetse flies than in wild tsetse populations\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e was 80 and 100% in colonized \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e, respectively\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which is higher than the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e reported in wild populations of these tsetse species. This seems to indicate that the colonizing and rearing process of tsetse flies favours the transmission and spread of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infections. Recently, colonies of \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes, G. p. gambiensis, G. f. fuscipes, G. m. morsitans, G. m. centralis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e maintained at the FAO/IAEA Insect Pest Control Laboratory were screened for \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infections and showed a prevalence of 100%, only \u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e had a lower prevalence of 95% (data not shown). Similarly, the prevalence of other symbionts such as \u003cem\u003eWolbachia\u003c/em\u003e was 100% for colonized species such as \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eG. m. centralis\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eG. swynnertoni\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Taken into consideration that mass-rearing conditions enhances \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infections and that \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infections might facilitate the establishment of a \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in the midgut, sterile male tsetse flies that are derived from colonies might be effective vectors of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species and, therefore, might increase the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e transmission. It is therefore important that the managers and planners of SIT programmes are aware which tsetse species show a positive correlation between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections to be able to take the necessary mitigating actions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany previous studies have examined the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species in wild tsetse populations\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, but this study presents for the first time the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species on a continental scale. In addition, the methods used were standardized and all carried out in one laboratory that avoided discrepancies in the results due to different handling of tsetse samples, DNA extraction, and PCR methods as observed in these other studies that were done in different laboratories. Our results indicate that \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence varied with tsetse species and geographical location (with an overall trypanosome prevalence of 23,5%), which agrees with many previous studies\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence (\u0026gt; 30%) was also found in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e from central and east Africa which is in agreement with the high prevalence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species found in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e in Zambia with infection rates of 73.7%, 35.3% and 32.9% for \u003cem\u003eT. brucei\u003c/em\u003e s.l., \u003cem\u003eT. b. rhodesiense\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eT. vivax\u003c/em\u003e, respectively\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, 23% of \u003cem\u003eG. m. centralis\u003c/em\u003e sampled in Zambia\u003csup\u003e55\u003c/sup\u003e and 33% of \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e sampled in Malawi\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e were positive for a \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection. Our results agreed with the high prevalence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e were similar studies done in Tanzania\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Kenya\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, the study in Tanzania reported low prevalence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e. Contrary to our results, \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e from Zambia did not show a high infection rate of any of the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Also, in Tanzania, both \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e showed a low prevalence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection (\u0026lt; 10%)\u003csup\u003e58\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study showed that the prevalence of different \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species and or subspecies can be different in different tsetse taxa. In \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e in Ghana, the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma vivax\u003c/em\u003e infection was high (\u0026gt;10%) as well as the infections of the \u003cem\u003eTrypanozoon\u003c/em\u003e (Tz) and Tsg group and the mixed infections of Tv-Tsg. However, the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u003c/em\u003e was very low. These results are in agreement with the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eT. brucei\u003c/em\u003e s.l (11%) and \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u003c/em\u003e forest type (2.6%) reported in the same tsetse species in Cameroon. However, the same study reported a prevalence of 13.7% of \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u003c/em\u003e savannah type\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which was not observed in our study. Our results agree with the results of Lefran\u0026ccedil;ois et al.,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, i.e. in C\u0026ocirc;te d\u0026rsquo;Ivoire, \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e showed a high rate of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection (61%) with Tv (27.2%), Tc (31.8%.), and Tz (2.3%)\u003csup\u003e60\u003c/sup\u003e. The high overall high prevalence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and the high infection rate with Tv and Tz group agree with our results, but the high Tc prevalence conflicts with our result. In our study, the Tc infection rate was high in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e, which does not agree with the reported \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e from Malawi where \u003cem\u003eT. brucei\u003c/em\u003e prevalence was 64.4% but all other \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections were \u0026lt; 10%\u003csup\u003e61\u003c/sup\u003e. The mixed infection of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species/subspecies is in agreement with previous reports\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLikewise, the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection varied significantly with tsetse taxon and location and the highest prevalence was found in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e. Our results agree with the high prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e reported in \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e (~50%) in one location in Kenya regardless of the fly age\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e; however, the same study reported low \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence in another location. In another study in Kenya, Wamwiri et al.,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e reported moderate \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence in \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e (16%) and low prevalence in \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e (3.7%), which is in agreement with our results. On other hand, our results are different from the low prevalence (\u0026lt; 8%) found in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e in Zambia\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In another study in Zambia, \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence in \u003cem\u003eG. m. centralis\u003c/em\u003e, was reported to be 15.9% with no significant difference between inter-site prevalence\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In our study, the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e in \u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e was low (\u0026lt; 2.3%) which contradicts the high prevalence (93.7%) found in this species in Zambia\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the global prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e in \u003cem\u003eGlossina fuscipes quanzensis\u003c/em\u003e midgut averaged 15.5%, but in certain locations the prevalence exceeded 40%\u003csup\u003e63\u003c/sup\u003e. In Nigeria, \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence in \u003cem\u003eG. p. palpalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e was 35.7%\u003csup\u003e64\u003c/sup\u003e which is higher that the prevalence reported in our study for both species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data from our study indicate that the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infections were very low or absent in some tsetse taxa from certain locations such as \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e in Eswatini for \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infections and several species in west Africa for \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infections. The lack of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in these samples might be due to (i) low number of tested samples (ii) the use of the DNA extracted from the whole body of tsetse adults (iii) the possibility of the collected samples being infected with different strains/genotypes that might not be detected with the primers used and (iv) the infection of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e are under the detection limit of the used PCR. It is important to note that due to the high number of samples tested in our study, the nested PCR to detect low infection level was excluded for technical reasons. The first reason might apply for \u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e in Eswatini (n=30) where we can only state with 95% confidence that the true rate of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection is 10% or less, following the method of Couey and Chew\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur results indicate significant deviation from independence (correlation) of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections in \u003cem\u003eG. medicorum, G. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e. However, the lack of detection of any tsetse adult with co-infection of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e in \u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e might indicate a negative correlation. Such negative trend might be supported by the lower density of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e in the flies with co-infection (S\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e+)\u003c/sup\u003e compared to these with \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection only (S\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/T\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u003c/sup\u003e). On other hand the lack of impact of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection on \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e density does not support the negative trend and agreed with the results of Trappeniers et al.,\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e reported on colonized flies. This results also agreed with previous results reporting the absence of direct correlation between the presence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and the acquisition of a \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, an inverse correlation was reported between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and the vector competence where the presence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e in both midgut and proboscis of \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e was associated with its status as a poor vector, whereas it is not found in the proboscis of \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e (major vector). It is worth noting that all previous studies of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection in \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e and its interaction with \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection was carried out with flies reared under laboratory conditions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The correlation between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e is positive, evidenced with the relative high number (n = 170) of tsetse with co-infection. This positive correlation was also found in \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e from Kenya although with too few flies with co-infection to enable us to draw a definite conclusion\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Although co-infections were found in \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e in some locations, the global correlation was missing. This is in agreement with the positive correlation found between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in \u003cem\u003eG. m. centralis\u003c/em\u003e in Zambia, in which there was a 6.2 fold increase in the likelihood of a fly being infected with \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e if \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e was present\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. More studies are needed to enhance the potential control interventions mediated by endosymbionts to reduce parasitic infections\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study clearly indicate that the interaction between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection is complex, species-specific and remains unclear and requires further investigation. The prevalence results indicate that \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections are not independent in some species, such as \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e in west Africa and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e in central and east Africa, and this requires further investigations to clarify this relationship. In case of a positive correlation between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in these species, additional measures should be taken when implementing the SIT to reduce the \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e density in the sterile males released in the targeted area to maximize the safe implementation of the SIT. These measures might include the mixing of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e phage(s)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e with the blood meals to feed the mass-reared flies to reduce the \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e density in these flies. This certainly would require the isolation and propagation of the \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e phage(s). In addition, the blood meal offered to the males before release can be supplemented with one or more of the following antimicrobial products to reduce \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e density, i.e. streptozotocin\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, indolicidin and OaBAC 5 mini\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, or with the trypanocidal drug isometamidium chloride. The use of the \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e phage as well as these antimicrobial products requires further studies to 1) develop methods to isolate the phage, 2) determine the conditions (e.g. suitable concentration) for its use, and 3) determine the impact on \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e density, tsetse productivity and survival. The quantification of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e density showed that in \u003cem\u003eG. m morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection does not have an impact on \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection indicating no additional measures need to be taken during the implementation of SIT against these species.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection varied with tsetse taxon and location. There is a significant positive correlation between \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in \u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e; however, no significant correlation was found in other tsetse taxa and locations. The results of this study will enable the decision makers of SIT projects to better plan and take the necessary measures to fine-tune and optimize SIT efficiency and safety.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTsetse collection and DNA extractions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTsetse flies were collected in 1995 and between 2005 and 2018 from 95 different geographical locations in fifteen countries in\u0026nbsp;east, central, southern,\u0026nbsp;and western Africa\u0026nbsp;(\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1, Supplementary Table 1\u003c/strong\u003e). The tsetse flies were collected with species-specific traps which included the biconical trap\u003csup\u003e70\u003c/sup\u003e, the monoconical trap\u003csup\u003e71\u003c/sup\u003e, the Vavoua trap\u003csup\u003e72\u003c/sup\u003e, the Ngu trap\u003csup\u003e73,74\u003c/sup\u003e, the odour-baited Epsilon trap\u003csup\u003e75\u003c/sup\u003e, the NZI trap\u003csup\u003e76\u003c/sup\u003e,\u0026nbsp;and the odour baited H trap\u003csup\u003e77\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;A total of 6860 tsetse flies, belonging to ten tsetse species, were collected for this study (\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e). The majority of the samples were collected in Burkina Faso (2274), Kenya (1008), Senegal (547) and South Africa (526). As the distribution of most tsetse species is allopatric (only few species are sympatric), not all tsetse species were collected from each country. Following collection, fly samples were\u0026nbsp;preserved in 95% ethanol or propylene glycol and shipped to the\u0026nbsp;FAO/IAEA Insect Pest Control Laboratory (IPCL) in Seibersdorf, Austria and stored\u0026nbsp;at -20 \u0026deg;C until analysis.\u0026nbsp;Total DNA was extracted from individual whole fly bodies using the DNeasy tissue kit (QIAGEN Inc., Valencia, CA) following the supplier\u0026rsquo;s instructions. The DNA\u0026nbsp;quality and concentration were measured by spectrophotometry (Synergy H1 Multi-Mode Reader, BioTek, Instruments, Inc., USA) and\u0026nbsp;subsequently kept at 4\u0026deg;C until\u0026nbsp;screened for \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e To verify the quality of the extracted DNA, a set of specific primers amplifying the \u003cem\u003eGlossina\u003c/em\u003e spp. microsatellite GpCAG133 sequence (\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table 2\u003c/strong\u003e) and only the successful samples were included in the analysis\u003csup\u003e21,78\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;prevalence and genotyping\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePolymerase chain reaction (PCR), following the method of\u0026nbsp;Njiru et al.\u003csup\u003e79\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ethat\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eused the primers ITS1-CF and ITS1-BR (\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table 2\u003c/strong\u003e) previously designed to amplify the internal transcribed spacer (ITS1) of the ribosomal DNA,\u0026nbsp;was used to detect \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection\u0026nbsp;and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003especies in the fly samples. The PCR was carried\u0026nbsp;out in 25 \u0026mu;l reaction mixtures containing\u0026nbsp;22.5 \u0026micro;l of 1.1x Pre-Aliquoted PCR Master Mix (0.625 units Thermoprime Plus DNA Polymerase, 75 mM Tris\u0026ndash;HCl (pH 8.8 at 25\u0026deg;C), 20 mM (NH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e)2SO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, 2.0 mM MgCl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, 0.01% (v/v) Tween-20 and 0.2 mM each of the dNTPs (ABgene, UK), 1 \u0026micro;l primers (at 200 nM final concentration of forward and reverse primer) and 1.5\u0026micro;l of template DNA.\u0026nbsp;PCR cycles were: 94\u0026deg;C for 15 min, followed by 40 cycles of 94\u0026deg;C for 30 s, 60\u0026deg;C for 30 s, 72\u0026deg;C for 30 s, and final extension 72\u0026deg;C for 5 min.\u0026nbsp;Interpretation of the results after resolving the amplification products in a 2% agarose gel (Fisher Biotech) stained with SafeGreen or ethidium bromide, was based on the characteristic band size of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e taxa:\u0026nbsp;all members of the subgenus \u003cem\u003eTrypanozoon\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eT. b. brucei\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eT. b. gambiense\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eT. b. rhodesiense\u003c/em\u003e: 480 bp); \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003esavannah (700 bp); \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eKilifi (620 bp); \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eforest (710 bp); \u003cem\u003eT. simiae\u003c/em\u003e (400 bp); \u003cem\u003eT. simiae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eTsavo (370 bp); \u003cem\u003eT. godfreyi\u003c/em\u003e (300 bp) and \u003cem\u003eT. vivax\u003c/em\u003e (250 bp). The positive control DNA was from \u003cem\u003eT. congolense\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003esavannah,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;T. congolense\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eforest,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;T. b. brucei\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eT. b. gambiense\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eT. b. rhodensiense\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eT. evansi\u003c/em\u003e, and\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eT. vivax\u003c/em\u003e. DNA samples validated with\u0026nbsp;GpCAG133 primer amplification were screened for trypanosome infection.\u0026nbsp;A tsetse sample was recorded as positive if one or more of the indicated band sizes was detected. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection status and species were recorded for each fly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe detection of\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e in natural tsetse samples was based on the \u003cem\u003eSodalis fliC\u003c/em\u003e (flagellin) gene which results in an amplicon length of about 508 base pairs with the \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e specific primers Sod-fliC-F\u0026nbsp;and Sod-fliC-R\u0026nbsp;(\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table 2\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003csup\u003e80\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;These primers were used in single pairs or in multiplex PCR with GpCAG133 primers. For all PCR reactions, 22.5 \u0026micro;l of 1.1x Pre-Aliquoted PCR Master Mix (ABgene, UK) was used. In a final volume of 25 \u0026micro;l, 1.5 \u0026micro;l of template DNA plus forward and reverse primers were added to a final concentration of 0.2 mM per primer in a volume of 1\u0026micro;l. Samples were considered \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e-infected if the expected symbiont PCR product amplicon was detected. Data were accepted only if the control gene GpCAG133 sequence was amplified.\u0026nbsp;The PCR cycling conditions were: 95\u0026deg;C for 5min followed by 34 cycles of 95\u0026deg;C for 30 s, 52.5\u0026deg;C for 30 s,\u0026nbsp;72\u0026deg;C for 30 s and lastly at 72 \u0026deg;C for 10 min; PCR products were separated by agarose (2%) gel electrophoresis and SafeGreen or ethidium bromide staining.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalysis of the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection in wild tsetse populations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCo-infection of tsetse adults with \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and Trypanosoma infection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe co-infection of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection was evaluated based on the PCR prevalence. The infection status was divided into four categories \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e positive and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e positive (Sod\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e), \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e positive and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e negative (Sod\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e), \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e negative and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e positive (Sod\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e negative and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e negative (Sod\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalysis of the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e density\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSamples showing \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection with \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e (Sod\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) and samples not infected with \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e but infected with \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e (Sod\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e)\u0026nbsp;were evaluated with quantitative PCR (qPCR) to assess the impact of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection (regardless the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e type) on \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e density. The qPCR was performed using a CFX96 Real Time PCR Detection System (Bio-Rad). The \u003cem\u003efliC\u003c/em\u003e gene was amplified with the following primers:\u0026nbsp;sodqPCR-FliCF and sodqPCR-FliCR\u003csup\u003e81\u003c/sup\u003e (\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table 2\u003c/strong\u003e)\u0026nbsp;to assess the density of the symbiont present within \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infected and noninfected, additional criteria for the selection of the samples was the presence of the two groups \u0026nbsp;(Sod\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) and (Sod\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e) in a given population.\u0026nbsp;Based on the preceding criteria\u0026nbsp;96 individual flies (52 and 44\u0026nbsp;flies with infection status of\u0026nbsp;(Sod\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) and (Sod\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e), respectively, were selected from the\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e collected in Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe\u003cem\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e In addition, samples with\u0026nbsp;(Sod\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) and (Sod\u003csup\u003e-\u003c/sup\u003e/Tryp\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) were used to assess the impact of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection on \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e density. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosomatidae\u003c/em\u003e18S specific primers (18S_Typ_F and18S_Typ_R)\u0026nbsp;(\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table 2\u003c/strong\u003e) were used to assess the \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e density in the tested samples.\u0026nbsp;The DNA from all selected samples was diluted to a final concentration of 4 ng/\u0026mu;l and 5 \u0026mu;l of the diluted DNA was used for qPCR to determine \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e DNA density normalized to the housekeeping \u0026beta;-tubulin gene. The amplification mixture contained 5 \u0026mu;l of DNA template, 200 nM of each primer, and 7.5 \u0026mu;l iQ\u003csup\u003eTM\u003c/sup\u003e SYBER Green Supermix (Bio-Rad). qPCR cycling conditions for \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e were as follows: initial denaturation at 95 \u0026deg;C for 2 min; 39 cycles of 95 \u0026deg;C for 5 s, 55 \u0026deg;C for 30 s, one step at 95 \u0026deg;C for 5 s and a melting curve constructed from 65\u0026deg;C to 95 \u0026deg;C in increments of 0.5 \u0026deg;C for 5 s. The same conditions were used for \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e except the annealing temperature was at 60 \u0026deg;C. The analysis of the \u003cem\u003eSodalis, Trypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and Tubulin densities was based only on qPCR data with the expected melting curve at 81.5\u0026deg;C, 85.5\u0026deg;C and 86\u0026deg;C, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prevalence data were recorded and analyzed with the general linear model (GLM)\u003csup\u003e82\u003c/sup\u003e. The prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003especies and each \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species and co-infection were tested for differences between the tsetse taxa and between countries. For each country, the prevalence was assessed again for differences between the localities where the flies were collected and between the tsetse species present in each country. In the absence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection, the probability of infection was calculated following the method of Couey and Chew\u003csup\u003e65\u003c/sup\u003e. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e prevalence between taxa was compared between species by a pairwise comparison of proportions with a Bonferroni correction and Benjamini-Hochberg correction. The analyses were executed in R v 4.0.5\u003csup\u003e83\u003c/sup\u003e using RStudio V 1.4.1106\u003csup\u003e84,85\u003c/sup\u003e with the packages ggplot2 v3.3.2.1\u003csup\u003e86\u003c/sup\u003e, lattice v0.20-41\u003csup\u003e87\u003c/sup\u003e, car\u003csup\u003e88\u003c/sup\u003e, ggthems\u003csup\u003e89\u003c/sup\u003e and MASS v7.3-51.6\u003csup\u003e90\u003c/sup\u003e except for the Chi squared tests for independence, Spearman correlation coefficient and Cochran\u0026ndash;Mantel\u0026ndash;Haenszel test for repeated tests of independence, which were performed using Excel 2013 The R Markdown file is available in \u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary File 1.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;To analyse the qPCR data, normalized density of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e against the house keeping gene (tubulin) was extracted from the CFX Maestro software. Samples giving a valid density (not N/A) for both \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e were retained for further statistical analysis in R. Similarities in the structure of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e (single and multiple) infection and the role of different factors such as countries and tsetse taxa, were assessed using the matrix display and metric multidimensional scaling (mMDS) plot with bootstrap averages in PRIMER version 7+. The bootstrap averages plots were displayed with a Bray and Curtis matrix based on the square-root transformation of the \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e (single and multiple) infection abundance data\u003csup\u003e91\u003c/sup\u003e. The tests were based on the multivariate null hypothesis via the use of the non-parametric statistical method PERMANOVA\u003csup\u003e92\u003c/sup\u003e. The Permanova test was conducted on the average of the abundance data based on the country-species after excluding the data of Eswatini (low number of tested samples).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eSIT: sterile insect techniques; qPCR: quantitative polymerase chain reaction;\u0026nbsp;BKF: Burkina Faso; ETH: Ethiopia; GHA: Ghana; GUI: Guinea; KEN: Kenya; MLI: Mali; MOZ: Mozambique; SAF: South Africa; SWA: Eswatini; ZAI: Democratic Republic of the Congo; ZAM: Zambia; ZIM: Zimbabwe. Tsetse species were abbreviated as following: Ga: \u003cem\u003eGlossina austeni\u003c/em\u003e; Gb: \u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e; Gff: \u003cem\u003eG. fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e, Gmm: \u003cem\u003eG. morsitans morsitans\u003c/em\u003e; Gmsm: \u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e; Gpg: \u003cem\u003eG. palpalis gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e; Gpp: \u003cem\u003eG. p. palpalis;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eTc:\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma congolense;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eTv:\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma vivax;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eTz:\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eTrypanoson spp\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMaterials described in the paper, including all relevant raw data, are available in this link\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/WOTAIY\"\u003ehttps://dataverse.harvard.edu/dataset.xhtml?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/WOTAIY\u003c/a\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the Joint FAO/IAEA Insect Pest Control Subprogramme.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA.M.M.A., R.L.M. and M.J.B.V Conceived and designed Research; M.M.D., M.K.D., P.M., G.M.S.O., G.D-U., F.G., F.C.M., L.N., S.M., J-P.R., A.M.G.B., SP and C.J.B., collected data and conducted research; A.M.M.A., M.M.D., M.K.D., J.V.D.A . and A.G.P. analyzed and interpreted data; A.M.M.A., M.M.D., M.K.D wrote the initial paper; A.M.M.A., A.G.P., J.V.D.A., R.L.M., and M.J.B.V. revised the paper; A.M.M.A had primary responsibility for final content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank many collaborators in Africa who helped to collect tsetse fly samples.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eElsen, P., Amoudi, M. A. \u0026amp; Leclercq, M. First record of \u003cem\u003eGlossina fuscipes fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e Newstead, 1910 and \u003cem\u003eGlossina morsitans submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e Newstead,1910 in southwestern Saudi Arabia. \u003cem\u003eAnn. Soc. Belg. MedTrop\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e70\u003c/b\u003e, 281\u0026ndash;287 (1990).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLeak, S. G. 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Vectors\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e9\u003c/b\u003e, 448 (2016).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSimo, G. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Molecular identification of \u003cem\u003eWolbachia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSodalis glossinidius\u003c/em\u003e in the midgut of \u003cem\u003eGlossina fuscipes quanzensis\u003c/em\u003e from the Democratic Republic of Congo. \u003cem\u003eParasite Paris Fr\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e26\u003c/b\u003e, 5 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOdeniran, P. O., Macleod, E. T., Ademola, I. O. \u0026amp; Welburn, S. C. Endosymbionts interaction with trypanosomes in Palpalis group of Glossina captured in southwest Nigeria. \u003cem\u003eParasitol. Int\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e70\u003c/b\u003e, 64\u0026ndash;69 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCouey, H. M. \u0026amp; Chew, V. 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Development of a low-cost tsetse trap and odour baits for \u003cem\u003eGlossina pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. longipennis\u003c/em\u003e in Kenya. \u003cem\u003eMed. Vet. Entomol\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e, 153\u0026ndash;164 (1991).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHargrove, J. \u0026amp; Langley, P. A. Sterilizing tsetse (Diptera: Glossinidae) in the field: a successful trial. \u003cem\u003eBull. Entomol. Res\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e80\u003c/b\u003e, 397\u0026ndash;403 (1990).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMihok, S. The development of a multipurpose trap (the Nzi) for tsetse and other biting flies. \u003cem\u003eBull. Entomol. Res\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e92\u003c/b\u003e, 385\u0026ndash;403 (2002).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKappmeier, K. A newly developed odour-baited \u0026lsquo;H trap\u0026rsquo; for the live collection of \u003cem\u003eGlossina brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eGlossina austeni\u003c/em\u003e (Diptera: Glossinidae) in South Africa. \u003cem\u003eOnderstepoort J. Vet. Res\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e67\u003c/b\u003e, 15\u0026ndash;26 (2000).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBaker, M. D. \u0026amp; Krafsur, E. S. Identification and properties of microsatellite markers in tsetse flies \u003cem\u003eGlossina morsitans\u003c/em\u003e sensu lato (Diptera: Glossinidae). \u003cem\u003eMol. Ecol. Notes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e, 234\u0026ndash;236 (2001).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNjiru, Z. K. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e The use of ITS1 rDNA PCR in detecting pathogenic African trypanosomes. \u003cem\u003eParasitol. 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R package version 4.2.4. (2021)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVenables, W. N. \u0026amp; Ripley, B. D. \u003cem\u003eModern Applied Statistics with S\u003c/em\u003e (Springer, 2002).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eClarke, K. R. \u0026amp; Gorley, R. N. Getting started with PRIMER v7. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://updates.primer-e.com/primer7/manuals/Getting_started_with_PRIMER_7.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2016)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnderson, M. J. A new method for non-parametric multivariate analysis of variance. \u003cem\u003eAustral Ecol\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cb\u003e26\u003c/b\u003e, 32\u0026ndash;46 (2001).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eTable\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;1:\u003c/strong\u003e List of collections of tsetse adults\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ewith valid DNA screened for \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand Trypanosomes* infection in wild tsetse population in East, Central, South and West Africa\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCountry\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of collection flies with valid DNA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCollection year\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthiopia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e459\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenya\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2007, 2008, 2009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUganda\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e338\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2005, 2009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDemocratic R. of Congo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1995\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZambia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e211\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e526\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1995, 2018, 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMozambique\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSwaziland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2018, 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2274\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2008, 2010, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGhana*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e234\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e314\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2008, 2009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMali*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e364\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSenegal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e547\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2008, 2009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.816485225505442%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"21.30637636080871%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e95\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" width=\"29.393468118195955%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6860\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"23.48367029548989%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Part of the trypanosome infection in West Africa was screened by Ouedraogo \u003cem\u003eet al.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eTable\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/strong\u003e: Global prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and Trypanosomes in tsetse samples analyzed per countries \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.428120063191153%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.434439178515007%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCountry\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;prevalence (%)*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.2827804107425%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrypanosome prevalence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.428120063191153%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.434439178515007%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthiopia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94/459 (20.48)\u003csup\u003eabe\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.2827804107425%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92/459 (20.04)\u003csup\u003eade\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"10\" width=\"13.428120063191153%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEast, central and southern Africa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.434439178515007%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenya\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e288/1008 (28.57)\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.2827804107425%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e448/1008 (44.44)abe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDemocratic R. of Congo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4/35 (11.43)\u003csup\u003eabe\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1/35 (2.86)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMozambique\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7/100 (7.00)\u003csup\u003eabe\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80/526 (15.21)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9/526 (1.71)\u003csup\u003eace\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/30 (0.00)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEswatini\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/30 (0.00)\u003csup\u003eabce\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8/100 (8.00)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e227/338 (67.16)\u003csup\u003eadc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e128/338 (37.87)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUganda\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91/210 (43.33)\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19/210 (9.05)\u003csup\u003eace\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZambia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11/210 (5.24)\u003csup\u003eabe\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97/210 (46.19)\u003csup\u003eade\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39/211(18.48)\u003csup\u003eabe\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113/211 (53.55)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubtotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e770/3127 (24.62)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e986/3127 (31.53)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" width=\"13.428120063191153%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWest Africa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.434439178515007%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11/2274 (0.48)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.2827804107425%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e498/2274 (21.90\u003csup\u003e)ae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGhana\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/234 (0.00)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e143/234 (61.11)\u003csup\u003ead\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90/314 (28.66)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7/314 (2.22)\u003csup\u003eac\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMali\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/364 (0.00)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25/364 (6.86)\u003csup\u003eace\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSenegal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/547 (0.00)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78/547 (14.25)\u003csup\u003eae\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.37956204379562%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubtotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.554744525547445%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e101/3733 (2.70)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"43.065693430656935%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e750/3733 (20.09)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.428120063191153%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.434439178515007%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal (Average)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"23.85466034755134%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e871/6860 (12.69)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.2827804107425%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1736/6860 (25.30)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003eValues indicated by the same lower-case letter do not differ significantly at the 5% level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eTable\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;3\u003c/strong\u003e: \u0026nbsp;Global prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and Trypanosomes in tsetse samples analyzed per tsetse species\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;prevalence (%)*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrypanosome prevalence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5/346 (1.44)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58/346 (16.76)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14/350 (4)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34/350 (9.71)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24/183 (13.11)\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31/183 (16.93)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8/154 (5.2)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61/154 (39.6)\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e156/369 (42.27)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e152/369 (41.19)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1/343 (0.29)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62/343 (18.07)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e567/1844 (30.74)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e711/1844 (38.55)\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92/2168 (4.24)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e343/2168 (15.82)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. palpalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4/35 (11.4)\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1/ 35 (2.8)\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/1068 (0.0)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e283/1068 (26.49)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"29.72972972972973%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eaverage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.98198198198198%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e871/6860 (12.6)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"38.288288288288285%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1736/6860 (25.3)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Values indicated by the same lower-case letter do not differ significantly at the 5% level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eTable\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;4:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; Global prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and Trypanosomes in tsetse samples analyzed per country and tsetse species\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCountry\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;prevalence (%)*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrypanosome prevalence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMozambique\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/50 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5/50 (10.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2/226 (0.88)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49/226 (21.68)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSwaziland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/30 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/30 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3/40 (7.50)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4/40 (10.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMozambique\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7/50 (14.00)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3/50 (6.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7/300 (2.33)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31/300 (10.33)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenya\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20/89 (22.47)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21/89 (23.60)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUganda\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4/94 (4.25)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10/ 94 (10.63)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8/154 (5.20)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61/154 (\u003cstrong\u003e39.61\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenya\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54/85 (\u003cstrong\u003e63.52\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;a\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2/ 85 (2.35)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62/81 (\u003cstrong\u003e76.54\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;a\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43/81 (\u003cstrong\u003e53.08\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZambia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8/64 (12.50)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;b\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31/64 (\u003cstrong\u003e48.43\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32/139 (23.02)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75/139 (\u003cstrong\u003e53.95\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1/343 (0.30)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62/343 (18.07)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthiopia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94/459 (20.48)\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92/459 (20.04)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenya\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e214/834 (25.65)\u003csup\u003eac\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e425/834 (\u003cstrong\u003e50.95\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e162/217 (\u003cstrong\u003e74.65\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81/217 (\u003cstrong\u003e37.32\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUganda\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87/116 (\u003cstrong\u003e75.00\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9/116 (7.75)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7/72 (9.72)\u003csup\u003eac\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38/72 (\u003cstrong\u003e52.77\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZambia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3/146 (2.05)\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66/146 (\u003cstrong\u003e45.20\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. palpalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDemocratic R. of Congo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4/35 (11.42)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1/ 35 (2.86)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2/943 (0.21)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e235/943 (24.92)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90/314 (28.66)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7/314 (2.22)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMali\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/364 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25/364 (6.87)\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSenegal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/547 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78/547 (14.25)\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/834 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e140/834 (16.79)\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGhana\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.25991189427313%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0/234 (0.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"33.480176211453745%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e143/234 (\u003cstrong\u003e61.11\u003c/strong\u003e)\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.525597269624573%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eaverage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.7679180887372%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e871/6860 (12.69)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.938566552901023%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1736/6860 (25.30)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003eValues indicated by the same lower-case letter do not differ significantly at the 5% level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5.\u003c/strong\u003e Permanova analysis for Countries and tsetse species for \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and trypanosomes (single and multiple) infection prevalence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; SS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; MS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePseudo-F\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP(perm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Unique perms\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCountries\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1185.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.6004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.009\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e998\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7899.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1128.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.4756\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.041\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResiduals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2279.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e455.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34074\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"14.285714285714286%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin the table, statistically significant differences (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05) can be seen in bold values in countries and tsetse species. Perm(s) = permutations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eTable\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;6\u003c/strong\u003e: Distribution of the association between the presence of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e spp and the presence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e according to the tsetse species and the country\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGlossina taxon\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCountry (Area, Collection Date)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS+/T+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS+/T-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS-/T+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS-/T-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania (Jozani, 1997)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania (Zanzibar, 1995)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania (Uguja Island, 1995)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa (North eastern Kwazulu Natal, 1999)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa (Lower Mkuze, 2018)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa (Saint Lucia, 2018)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa (False Bay Park, 2018)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMozambique (Reserva Especial de Maputo, 2019)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSwaziland (Mlawula Nature Reserve, 2019)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. austeni\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e346\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e58\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e283\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.02\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.31\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa (North eastern Kwazulu Natal, 1995)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa (Phinda, 2018)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e163\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa (Saint Lucia, 2018)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Africa (Hluhluwe, 2018)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMozambique (Reserva Especial de Maputo, 2019)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. brevipalpis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e350\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e34\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e302\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.57\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.21\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUganda (Buvuma island, 1994)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenya (Ikapolock, 2007)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenya (Obekai, 2007)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. f. fuscipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e183\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e19\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e26\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e133\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.59\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Comoe, 2008)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Folonzo, 2008)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. medicorum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e154\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e61\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e85\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.53\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.02\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Comoe, 2007)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e206\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Folonzo, 2008)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e134\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Sissili, 2008)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. submorsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e343\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e62\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e280\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.22\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.64\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. palpalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDemocratic Republic of Congo (Zaire, 1995)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e35\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e30\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania (Masang-tanga, 2005)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZambia (MFWE, Eastern Zambia, 2007)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (Mukondore, 2007)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (M. chiuyi, 2007)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (Rukomeshi, 2006)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (Kemukura, NA)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (Mushumashi, 2006)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (Makuti, 2006)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenya (Kari, 2006)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"16.99438202247191%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"41.57303370786517%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.056179775280899%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e369\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e58\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.03932584269663%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e98\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.46067415730337%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e94\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.601123595505618%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e119\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.337078651685394%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.18\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"center\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" width=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGlossina taxon\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCountry (Area, Collection Date)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eN\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS+/T+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS+/T-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS-/T+\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS-/T-\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZambia (MFWE, Eastern Zambia, 2007)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenya (Mwea, Katotoi, Emsos, Kari, Kiria, Koibos,Meru and Ruma national park, 2007)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e834\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e126\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e337\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e283\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthiopia (Arba Minch, 2007)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e459\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e288\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanzania (Masang-Tanga, 2005)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e217\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (Mushumashi, 2006)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (Cokwe, 2006)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (Rukomeshi, 2006)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZimbabwe (Makuti, 2006)\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUganda (Lira,Omogo, Budaka, Moyo, NA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1844\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e170\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e397\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e541\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e736\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25.4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Lorepeni)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Bouroum bouroum)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Kourignon)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Kampty)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Ouarkoye)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Dedougou)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Bama)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Comoe)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e123\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Folonzo)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e212\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e185\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Kartasso)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e136\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e136\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Kenedougou)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso (Mossoudogou)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea (Bafing)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea \u0026nbsp;(Dekonkore)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea \u0026nbsp;(Kangoliya\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e126\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea \u0026nbsp;(Karifale)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea \u0026nbsp;(Kifala)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea (Lemonako)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea \u0026nbsp;(Mini)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGuinea (Tinkisso)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMali\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e364\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e339\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSenegal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e547\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e469\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. p. gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2168\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e92\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e343\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1733\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e18.06\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e834\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e694\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGhana\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e234\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"19.971870604781998%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eG. tachinoides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"37.271448663853725%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll locations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1068\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.469760900140647%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e283\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"6.610407876230661%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e785\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.766526019690577%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" width=\"5.344585091420535%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Glossina, Trypanozoon spp, Sodalis glossinidius, microbiota, infection rate, interactions, PCR, qPCR ","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1136039/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1136039/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eTsetse flies, the vectors of African \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma,\u003c/em\u003e have a highly regulated and defined microbial fauna composed of three bacterial symbionts that may have a role to play in the establishment of \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infections in the flies and hence, may influence the vectorial competence of the released sterile males. \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e bacteria seem to interact with \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection in tsetse flies. Field-caught tsetse flies of ten different taxa and from 15 countries were screened using PCR to detect the presence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e species and their interaction. The results indicate that the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e varied with country and tsetse species. Trypanosome prevalence was higher in east, central and southern African countries than in west African countries. Tsetse fly infection rates with \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma vivax\u003c/em\u003e and Trypanozoon spp were higher in west African countries, whereas tsetse infection with \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma congolense\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eT. simiae, T. simiae (tsavo)\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eT. godfreyi\u003c/em\u003e infection prevalence were higher in east, central and south African countries. \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e prevalence was high in \u003cem\u003eGlossina morsitans morsitans \u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes \u003c/em\u003ebut absent in\u003cem\u003e Glossina tachinoides. \u003c/em\u003eDouble and triple infections with \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e taxa and coinfection of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e were rarely observed but it occurs in some taxa and locations. A significant Chi square value (\u0026lt; 0.05) seems to suggest that \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection correlate in \u003cem\u003eGlossina palpalis gambiensis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGlossina pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eGlossina medicorum\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eTrypanosoma\u003c/em\u003e infection significantly increased the density of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e in wild \u003cem\u003eG. m. morsitans\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eG. pallidipes\u003c/em\u003e flies however no significant impact of \u003cem\u003eSodalis\u003c/em\u003e infection on trypanosome density. \u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Prevalence of Trypanosoma and Sodalis in Wild Populations of Tsetse Flies: Impact on Sit Programmes for Tsetse Eradication","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2021-12-14 15:20:35","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1136039/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revision","date":"2021-12-22T19:04:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2021-12-20T19:11:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"94062e41-fcc7-4342-8303-1c99af8b98cc","date":"2021-12-16T10:10:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"a016a671-8e9a-4ad2-8c4d-651186a253e9","date":"2021-12-10T18:32:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2021-12-09T14:35:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2021-12-08T06:26:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2021-12-08T06:06:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2021-12-08T06:04:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2021-12-02T21:26:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3fde4ed8-9e8e-40a4-9003-825e0776dd6d","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 14th, 2021","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":9137650,"name":"Systems Biology"},{"id":9137651,"name":"Molecular Biology"},{"id":9137652,"name":"General Microbiology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-02-03T14:29:08+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2021-12-14 15:20:35","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-1136039","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1136039","identity":"rs-1136039","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"_2-kVJe1T_tPrBINL-cwx","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}