How do I evaluate myself? The importance of examining muscularity-based self-esteem in risk for eating disorder symptoms

How do I evaluate myself? 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The importance of examining muscularity-based self-esteem in risk for eating disorder symptoms Chloe White, Michael Maraun, Shannon Zaitsoff This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264651/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Eating Disorders → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: This study examined whether evaluating oneself based on muscularity may be relevant for men and women and whether this form of self-evaluation may relate to eating disorder symptoms most prominently in men, who frequently present with muscularity concerns. Method: Young adults (N = 290; 50.3% cisgender women) were recruited from a Canadian university and completed a modified version of the Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Questionnaire and a measure of eating disorder symptoms. Results: Men endorsed greater muscularity-based self-esteem than women, although women endorsed greater shape- and weight-based self-esteem than men. Despite differences in the forms of appearance on which men and women based their self-esteem, multi-group structural equation models demonstrated that there were no differences in the associations between shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem and eating disorder symptoms across men and women. However, shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem were associated with distinct eating disorder symptoms. Conclusions: Altogether, results provide nuanced information regarding the importance of assessing self-evaluation based on muscularity, alongside shape- and weight, as increased self-evaluation based on these appearance domains may confer risk for eating disorder symptoms. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Low global self-esteem has been identified as a core risk factor relating to eating disorders (ED) (see for review, Colmsee et al., 2021 ). Yet, more specifically than globel self-esteem, the extent to which individuals base their self-esteem on their appearance is consistently related to the development and maintenance of ED symptoms (Adams et al., 2017 ; Levinson et al., 2020 ; Sharpe et al., 2018 ). The form of the relationship between appearance-based self-esteem and ED symptoms may differ for men and women, in consequence of differences between the body ideals most relevant to men versus women. For instance, women’s body ideals draw largely on the qualities of thinness, leanness and tonedness. Thus, shape and weight are likely to play a greater role in determining appearance-based aspects of self-esteem for women than for men. Alternatively, body ideals for men overwhelmingly feature the pairing of muscular hypertrophy and leanness and thus, weight loss and shape may not serve as primary motivations for their ED behaviours (Glazer et al., 2021 ; Gorrell & Murray, 2019 ; Lavender et al., 2017 ). Accordingly, men are more likely to engage in muscle building and excessive exercise, while women are more likely to engage in restricting and purging behaviours (Forbush et al., 2014 ). However, although muscularity concerns predict ED behaviours in men, no research has sought to examine whether the self-esteem of men and women are, in fact, based on different aspects of appearance and how these differences relate to ED behaviours. Thus, we sought to elucidate the web of relationships extant between ED symptoms and the self-assessed impact of basing self-esteem on shape, weight, or muscularity for men and women. The Transdiagnostic Model of Eating Disorders suggests that common maintenance mechanisms operate across ED diagnostic categories (Fairburn, 2008 ; Fairburn et al., 2003 , 2009 ). Specifically, the model emphasizes the role of a dysfunctional system of self-evaluation as central to ED pathology. The Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory (SAWBS; Geller et al., 1998 ) examines this system of evaluation using a “pie” analogy. The SAWBS provides respondents with a circle and allows them to fill in the “pie” using different domains (i.e., intimate/romantic relationships, body shape and weight, competence at school/work, personality, friendships, face, personal development, competence at activities other than school/work) to indicate the degree that their self-esteem is derived from each area (Geller et al., 1998 ). Past research demonstrates in clinical and community samples that basing self-esteem on appearance relates to decreased global self-esteem (Geller et al., 1998 ; Tchanturia et al., 2002 ; Trottier et al., 2013 ) and further, that the greater portion of the “pie” that shape and weight occupy, the greater likelihood of experiencing disordered eating symptoms (Geller et al., 1998 , 2000 ). Much research has examined the association between shape and weight-based self-esteem and ED symptoms in females (Byrne et al., 2011 ; de Jong et al., 2018 ; Fairburn et al., 2009 ; Geller et al., 1998 ); however, little research has sought to clarify how aspects of appearance-based self-esteem relate to ED symptoms in men and research has primarily examined two components of appearance-based self-esteem: shape and weight. Basing self-esteem on muscularity (muscularity-based self-esteem) may be particularly important to assess alongside shape and weight-based self-esteem in the context of ED symptoms in men. Shape broadly relates to an emphasis on curvature of one’s waist or hips, flat stomach, and the experience of how clothes fit, yet muscularity is specifically oriented to the tone, size, and curves of muscles. Muscularity concerns relate to ED symptoms in men (Griffiths et al., 2016 ) and are more prevalent in men than women (Hoffmann & Warschburger, 2017 ). Yet, recent research also highlights the relevance of muscularity concerns for women, with emerging research suggesting the importance of a ‘fit-ideal’ encompassing both thinness and muscularity for women (Bozsik et al., 2018 ; Donovan et al., 2020 ). Of importance, muscularity concerns and goals qualitatively differ across genders, with men often seeking to enhance muscle size nearly exponentially and women seeking to increase muscularity tone and size to be “just right” (Benton & Karazsia, 2015 ; McComb & Mills, 2022a , 2022b ). Thus, muscularity may be a relevant and distinct appearance domain that men, and some women, base their self-esteem; yet no research has examined the relevance of muscularity-based self-esteem alongside shape- and weight-based self-esteem when examining risk for ED symptoms. Given the paucity of research examining the association between appearance-based self-esteem and ED symptoms in men, this study had three aims: (1) examine shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem in men and women using the SAWBS and (2) examine whether associations between shape, weight and muscularity-based self-esteem and ED symptoms (e.g., binge eating, purging, restriction, excessive exercise, muscle building) differ in men and women. differ in men and women. We hypothesized that: (a) Women will base more of their self-esteem on shape and weight than men, and (b) men will base more of their self-esteem on muscularity than women. Gender will moderate associations between shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem and ED symptoms. Specifically: (a) For men, in comparison to women, the most notable associations will be between shape and muscularity-based self-esteem and excessive exercise and muscle building; (b) In women, in comparison to men, the notable associations will be between the weight-based self-esteem and restriction and purging. Method Participants & Procedures Participants were undergraduate students recruited from the psychology participant pool at a large Canadian university in 2023. Participants completed a battery of questionnaires including demographic information and questionnaires assessing self-esteem, body image, muscle dysmorphia, and ED symptoms in exchange for course credit. After providing informed consent, participants completed online questionnaires in the same order. On the final page of the survey, participants were directed to an external link ( https://gleaming-brioche-43ce26.netlify.app ) where they completed the final measures interactive figure (i.e., the Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory). Three attention-check questions were included for respondents to correctly respond prior to advancing. All components of the study were approved by the Simon Fraser University Research Ethics Board (REB #30001870). Of the 346 participants who completed the study, 9 participants were excluded for being outside of the accepted age range, 14 were excluded for failing both attention checks, and 29 participants were excluded due to failure to complete the Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory. Thus, the final sample for analyses included 290 participants (50.3% cisgender women, 49.7% cisgender men). Detailed demographic information is presented in Table 1. Table 1 Demographic Information Characteristic n (%) Gender Female 146 (50.3%) Male 144 (49.7%) Sexual Orientation Heterosexual 216 (74.5%) Bisexual/Pansexual 32 (11.0%) Pansexual 8 (2.8%) Queer 3 (1.0%) Gay 4 (1.4%) Lesbian 1 (0.3%) Questioning or unsure 15 (5.2%) Other or Prefer Not to Answer 6 (2.0%) Ethnicity White 84 (29.0%) Black 4 (1.4%) Hispanic 9 (3.1%) South Asian 63 (21.7%) East Asian 67 (23.1%) Southeast Asian 29 (10.0%) Middle Eastern 10 (3.4%) Multiracial 16 (5.5%) Indigenous 3 (1.0%) Prefer Not to Answer 5 (1.7%) Parental Income Unemployed or disabled 2 (0.7%) Under $ 50,000 35 (12.1%) $ 51,000-100,000 63 (21.7%) $ 101,000-200,000 69 (23.8%) Over $ 200,000 22 (7.6%) Unknown or Prefer Not to Answer 99 (34.1%) Materials The Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory (SAWBS; Geller et al., 1997 ). Participants completed a version of the SAWBS that was adapted for administration online (versus paper and pencil) and included muscularity as one of the domains. The SAWBS is an interactive measure wherein participants view a “pie” circle that represents their entire self-esteem and a list of domains that they can use to indicate the extent that different components make-up their self-esteem pie. The domains include intimate or romantic relationships, body shape, body weight, muscularity, competence at school/work, personality, friendships, face, personal development, competence at activities other than school/work, and other (individuals write in an attribute not covered in the list). Individuals select whichever components (including a write in option if desired) are important to how they have felt about themselves over the past four weeks and rank the components in order of how much their opinion of themselves is based on each. Respondents then indicated the extent that each attribute made up their total percentage of self-esteem, which automatically appeared as a portion their “pie.” The computed score represented reliance on shape, weight and/or muscularity-based self-esteem as derived by the percentage of space occupied by shape, weight, or muscularity domains in the pie. The score reflects the exact percentage of the pie that each domain occupies out of 100; thus, it represents the degree that individuals’ self-esteem is based on shape, weight, and/or muscularity regardless of individuals contentment with each of these domains. The SAWBS has demonstrated excellent convergent validity with existing measures of self-esteem and excellent 1-week test-retest reliability in a sample of young women (r = .81; Geller et al., 1998 ). Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory (EPSI; Forbush et al., 2013 ). The EPSI is a 45-item questionnaire assessing disordered eating symptoms over the last 4 weeks on a 5-point scale from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). We included subscales related to binge eating (i.e., overeating; 8 items), purging (i.e., use of diuretics, diet pills, and self-induced vomiting; 6 items), restricting (i.e., limiting food intake; 6 items), excessive exercise (i.e., I felt that I needed to exercise nearly every day; 5 items), and muscle building (i.e., use of muscle building supplements and cognitions associated with muscle building; 5 items). The EPSI has demonstrated factorial invariance across men and women, good-to-excellent internal consistency, and good 2–4-week test-retest reliability across subscales (α = .71–.88; r = .71–.85; Forbush et al., 2013 ). In this study, EPSI subscales had acceptable-to-excellent internal consistency estimates in men (αs = .76–.89) and women (αs = .75–.90). Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1979). The RSES is a 10-item questionnaire assessing global self-esteem. Respondents indicate the extent that they agree with statements using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). Thus, high scores represent higher overall global self-esteem. The RSES has demonstrated good-to-excellent convergent and discriminant validity in young adults and has good 1–4-week test-retest reliability in undergraduates (r = .82 − .84; Martín-Albo et al., 2007; Rosenberg, 1979; Sinclair et al., 2010). In this study, the RSES demonstrated excellent internal consistency estimates in men (α = .90) and women (α = .90). Statistical Analyses To address Hypothesis 1a-1b independent samples t-tests were used to examine the differences in shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem in men versus women. Hypothesis 2a-2b employed multigroup structural equation modeling involving the specification of four separate models with varying degrees of constraints. This statistical methodology allowed us to first examine structural equation models specifying shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem as predictors of ED symptoms in men and women separately (Model 1; M1). Of importance, Model 1 did not contain any restrictions and was specified by the null B rule. In other words, the model varied on 0 degrees of freedom and was unfalsifiable. The second model specified shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem as predictors of ED symptoms while holding regression coefficients consistent across men and women (Model 2; M2). The third model specified shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem as predictors of ED symptoms while holding regressions coefficients and residual variances of the ED symptom variables (each of which captures the amount of variance in each ED symptom variables that remains unexplained, following its regression on the three dependent variables) consistent across men and women (Model 3; M3). The fourth, and final model, specified shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem as predictors of ED symptoms while holding regression coefficients, residual variances of ED symptom variables, and pairwise covariances of the residuals of the ED symptom variables (each of which captures the amount of linear association between corresponding EPSI variables that remains unexplained, following regression on the three SAWBS variables) consistent across men and women (Model 4; M4). The specification of these models produces robust standard errors and Bentler-Sattora test statistics. These computations provide information regarding the fit of each specified model. Following specification of the models, a hierarchical test of the differences between Model 1 through Model 4 was conducted. These issues of invariance are addressed through the fitting of up to four multi-sample models to the data using the Lavaan package of R Lavaan (Rosseel, 2012 ). All of M1 to M4 derive from what is designated, herein, as the Core Model (see Appendix) which was established by the Null B rule (Bollen, 1989 ), and form a nested sequence of models with M1 the least, and M4 the most, restricted. The specific hypotheses expressed in 2a and 2b are assessed on the basis of estimated parameters of whichever of M1 to M4 is most consistent with the data. A variety of assumptions including assumption of normality of each variable, homogeneity of variances, and linear dependence of each variable on other variables underlie several of the statistical analyses employed. Further information concerning the core model, model specifications, and assumption checking are presented in the Appendix. Testing Procedure . Following an initial fitting of M1 to the data, the issue of Gender invariance in the regression parameters of the Core Model will be addressed by imposing the restrictions inherent to each of models M2 – M4. Decision-making regarding the suitability of these restricted models will be based on the chi-square difference testing procedure. In particular, as indicated in Table 1, the test of the hypothesis pair \(\left[ {{H_0}:{\Gamma _{\left[ M \right]}}={\Gamma _{\left[ W \right]}},{H_1}:\sim {H_0}} \right]\) will be based on a chi-square difference test [M2 vs. M1 on 15 degrees of freedom]. Conditional on a retention of \({H_0}:{\Gamma _{\left[ M \right]}}={\Gamma _{\left[ W \right]}}\) , the test of the hypothesis pair \(\left[ {{H_0}:Diag{{\left( \Psi \right)}_{\left[ M \right]}}=Diag{{\left( \Psi \right)}_{\left[ W \right]}},{H_1}:\sim {H_0}} \right]\) will be based on a chi-square difference test of M3 versus M2 [on 5 degrees of freedom]. Finally, conditional on a retention of \({H_0}:Diag{\left( \Psi \right)_{\left[ M \right]}}=Diag{\left( \Psi \right)_{\left[ W \right]}}\) , the test of the hypothesis pair \(\left[ {{H_0}:{\Psi _{\left[ M \right]}}={\Psi _{\left[ W \right]}},{H_1}:\sim {H_0}} \right]\) will be based on a chi-square difference test of M4 versus M3 [on 10 degrees of freedom]. Results Descriptive Analyses Descriptive information and correlations among study variables are in Table 2 (see Page 14). SAWBS Shape and Weight subscales were highly interrelated for men and women. In contrast, SAWBS Muscle had small-to-medium associations with SAWBS Shape but was unrelated to SAWBS Weight for men and women. Overall, muscle building most strongly related to muscularity-based self-esteem across men and women, while purging most strongly related weight-based self-esteem in men. SAWBS Shape and Muscle demonstrated small-to-medium negative correlations with global self-esteem in men and SAWBS Weight and Muscle demonstrated small-to-medium negative correlations with global self-esteem in women. Independent samples t-tests examining mean differences in ED symptoms across men and women revealed that women engaged in greater levels of purging ( t (248) = -2.76, p = .003; d = -0.33) and restriction ( t (284) = -4.55; p < .001; d = -0.54), than men. Alternatively, men engaged in greater excessive exercise ( t (281) = 4.35; p < .001; d = 0.52) and muscle building ( t (253) = 6.07 p < .001; d = 0.73), than women. Hypotheses 1a-1b Findings showed that women reported higher levels of shape-based ( t (288) = -3.30; p < .001; d = -0.39) and weight-based self-esteem ( t (219) = -4.01; p < .001; d = -0.47) than men. Further, findings showed that men reported higher levels of muscularity-based self-esteem ( t (202) = 5.44; p < .001; d = 0.64) than women. Hypotheses 2a-2b The hypotheses contained within sets 2a and 2b broadly pertain to the issue of invariance, over the levels of the variable gender. The model testing procedure (see Appendix) led to the selection of M2 as the correct description of the data. Given that in M2 slope parameters are invariant over levels of Gender, this implies a rejection of the hypotheses contained in sets 2a and 2b, which posited that the pattern of relationships between the three self-esteem domains and the ED symptom variables would be different for the two genders (see Table 3). For ease of depiction, the estimated dependencies of the ED symptom variables on the three self-esteem domains are diagrammed for each facet separately in Figures 1-3. As can be seen, binge eating had a positive linear dependency on shape-based self-esteem; purging, excessive exercise, and muscle building had positive linear dependencies on the weight-based self-esteem; and binge eating, excessive exercise, and muscle building had positive linear dependencies on muscularity-based self-esteem. Table 2 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Among Shape, Weight, and Muscularity-Based Self-Esteem, Global Self-Esteem and Disordered Eating Symptoms Presented Separately for Men and Women Self-Esteem ED Symptoms 1. Age 2. RSES 3. Shape 4.Weight 5.Muscle 6.Binge 7.Purge 8.Restr 9.Exer 10.Muscle 1. Age - .05 .03 -.02 .19* -.01 -.05 -.08 -.10 .00 2. RSES .00 - -.18* -.26*** .05 -.34*** -.26** -.32*** -.14 -.09 3. SAWBS Shape .02 -.23** - .43*** .19* .24** .20* .00 .14 .04 4. SAWBS Weight -.07 -.11 .37*** - -.07 .20* .40*** .10 .30*** .12 5. SAWBS Muscle -.08 -.26** .28*** .07 - .06 .11 .01 .25** .40*** 6. EPSI Binge .10 -.38*** .15 .10 .20* - .46*** .18* .34*** .30** 7. EPSI Purge .05 -.24** .24** .24** .01 .23** - .22** .27** .17* 8. EPSI Restrict -.10 -.10 .03 .04 -.06 -.07 .27** - .16* .15 9. EPSI Exercise -.14 .05 .12 .16 .43*** .15 .12 .01 - .60*** 10. EPSI Muscle -.05 -.15 .23 .10 .54*** .23** .17 .14 .71*** - Means (SD) Men 19.33 (1.61) 27.76 (6.58) 6.74 (7.51) 4.74 (5.80) 7.82 (10.66) 9.25 (5.53) 0.73 (2.10) 6.39 (5.10) 9.67 (5.65) 6.74 (5.26) Women 19.10 (1.47) 26.84 (5.84) 9.89 (8.78) 8.91 (11.14) 2.48 (4.99) 10.50 (6.84) 1.62 (3.20) 9.35 (5.90) 6.76 (5.61) 3.38 (3.93) Note . SAWBS = Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory; EPSI = Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory. Correlations for men are below the diagonal. Correlations for women are above the diagonal. Raw values are presented for descriptive information. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 Table 3 Comparison of Fit of Model 1 Through Model 3 Examining Gender Differences in the Relat Relationship Between Shape, Weight, and Muscularity-based Self-Esteem and Eating Disorder Symptoms Number of Input Points Parameters Estimated df 2 p df diff 2 diff p diff M1 72 72 0 0 .00 - - M2 72 57 15 10.72 .69 15 10.17 .81 M3* 72 52 20 25.80 .07 5 15.33 .008 Note. M1 = Model 1, M2 = Model 2, M3 = Model 3; *rejected null hypothesis. Discussion The Transdiagnostic Model of Eating Disorders posits that basing one’s self-esteem disproportionately on shape and weight is a central factor in the development and maintenance of ED symptoms. However, there exist crucial differences in how men and women evaluate their bodies, which may result in gender differences in the aspects of appearance-based self-esteem most relevant for men and women. Yet, no research has sought to examine the relationship between muscularity-based self-esteem, in addition to shape- and weight-based self-esteem, and ED symptoms in men and women. Thus, this study first examined whether men and women differed in the extent to which they based their self-esteem on shape, weight, and muscularity. Women reported greater levels of shape- and weight-based self-esteem than men, while men endorsed greater muscularity-based self-esteem than women. Second, we examined whether associations between appearance-based self-esteem and ED symptoms varied by gender. Overall, the relationships between specific forms of appearance-based self-esteem and ED symptoms did not vary by gender. However, specific gender invariant relationships between shape-, weight- and muscularity-based self-esteem and ED symptoms emerged. Altogether, results provide nuanced information regarding the importance of muscularity-based self-esteem, alongside shape- and weight-based self-esteem, as they relate to ED symptoms in men and women. Consistent with hypotheses, women endorsed greater shape- and weight-based self-esteem than men and men endorsed greater muscularity-based self-esteem than women. Yet, both shape and weight-based self-esteem related to lower global self-esteem in men, while only shape and weight-based self-esteem related to lower global self-esteem in women. Research with female university students, women “at-risk” of developing an eating disorder, and clinical samples of women with eating disorders (e.g., anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa) demonstrates that basing self-esteem on appearance relates to decreased overall self-esteem (Geller et al., 1997; Tchanturia et al., 2002; Trottier et al., 2013); yet this study is among the first to clarify how basing self-esteem on different forms of appearance relates to self-esteem in men. Further, past research highlights muscularity concerns prominence for men (Ganson et al., 2023; Nagata et al., 2020), yet no research has investigated the relevance of muscularity as a construct distinct from shape and weight. Thus, this finding extends past research and highlights that overevaluation of muscularity may be important to assess alongside shape- and weight-based self-esteem across genders. Despite differences in the forms of appearance on which men and women based their self-esteem, there were no differences in the associations between shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem and ED symptoms across men and women, although specific relationships emerged. These findings suggest that shape-, weight, and muscularity-based self-esteem may be equally important for men and women. Thus, while men and women might internalize different body ideals and engage in different ED behaviours, the forms of appearance-based self-esteem underlying engagement in these behaviours are the same. In fact, these findings underscore the relevance of muscularity-based self-esteem and evaluation of muscularity for men and women. Indeed, research suggests that women internalize thin and muscular ideals concurrently resulting in internalization of a ‘fit-ideal’ (Uhlmann et al., 2018). Internalization of the fit-ideal relates to pathological exercise behaviours in women (Donovan et al., 2020) and internalization of the muscularity-ideal relates to pathological exercise in men (Fatt et al., 2019). Thus, this research is consistent with these findings that weight- and muscularity-based self-esteem relate to excessive exercise and muscle building in men and women. It may be that the popularization of the ‘fit-ideal’ for women has increased the importance of muscularity for women, resulting in the relevance of muscularity-based self-esteem for both men and women. These findings underscore the evolving nature of body ideals across genders and may provide evidence of the importance of targeting muscular and thin ideals in existing treatments across genders. Strengths, Limitations, and Future Directions This is the first study to include muscularity as a distinct appearance-based evaluative category separate from shape- and weight-based self-esteem, despite research showing that men and women prioritize different ideals which relates to different ED symptoms (Hoffmann & Warschburger, 2017, 2018; Lavender et al., 2017). Thus, the assessment of the degree that men and women base their self-esteem on muscularity as a domain distinct from other appearance-based categories such as shape and weight. Furthermore, we translated the SAWBS (Geller et al., 1997), a pencil measure of shape- and weight-based self-esteem, into an easily used online measure. The online measure automatically calculates the degrees that each domain “makes up” the pie, omitting the need for researchers to measure and document participants’ physical drawings. Last, we recruited a diverse sample of men and women. Over 50% of the sample identified as South Asian, East Asian, or Southeast Asian. Of importance, South Asian women are particularly at risk for ED symptoms (see for review, Khasru, 2022) and more research needs to be done to understand risk factors for ED symptoms in diverse samples (Cummins et al., 2005). Findings must be interpreted within the context of limitations. First, the study used a cross-sectional design, limiting the ability to make causal claims. Future research should seek to examine the role of appearance-based self-esteem longitudinally to enhance understanding of how appearance-based self-esteem predicts ED symptoms. Further, despite recruitment of a large and diverse sample with a nearly equal gender distribution, we only analyzed cisgender individuals. Non-binary and transgender young adults are at particularly high-risk for the development of ED symptoms (Bell et al., 2019; Coelho et al., 2019). Thus, future research should examine how appearance-based self-esteem manifests and relates to ED symptoms in gender diverse populations. Finally, the present study ascribed pre-defined categories of “shape”, “weight”, and “muscularity” for respondents to include in their self-esteem pie which may have biased responses. Thus, qualitative research examining the forms of muscularity and muscle ideals most relevant to men and women may be needed to understand how qualitative differences in appearance-based self-esteem relate to ED symptoms. A better understanding of appearance-based self-esteem can aid in tailoring the transdiagnostic model and existing treatments and assessment. Declarations Ethics Approval & Consent Declaration The following study was reviewed and approved by the Simon Fraser University Research Ethics Board (REB #30001870). All participants underwent a process of informed consent prior to participating in the research presented in this manuscript. Funding Declaration The primary author (Chloe White) received funding for the studies associated with the production of this manuscript, including funding from the Soroptimist Foundation of Canada Grant, the Social Science and Humanities Research Council Canada Graduate Masters Scholarship, and the Canadian Institute of Health Research Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship. No funding was directly associated with the production of this manuscript. Author Contribution CW and SZ were responsible for study conceptualization, and CW was responsible for writing the original draft, investigation and project administration, and data curation. MM and CW were responsible for formal data analysis and methodology. SZ was responsible for providing resources, supervision, and reviewing and editing the manuscript. Data Availability Data is available upon request. References Adams, K. E., Tyler, J. M., Calogero, R., & Lee, J. (2017). 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Eating Disorders in Asian Populations: A Critique of Current Approaches to the Study of Culture, Ethnicity, and Eating Disorders. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 75 (4), 553–574. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.75.4.553 de Jong, M., Schoorl, M., & Hoek, H. W. (2018). Enhanced cognitive behavioural therapy for patients with eating disorders: A systematic review. Current Opinion in Psychiatry , 31 (6), 436–444. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000452 Donovan, C. L., Uhlmann, L. R., & Loxton, N. J. (2020). Strong is the New Skinny, but is it Ideal?: A Test of the Tripartite Influence Model using a new Measure of Fit-Ideal Internalisation. Body Image , 35 , 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.09.002 Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eating Disorders . Guilford Press. Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., Doll, H. A., O’Connor, M. E., Bohn, K., Hawker, D. M., Wales, J. A., & Palmer, R. L. (2009). Transdiagnostic Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Patients With Eating Disorders: A Two-Site Trial With 60-Week Follow-Up. American Journal of Psychiatry , 166 (3), 311–319. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08040608 Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., & Shafran, R. (2003). Cognitive behaviour therapy for eating disorders: A “transdiagnostic” theory and treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy , 41 (5), 509–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00088-8 Fatt, S. J., Fardouly, J., & Rapee, R. M. (2019). #malefitspo: Links between viewing fitspiration posts, muscular-ideal internalisation, appearance comparisons, body satisfaction, and exercise motivation in men. New Media & Society , 21 (6), 1311–1325. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818821064 Forbush, K. T., Wildes, J. E., & Hunt, T. K. (2014). Gender norms, psychometric properties, and validity for the Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory: Norms, Psychometric Data, and Validity for the Epsi. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 47 (1), 85–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22180 Forbush, K. T., Wildes, J. E., Pollack, L. O., Dunbar, D., Luo, J., Patterson, K., Petruzzi, L., Pollpeter, M., Miller, H., & Stone, A. (2013). Development and Validation of the Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory (EPSI) . 20. Ganson, K. T., Hallward, L., Cunningham, M. L., Rodgers, R. F., Murray, S. B., & Nagata, J. M. (2023). Muscle dysmorphia symptomatology among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. Body Image , 44 , 178–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2023.01.001 Geller, J., Johnston, C., & Madsen, K. (1997). The Role of Shape and Weight in Self-Concept: The Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory . 20. Geller, J., Johnston, C., Madsen, K., Goldner, E. M., Remick, R. A., & Birmingham, C. L. (1998). Shape- and weight-based self-esteem and the eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 24 (3), 285–298. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199811)24:33.0.CO;2-I Geller, J., Srikameswaran, S., Cockell, S. J., & Zaitsoff, S. L. (2000). Assessment of shape- and weight-based self-esteem in adolescents. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 28 (3), 339–345. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X(200011)28:33.0.CO;2-R Glazer, K. B., Ziobrowski, H. N., Horton, N. J., Calzo, J. P., & Field, A. E. (2021). The Course of Weight/Shape Concerns and Disordered Eating Symptoms Among Adolescent and Young Adult Males. The Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine , 69 (4), 615–621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.03.036 Gorrell, S., & Murray, S. B. (2019). Eating Disorders in Males. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America , 28 (4), 641–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2019.05.012 Griffiths, S., Hay, P., Mitchison, D., Mond, J. M., McLean, S. A., Rodgers, B., Massey, R., & Paxton, S. J. (2016). Sex differences in the relationships between body dissatisfaction, quality of life and psychological distress. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health , 40 (6), 518–522. https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.12538 Hoffmann, S., & Warschburger, P. (2017). Weight, shape, and muscularity concerns in male and female adolescents: Predictors of change and influences on eating concern. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 50 (2), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22635 Hoffmann, S., & Warschburger, P. (2018). Patterns of body image concerns in adolescence and early adulthood: A latent profile analysis. Eating Behaviors , 29 , 28–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2018.02.002 Khasru, I. (2022). Cover Girls: South Asian American Women’s Vulnerability to Body Dissatisfaction, Arising from Cultural Differences and Western Appearance-Based Media. The Columbia Journal of Asia , 1 (1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.52214/cja.v1i1.9168 Lavender, J. M., Brown, T. A., & Murray, S. B. (2017). Men, Muscles, and Eating Disorders: An Overview of Traditional and Muscularity-Oriented Disordered Eating. Current Psychiatry Reports , 19 (6), 32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-017-0787-5 Levinson, C. A., Vanzhula, I. A., Smith, T. W., & Stice, E. (2020). Group and longitudinal intra-individual networks of eating disorder symptoms in adolescents and young adults at-risk for an eating disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy , 135 , 103731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2020.103731 McComb, S. E., & Mills, J. S. (2022a). Eating and body image characteristics of those who aspire to the slim-thick, thin, or fit ideal and their impact on state body image. Body Image , 42 , 375–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.07.017 McComb, S. E., & Mills, J. S. (2022b). The effect of physical appearance perfectionism and social comparison to thin-, slim-thick-, and fit-ideal Instagram imagery on young women’s body image. Body Image , 40 , 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.12.003 Nagata, J. M., Ganson, K. T., & Austin, S. B. (2020). Emerging Trends in Eating Disorders among Sexual and Gender Minorities. Current Opinion in Psychiatry , 33 (6), 562–567. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000645 Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Statistical Software , 48 , 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02 Sharpe, H., Griffiths, S., Choo, T.-H., Eisenberg, M. E., Mitchison, D., Wall, M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2018). The relative importance of dissatisfaction, overvaluation and preoccupation with weight and shape for predicting onset of disordered eating behaviors and depressive symptoms over 15 years. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 51 (10), 1168–1175. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22936 Tchanturia, K., Troop, N. A., & Katzman, M. (2002). Same pie, different portions: Shape and weight-based self-esteem and eating disorder symptoms in a Georgian sample. European Eating Disorders Review , 10 (2), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.445 Trottier, K., McFarlane, T., & Olmsted, M. P. (2013). A Test of the Weight-Based Self-Evaluation Schema in Eating Disorders: Understanding the Link between Self-Esteem, Weight-Based Self-Evaluation, and Body Dissatisfaction. Cognitive Therapy and Research , 37 (1), 122–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-012-9446-7 Uhlmann, L. R., Donovan, C. L., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Bell, H. S., & Ramme, R. A. (2018). The fit beauty ideal: A healthy alternative to thinness or a wolf in sheep’s clothing? Body Image , 25 , 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.01.005 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files AppendixFeb7.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Oct, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Eating Disorders → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 02 Jun, 2025 Reviews received at journal 25 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 03 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 31 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 31 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 31 Mar, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 25 Mar, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 24 Mar, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 24 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 19 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6264651","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":436572258,"identity":"c81ce054-8ff1-48f5-a514-6e0babeb2490","order_by":0,"name":"Chloe White","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAz0lEQVRIie2OPQrCQBBGvyBMtbjtQkCvsEGw0cNsEGIniJWdEtBGsA1YeBXDgpUHCMQi3kAbSSH+RAU7d+0s9jUzxTzeAA7HPyJqk2ooArwCXSvFeyuEmkT0iwICCSuFr6bT4gg9qDfj7bhUGny+MUT2aRwk0CMiinL2UMROfVekCGc+Qx7OiLVzr9SQsFEuT4Wfh9VjkhcWCl4VQvWYFIaKyMI4WOD2UKKWz1SficxQ4UkvLUpE4TrWh1OpOg2+NFSeeNfPzizuHQ6Hw2HiDlWoP0WPICTuAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Simon Fraser University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chloe","middleName":"","lastName":"White","suffix":""},{"id":436572259,"identity":"65f55b6e-419f-42b4-8641-74a60700602a","order_by":1,"name":"Michael Maraun","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Simon Fraser University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michael","middleName":"","lastName":"Maraun","suffix":""},{"id":436572260,"identity":"7765154b-0b70-4f70-bb38-8b74c23b228d","order_by":2,"name":"Shannon Zaitsoff","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Simon Fraser University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shannon","middleName":"","lastName":"Zaitsoff","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-19 21:53:17","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264651/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264651/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-025-01419-3","type":"published","date":"2025-10-23T16:17:28+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":79761145,"identity":"1cff9c1e-9ed9-4fd0-ae4c-470761ec6083","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-02 11:21:08","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17300,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel 2 Shape-Based Self-Esteem and Eating Disorder Symptoms Across Men \u0026amp; Women\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .01, *** \u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264651/v1/c0847500317a54beff04613a.png"},{"id":79761146,"identity":"10c9f0b3-9fd7-4544-a456-d65c2f8ab8ef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-02 11:21:08","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23765,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel 2 Weight-Based Self-Esteem and Eating Disorder Symptoms Across Men \u0026amp; Women\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .01, *** \u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264651/v1/a8dc8613f39b0138ce5746a4.png"},{"id":79761148,"identity":"9a2ccc7f-5d6d-4acb-be04-861f44a8e568","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-02 11:21:09","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23869,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel 2 Muscularity-Based Self-Esteem and Eating Disorder Symptoms Across Men \u0026amp; Women\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05. **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .01. *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264651/v1/193ad55478fa669431a1c87d.png"},{"id":94490616,"identity":"29a17c73-c124-4c71-9c70-1ac793778d19","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 17:13:01","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":826466,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264651/v1/108e87ac-fc70-4f0f-b816-a68f7773db6d.pdf"},{"id":79761149,"identity":"87397332-664a-4794-bacf-30f4f973f6fe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-02 11:21:09","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":168961,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"AppendixFeb7.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6264651/v1/d24116d41c2bf24d8c58086a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"How do I evaluate myself? The importance of examining muscularity-based self-esteem in risk for eating disorder symptoms","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLow global self-esteem has been identified as a core risk factor relating to eating disorders (ED) (see for review, Colmsee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Yet, more specifically than globel self-esteem, the extent to which individuals base their self-esteem on their appearance is consistently related to the development and maintenance of ED symptoms (Adams et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Levinson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sharpe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The form of the relationship between appearance-based self-esteem and ED symptoms may differ for men and women, in consequence of differences between the body ideals most relevant to men versus women. For instance, women\u0026rsquo;s body ideals draw largely on the qualities of thinness, leanness and tonedness. Thus, shape and weight are likely to play a greater role in determining appearance-based aspects of self-esteem for women than for men. Alternatively, body ideals for men overwhelmingly feature the pairing of muscular hypertrophy and leanness and thus, weight loss and shape may not serve as primary motivations for their ED behaviours (Glazer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Gorrell \u0026amp; Murray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Lavender et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, men are more likely to engage in muscle building and excessive exercise, while women are more likely to engage in restricting and purging behaviours (Forbush et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). However, although muscularity concerns predict ED behaviours in men, no research has sought to examine whether the self-esteem of men and women are, in fact, based on different aspects of appearance and how these differences relate to ED behaviours. Thus, we sought to elucidate the web of relationships extant between ED symptoms and the self-assessed impact of basing self-esteem on shape, weight, or muscularity for men and women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Transdiagnostic Model of Eating Disorders suggests that common maintenance mechanisms operate across ED diagnostic categories (Fairburn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Fairburn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, the model emphasizes the role of a dysfunctional system of self-evaluation as central to ED pathology. The Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory (SAWBS; Geller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e) examines this system of evaluation using a \u0026ldquo;pie\u0026rdquo; analogy. The SAWBS provides respondents with a circle and allows them to fill in the \u0026ldquo;pie\u0026rdquo; using different domains (i.e., intimate/romantic relationships, body shape and weight, competence at school/work, personality, friendships, face, personal development, competence at activities other than school/work) to indicate the degree that their self-esteem is derived from each area (Geller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Past research demonstrates in clinical and community samples that basing self-esteem on appearance relates to decreased global self-esteem (Geller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Tchanturia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Trottier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and further, that the greater portion of the \u0026ldquo;pie\u0026rdquo; that shape and weight occupy, the greater likelihood of experiencing disordered eating symptoms (Geller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuch research has examined the association between shape and weight-based self-esteem and ED symptoms in females (Byrne et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; de Jong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Fairburn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Geller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e); however, little research has sought to clarify how aspects of appearance-based self-esteem relate to ED symptoms in men and research has primarily examined two components of appearance-based self-esteem: shape and weight. Basing self-esteem on muscularity (muscularity-based self-esteem) may be particularly important to assess alongside shape and weight-based self-esteem in the context of ED symptoms in men. Shape broadly relates to an emphasis on curvature of one\u0026rsquo;s waist or hips, flat stomach, and the experience of how clothes fit, yet muscularity is specifically oriented to the tone, size, and curves of muscles. Muscularity concerns relate to ED symptoms in men (Griffiths et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and are more prevalent in men than women (Hoffmann \u0026amp; Warschburger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Yet, recent research also highlights the relevance of muscularity concerns for women, with emerging research suggesting the importance of a \u0026lsquo;fit-ideal\u0026rsquo; encompassing both thinness and muscularity for women (Bozsik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Donovan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Of importance, muscularity concerns and goals qualitatively differ across genders, with men often seeking to enhance muscle size nearly exponentially and women seeking to increase muscularity tone and size to be \u0026ldquo;just right\u0026rdquo; (Benton \u0026amp; Karazsia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; McComb \u0026amp; Mills, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022b\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, muscularity may be a relevant and distinct appearance domain that men, and some women, base their self-esteem; yet no research has examined the relevance of muscularity-based self-esteem alongside shape- and weight-based self-esteem when examining risk for ED symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the paucity of research examining the association between appearance-based self-esteem and ED symptoms in men, this study had three aims: (1) examine shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem in men and women using the SAWBS and (2) examine whether associations between shape, weight and muscularity-based self-esteem and ED symptoms (e.g., binge eating, purging, restriction, excessive exercise, muscle building) differ in men and women. differ in men and women. We hypothesized that:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e(a)\u003c/b\u003e Women will base more of their self-esteem on shape and weight than men, and \u003cb\u003e(b)\u003c/b\u003e men will base more of their self-esteem on muscularity than women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender will moderate associations between shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem and ED symptoms. Specifically: \u003cb\u003e(a)\u003c/b\u003e For men, in comparison to women, the most notable associations will be between shape and muscularity-based self-esteem and excessive exercise and muscle building; \u003cb\u003e(b)\u003c/b\u003e In women, in comparison to men, the notable associations will be between the weight-based self-esteem and restriction and purging.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eParticipants \u0026amp; Procedures\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParticipants were undergraduate students recruited from the psychology participant pool at a large Canadian university in 2023. Participants completed a battery of questionnaires including demographic information and questionnaires assessing self-esteem, body image, muscle dysmorphia, and ED symptoms in exchange for course credit. After providing informed consent, participants completed online questionnaires in the same order. On the final page of the survey, participants were directed to an external link (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://gleaming-brioche-43ce26.netlify.app\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) where they completed the final measures interactive figure (i.e., the Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory). Three attention-check questions were included for respondents to correctly respond prior to advancing. All components of the study were approved by the Simon Fraser University Research Ethics Board (REB #30001870).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOf the 346 participants who completed the study, 9 participants were excluded for being outside of the accepted age range, 14 were excluded for failing both attention checks, and 29 participants were excluded due to failure to complete the Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory. Thus, the final sample for analyses included 290 participants (50.3% cisgender women, 49.7% cisgender men). Detailed demographic information is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 99.6753%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTable 1 \u003cem\u003eDemographic Information\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCharacteristic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e146 (50.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e144 (49.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSexual Orientation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeterosexual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e216 (74.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBisexual/Pansexual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32 (11.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePansexual\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (2.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQueer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (1.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGay\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (1.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLesbian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuestioning or unsure\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 (5.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther or Prefer Not to Answer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (2.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEthnicity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84 (29.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlack\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (1.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHispanic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9 (3.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Asian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63 (21.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEast Asian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67 (23.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSoutheast Asian\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29 (10.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMiddle Eastern\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (3.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMultiracial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16 (5.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndigenous\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (1.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrefer Not to Answer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (1.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParental Income\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnemployed or disabled\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (0.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnder \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e50,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35 (12.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e51,000-100,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63 (21.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e101,000-200,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69 (23.8%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOver \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e200,000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22 (7.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnknown or Prefer Not to Answer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99 (34.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMaterials\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory\u003c/strong\u003e (SAWBS; Geller et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Participants completed a version of the SAWBS that was adapted for administration online (versus paper and pencil) and included muscularity as one of the domains. The SAWBS is an interactive measure wherein participants view a \u0026ldquo;pie\u0026rdquo; circle that represents their entire self-esteem and a list of domains that they can use to indicate the extent that different components make-up their self-esteem pie. The domains include intimate or romantic relationships, body shape, body weight, muscularity, competence at school/work, personality, friendships, face, personal development, competence at activities other than school/work, and other (individuals write in an attribute not covered in the list). Individuals select whichever components (including a write in option if desired) are important to how they have felt about themselves over the past four weeks and rank the components in order of how much their opinion of themselves is based on each. Respondents then indicated the extent that each attribute made up their total percentage of self-esteem, which automatically appeared as a portion their \u0026ldquo;pie.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe computed score represented reliance on shape, weight and/or muscularity-based self-esteem as derived by the percentage of space occupied by shape, weight, or muscularity domains in the pie. The score reflects the exact percentage of the pie that each domain occupies out of 100; thus, it represents the degree that individuals\u0026rsquo; self-esteem is based on shape, weight, and/or muscularity regardless of individuals contentment with each of these domains. The SAWBS has demonstrated excellent convergent validity with existing measures of self-esteem and excellent 1-week test-retest reliability in a sample of young women (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.81; Geller et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEating Pathology Symptoms Inventory\u003c/strong\u003e (EPSI; Forbush et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The EPSI is a 45-item questionnaire assessing disordered eating symptoms over the last 4 weeks on a 5-point scale from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). We included subscales related to binge eating (i.e., overeating; 8 items), purging (i.e., use of diuretics, diet pills, and self-induced vomiting; 6 items), restricting (i.e., limiting food intake; 6 items), excessive exercise (i.e., I felt that I needed to exercise nearly every day; 5 items), and muscle building (i.e., use of muscle building supplements and cognitions associated with muscle building; 5 items). The EPSI has demonstrated factorial invariance across men and women, good-to-excellent internal consistency, and good 2\u0026ndash;4-week test-retest reliability across subscales (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.71\u0026ndash;.88; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.71\u0026ndash;.85; Forbush et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, EPSI subscales had acceptable-to-excellent internal consistency estimates in men (\u0026alpha;s\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.76\u0026ndash;.89) and women (\u0026alpha;s\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.75\u0026ndash;.90).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRosenberg Self-Esteem Scale\u003c/strong\u003e (RSES; Rosenberg, 1979). The RSES is a 10-item questionnaire assessing global self-esteem. Respondents indicate the extent that they agree with statements using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly agree) to 4 (strongly disagree). Thus, high scores represent higher overall global self-esteem. The RSES has demonstrated good-to-excellent convergent and discriminant validity in young adults and has good 1\u0026ndash;4-week test-retest reliability in undergraduates (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.82 \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.84; Mart\u0026iacute;n-Albo et al., 2007; Rosenberg, 1979; Sinclair et al., 2010). In this study, the RSES demonstrated excellent internal consistency estimates in men (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.90) and women (\u0026alpha;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.90).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatistical Analyses\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address Hypothesis 1a-1b independent samples t-tests were used to examine the differences in shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem in men versus women. Hypothesis 2a-2b employed multigroup structural equation modeling involving the specification of four separate models with varying degrees of constraints. This statistical methodology allowed us to first examine structural equation models specifying shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem as predictors of ED symptoms in men and women separately (Model 1; M1). Of importance, Model 1 did not contain any restrictions and was specified by the null B rule. In other words, the model varied on 0 degrees of freedom and was unfalsifiable. The second model specified shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem as predictors of ED symptoms while holding regression coefficients consistent across men and women (Model 2; M2). The third model specified shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem as predictors of ED symptoms while holding regressions coefficients and residual variances of the ED symptom variables (each of which captures the amount of variance in each ED symptom variables that remains unexplained, following its regression on the three dependent variables) consistent across men and women (Model 3; M3). The fourth, and final model, specified shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem as predictors of ED symptoms while holding regression coefficients, residual variances of ED symptom variables, and pairwise covariances of the residuals of the ED symptom variables (each of which captures the amount of linear association between corresponding EPSI variables that remains unexplained, following regression on the three SAWBS variables) consistent across men and women (Model 4; M4). The specification of these models produces robust standard errors and Bentler-Sattora test statistics. These computations provide information regarding the fit of each specified model.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing specification of the models, a hierarchical test of the differences between Model 1 through Model 4 was conducted. These issues of invariance are addressed through the fitting of up to four multi-sample models to the data using the Lavaan package of R Lavaan (Rosseel, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). All of M1 to M4 derive from what is designated, herein, as the Core Model (see Appendix) which was established by the Null B rule (Bollen, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e), and form a nested sequence of models with M1 the least, and M4 the most, restricted. The specific hypotheses expressed in 2a and 2b are assessed on the basis of estimated parameters of whichever of M1 to M4 is most consistent with the data. A variety of assumptions including assumption of normality of each variable, homogeneity of variances, and linear dependence of each variable on other variables underlie several of the statistical analyses employed. Further information concerning the core model, model specifications, and assumption checking are presented in the Appendix.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTesting Procedure\u003c/strong\u003e. Following an initial fitting of M1 to the data, the issue of Gender invariance in the regression parameters of the Core Model will be addressed by imposing the restrictions inherent to each of models M2 \u0026ndash; M4. Decision-making regarding the suitability of these restricted models will be based on the chi-square difference testing procedure. In particular, as indicated in Table\u0026nbsp;1, the test of the hypothesis pair \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\left[ {{H_0}:{\\Gamma _{\\left[ M \\right]}}={\\Gamma _{\\left[ W \\right]}},{H_1}:\\sim {H_0}} \\right]\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e will be based on a chi-square difference test [M2 vs. M1 on 15 degrees of freedom]. Conditional on a retention of \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({H_0}:{\\Gamma _{\\left[ M \\right]}}={\\Gamma _{\\left[ W \\right]}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e, the test of the hypothesis pair \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\left[ {{H_0}:Diag{{\\left( \\Psi \\right)}_{\\left[ M \\right]}}=Diag{{\\left( \\Psi \\right)}_{\\left[ W \\right]}},{H_1}:\\sim {H_0}} \\right]\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e will be based on a chi-square difference test of M3 versus M2 [on 5 degrees of freedom]. Finally, conditional on a retention of \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({H_0}:Diag{\\left( \\Psi \\right)_{\\left[ M \\right]}}=Diag{\\left( \\Psi \\right)_{\\left[ W \\right]}}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e, the test of the hypothesis pair \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\left[ {{H_0}:{\\Psi _{\\left[ M \\right]}}={\\Psi _{\\left[ W \\right]}},{H_1}:\\sim {H_0}} \\right]\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e will be based on a chi-square difference test of M4 versus M3 [on 10 degrees of freedom].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDescriptive Analyses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDescriptive information and correlations among study variables are in Table 2 (see Page 14). SAWBS Shape and Weight subscales were highly interrelated for men and women. In contrast, SAWBS Muscle had small-to-medium associations with SAWBS Shape but was unrelated to SAWBS Weight for men and women. Overall, muscle building most strongly related to muscularity-based self-esteem across men and women, while purging most strongly related weight-based self-esteem in men. SAWBS Shape and Muscle demonstrated small-to-medium negative correlations with global self-esteem in men and SAWBS Weight and Muscle demonstrated small-to-medium negative correlations with global self-esteem in women.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndependent samples t-tests examining mean differences in ED symptoms across men and women revealed that women engaged in greater levels of purging (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(248) = -2.76,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;p\u003c/em\u003e = .003; d = -0.33) and restriction (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(284) = -4.55; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001; d = -0.54), than men. Alternatively, men engaged in greater excessive exercise (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(281) = 4.35;\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;p\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001; d = 0.52) and muscle building (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(253) = 6.07 \u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .001; d = 0.73), than women.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc168559406\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypotheses 1a-1b\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings showed that women reported higher levels of shape-based (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(288) = -3.30;\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;p\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001; d = -0.39) and weight-based self-esteem (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(219) = -4.01; p \u0026lt; .001; d = -0.47) than men. Further, findings showed that men reported higher levels of muscularity-based self-esteem (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(202) = 5.44; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001; d = 0.64) than women.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc168559412\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypotheses 2a-2b\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe hypotheses contained within sets 2a and 2b broadly pertain to the issue of invariance, over the levels of the variable gender. The model testing procedure (see Appendix) led to the selection of M2 as the correct description of the data. Given that in M2 slope parameters are invariant over levels of Gender, this implies a rejection of the hypotheses contained in sets 2a and 2b, which posited that the pattern of relationships between the three self-esteem domains and the ED symptom variables would be different for the two genders (see Table 3). For ease of depiction, the estimated dependencies of the ED symptom variables on the three self-esteem domains are diagrammed for each facet separately in Figures 1-3. As can be seen, binge eating had a positive linear dependency on shape-based self-esteem; purging, excessive exercise, and muscle building had positive linear dependencies on the weight-based self-esteem; and binge eating, excessive exercise, and muscle building had positive linear dependencies on muscularity-based self-esteem. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" align=\"left\" width=\"851\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"12\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 851px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Correlations Among Shape, Weight, and Muscularity-Based Self-Esteem, Global Self-Esteem and Disordered Eating Symptoms Presented Separately for Men and Women\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 290px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-Esteem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 435px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eED Symptoms\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Age\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. RSES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. Shape\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.Weight\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.Muscle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.Binge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.Purge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.Restr\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.Exer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.Muscle\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Age\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.19*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. RSES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.18*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.26***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.34***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.26**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.32***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. SAWBS Shape\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.23**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.43***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.19*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.20*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. SAWBS Weight\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.37***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.20*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.40***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.30***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. SAWBS Muscle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.26**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.28***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.25**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.40***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. EPSI Binge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.38***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.20*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.46***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.18*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.34***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.30**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. EPSI Purge\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.23**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.22**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.27**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.17*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8. EPSI Restrict\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.27**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.16*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9. EPSI Exercise\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.43***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.60***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10. EPSI Muscle\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.54***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.23**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.71***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"11\" style=\"width: 724px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMeans (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMen\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.33 (1.61)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.76 (6.58)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.74 (7.51)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.74 (5.80)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.82 (10.66)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.25 (5.53)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73 (2.10)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.39 (5.10)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.67 (5.65)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.74 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; (5.26)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWomen\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 73px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.10 (1.47)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.84 (5.84)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.89 (8.78)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.91 (11.14)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.48 (4.99)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 75px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.50 (6.84)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.62 (3.20)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.35 (5.90)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.76 (5.61)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.38 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; (3.93)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"12\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 851px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. SAWBS = Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Inventory; EPSI = Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory. Correlations for men are below the diagonal. Correlations for women are above the diagonal. Raw values are presented for descriptive information. *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eComparison of Fit of Model 1 Through Model 3 Examining Gender Differences in the Relat Relationship Between Shape, Weight, and Muscularity-based Self-Esteem and Eating Disorder Symptoms\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"592\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of Input Points\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParameters Estimated\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003csub\u003ediff\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csub\u003ediff\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003csub\u003ediff\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM3*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 56px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 52px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 59px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote. M1 = Model 1, M2 = Model 2, M3 = Model 3; *rejected null hypothesis.\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Transdiagnostic Model of Eating Disorders posits that basing one\u0026rsquo;s self-esteem disproportionately on shape and weight is a central factor in the development and maintenance of ED symptoms. However, there exist crucial differences in how men and women evaluate their bodies, which may result in gender differences in the aspects of appearance-based self-esteem most relevant for men and women. Yet, no research has sought to examine the relationship between muscularity-based self-esteem, in addition to shape- and weight-based self-esteem, and ED symptoms in men and women. Thus, this study first examined whether men and women differed in the extent to which they based their self-esteem on shape, weight, and muscularity. Women reported greater levels of shape- and weight-based self-esteem than men, while men endorsed greater muscularity-based self-esteem than women. Second, we examined whether associations between appearance-based self-esteem and ED symptoms varied by gender. Overall, the relationships between specific forms of appearance-based self-esteem and ED symptoms did not vary by gender. However, specific gender invariant relationships between shape-, weight- and muscularity-based self-esteem and ED symptoms emerged. Altogether, results provide nuanced information regarding the importance of muscularity-based self-esteem, alongside shape- and weight-based self-esteem, as they relate to ED symptoms in men and women.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsistent with hypotheses, women endorsed greater shape- and weight-based self-esteem than men and men endorsed greater muscularity-based self-esteem than women. Yet, both shape and weight-based self-esteem related to lower global self-esteem in men, while only shape and weight-based self-esteem related to lower global self-esteem in women. Research with female university students, women \u0026ldquo;at-risk\u0026rdquo; of developing an eating disorder, and clinical samples of women with eating disorders (e.g., anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa) demonstrates that basing self-esteem on appearance relates to decreased overall self-esteem (Geller et al., 1997; Tchanturia et al., 2002; Trottier et al., 2013); yet this study is among the first to clarify how basing self-esteem on different forms of appearance relates to self-esteem in men. Further, past research highlights muscularity concerns prominence for men (Ganson et al., 2023; Nagata et al., 2020), yet no research has investigated the relevance of muscularity as a construct distinct from shape and weight. Thus, this finding extends past research and highlights that overevaluation of muscularity may be important to assess alongside shape- and weight-based self-esteem across genders.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite differences in the forms of appearance on which men and women based their self-esteem, there were no differences in the associations between shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem and ED symptoms across men and women, although specific relationships emerged. These findings suggest that shape-, weight, and muscularity-based self-esteem may be equally important for men and women. Thus, while men and women might internalize different body ideals and engage in different ED behaviours, the forms of appearance-based self-esteem underlying engagement in these behaviours are the same. In fact, these findings underscore the relevance of muscularity-based self-esteem and evaluation of muscularity for men and women. Indeed, research suggests that women internalize thin and muscular ideals concurrently resulting in internalization of a \u0026lsquo;fit-ideal\u0026rsquo; (Uhlmann et al., 2018). Internalization of the fit-ideal relates to pathological exercise behaviours in women (Donovan et al., 2020) and internalization of the muscularity-ideal relates to pathological exercise in men (Fatt et al., 2019). Thus, this research is consistent with these findings that weight- and muscularity-based self-esteem relate to excessive exercise and muscle building in men and women. It may be that the popularization of the \u0026lsquo;fit-ideal\u0026rsquo; for women has increased the importance of muscularity for women, resulting in the relevance of muscularity-based self-esteem for both men and women. These findings underscore the evolving nature of body ideals across genders and may provide evidence of the importance of targeting muscular and thin ideals in existing treatments across genders.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc168559419\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStrengths, Limitations, and Future Directions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis is the first study to include muscularity as a distinct appearance-based evaluative category separate from shape- and weight-based self-esteem, despite research showing that men and women prioritize different ideals which relates to different ED symptoms (Hoffmann \u0026amp; Warschburger, 2017, 2018; Lavender et al., 2017). Thus, the assessment of the degree that men and women base their self-esteem on muscularity as a domain distinct from other appearance-based categories such as shape and weight. Furthermore, we translated the SAWBS (Geller et al., 1997), a pencil measure of shape- and weight-based self-esteem, into an easily used online measure. The online measure automatically calculates the degrees that each domain \u0026ldquo;makes up\u0026rdquo; the pie, omitting the need for researchers to measure and document participants\u0026rsquo; physical drawings. Last, we recruited a diverse sample of men and women. Over 50% of the sample identified as South Asian, East Asian, or Southeast Asian. Of importance, South Asian women are particularly at risk for ED symptoms (see for review, Khasru, 2022) and more research needs to be done to understand risk factors for ED symptoms in diverse samples (Cummins et al., 2005).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFindings must be interpreted within the context of limitations. First, the study used a cross-sectional design, limiting the ability to make causal claims. Future research should seek to examine the role of appearance-based self-esteem longitudinally to enhance understanding of how appearance-based self-esteem predicts ED symptoms. Further, despite recruitment of a large and diverse sample with a nearly equal gender distribution, we only analyzed cisgender individuals. Non-binary and transgender young adults are at particularly high-risk for the development of ED symptoms (Bell et al., 2019; Coelho et al., 2019). Thus, future research should examine how appearance-based self-esteem manifests and relates to ED symptoms in gender diverse populations. Finally, the present study ascribed pre-defined categories of \u0026ldquo;shape\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;weight\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;muscularity\u0026rdquo; for respondents to include in their self-esteem pie which may have biased responses. Thus, qualitative research examining the forms of muscularity and muscle ideals most relevant to men and women may be needed to understand how qualitative differences in appearance-based self-esteem relate to ED symptoms. A better understanding of appearance-based self-esteem can aid in tailoring the transdiagnostic model and existing treatments and assessment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eEthics Approval \u0026amp; Consent Declaration\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following study was reviewed and approved by the Simon Fraser University Research Ethics Board (REB #30001870). All participants underwent a process of informed consent prior to participating in the research presented in this manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding Declaration\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary author (Chloe White) received funding for the studies associated with the production of this manuscript, including funding from the Soroptimist Foundation of Canada Grant, the Social Science and Humanities Research Council Canada Graduate Masters Scholarship, and the Canadian Institute of Health Research Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship. No funding was directly associated with the production of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCW and SZ were responsible for study conceptualization, and CW was responsible for writing the original draft, investigation and project administration, and data curation. MM and CW were responsible for formal data analysis and methodology. SZ was responsible for providing resources, supervision, and reviewing and editing the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData is available upon request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAdams, K. E., Tyler, J. M., Calogero, R., \u0026amp; Lee, J. (2017). Exploring the relationship between appearance-contingent self-worth and self-esteem: The roles of self-objectification and appearance anxiety. \u003cem\u003eBody Image\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e23\u003c/em\u003e, 176\u0026ndash;182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.10.004\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBell, K., Rieger, E., \u0026amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2019). 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The Course of Weight/Shape Concerns and Disordered Eating Symptoms Among Adolescent and Young Adult Males. \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Adolescent Health: Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e69\u003c/em\u003e(4), 615\u0026ndash;621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.03.036\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGorrell, S., \u0026amp; Murray, S. B. (2019). Eating Disorders in Males. \u003cem\u003eChild and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e28\u003c/em\u003e(4), 641\u0026ndash;651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2019.05.012\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGriffiths, S., Hay, P., Mitchison, D., Mond, J. M., McLean, S. A., Rodgers, B., Massey, R., \u0026amp; Paxton, S. J. (2016). Sex differences in the relationships between body dissatisfaction, quality of life and psychological distress. \u003cem\u003eAustralian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e(6), 518\u0026ndash;522. https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.12538\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHoffmann, S., \u0026amp; Warschburger, P. (2017). Weight, shape, and muscularity concerns in male and female adolescents: Predictors of change and influences on eating concern. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Eating Disorders\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e50\u003c/em\u003e(2), 139\u0026ndash;147. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22635\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHoffmann, S., \u0026amp; Warschburger, P. (2018). 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A., Smith, T. W., \u0026amp; Stice, E. (2020). Group and longitudinal intra-individual networks of eating disorder symptoms in adolescents and young adults at-risk for an eating disorder. \u003cem\u003eBehaviour Research and Therapy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e135\u003c/em\u003e, 103731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2020.103731\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMcComb, S. E., \u0026amp; Mills, J. S. (2022a). Eating and body image characteristics of those who aspire to the slim-thick, thin, or fit ideal and their impact on state body image. \u003cem\u003eBody Image\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e42\u003c/em\u003e, 375\u0026ndash;384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.07.017\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMcComb, S. E., \u0026amp; Mills, J. S. (2022b). The effect of physical appearance perfectionism and social comparison to thin-, slim-thick-, and fit-ideal Instagram imagery on young women\u0026rsquo;s body image. \u003cem\u003eBody Image\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e, 165\u0026ndash;175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.12.003\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNagata, J. M., Ganson, K. T., \u0026amp; Austin, S. B. (2020). Emerging Trends in Eating Disorders among Sexual and Gender Minorities. \u003cem\u003eCurrent Opinion in Psychiatry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e33\u003c/em\u003e(6), 562\u0026ndash;567. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000645\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Statistical Software\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e48\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSharpe, H., Griffiths, S., Choo, T.-H., Eisenberg, M. E., Mitchison, D., Wall, M., \u0026amp; Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2018). The relative importance of dissatisfaction, overvaluation and preoccupation with weight and shape for predicting onset of disordered eating behaviors and depressive symptoms over 15 years. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Eating Disorders\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e51\u003c/em\u003e(10), 1168\u0026ndash;1175. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22936\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTchanturia, K., Troop, N. A., \u0026amp; Katzman, M. (2002). Same pie, different portions: Shape and weight-based self-esteem and eating disorder symptoms in a Georgian sample. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Eating Disorders Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(2), 110\u0026ndash;119. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.445\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTrottier, K., McFarlane, T., \u0026amp; Olmsted, M. P. (2013). A Test of the Weight-Based Self-Evaluation Schema in Eating Disorders: Understanding the Link between Self-Esteem, Weight-Based Self-Evaluation, and Body Dissatisfaction. \u003cem\u003eCognitive Therapy and Research\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e37\u003c/em\u003e(1), 122\u0026ndash;126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-012-9446-7\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUhlmann, L. R., Donovan, C. L., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Bell, H. S., \u0026amp; Ramme, R. A. (2018). The fit beauty ideal: A healthy alternative to thinness or a wolf in sheep\u0026rsquo;s clothing? \u003cem\u003eBody Image\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e25\u003c/em\u003e, 23\u0026ndash;30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.01.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-eating-disorders","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"joed","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Eating Disorders](http://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com)","snPcode":"40337","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40337/3","title":"Journal of Eating Disorders","twitterHandle":"@JEatDisord","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264651/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264651/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground:\u003c/strong\u003e This study examined whether evaluating oneself based on muscularity may be relevant for men and women and whether this form of self-evaluation may relate to eating disorder symptoms most prominently in men, who frequently present with muscularity concerns.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethod: \u003c/strong\u003eYoung adults (N = 290; 50.3% cisgender women) were recruited from a Canadian university and completed a modified version of the Shape and Weight Based Self-Esteem Questionnaire and a measure of eating disorder symptoms.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eMen endorsed greater muscularity-based self-esteem than women, although women endorsed greater shape- and weight-based self-esteem than men. Despite differences in the forms of appearance on which men and women based their self-esteem, multi-group structural equation models demonstrated that there were no differences in the associations between shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem and eating disorder symptoms across men and women. However, shape-, weight-, and muscularity-based self-esteem were associated with distinct eating disorder symptoms.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions:\u003c/strong\u003e Altogether, results provide nuanced information regarding the importance of assessing self-evaluation based on muscularity, alongside shape- and weight, as increased self-evaluation based on these appearance domains may confer risk for eating disorder symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"How do I evaluate myself? The importance of examining muscularity-based self-esteem in risk for eating disorder symptoms","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-02 11:21:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6264651/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-02T09:40:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-25T20:40:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-03T16:20:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"222923247282267841913307062381656806077","date":"2025-04-01T00:32:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"185668353741064954974709933042847670340","date":"2025-04-01T00:10:47+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"197541723622109829350362846370238179462","date":"2025-03-31T17:39:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-25T09:38:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-03-24T14:21:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-03-24T14:17:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Eating Disorders","date":"2025-03-19T21:50:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-eating-disorders","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"joed","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Eating Disorders](http://jeatdisord.biomedcentral.com)","snPcode":"40337","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40337/3","title":"Journal of Eating Disorders","twitterHandle":"@JEatDisord","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e9922a1d-c0a5-4a30-a62a-d301cee2215a","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 2nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-27T16:28:58+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6264651","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-025-01419-3","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-eating-disorders","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Eating Disorders"},"publishedOn":"2025-10-23 16:17:28","publishedOnDateReadable":"October 23rd, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-02 11:21:04","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40337-025-01419-3","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40337-025-01419-3","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6264651","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6264651","identity":"rs-6264651","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}