Protecting those who protect nature by supporting conservationists’ mental wellbeing

Protecting those who protect nature by supporting conservationists’ mental wellbeing | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Protecting those who protect nature by supporting conservationists’ mental wellbeing Thomas Pienkowski, Aidan Keane, Sofia Castelló y Tickell, Emiel de Lange, and 11 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1132018/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Biodiversity conservation work can be challenging but rewarding, with potential consequences for conservationists’ mental health. Yet, little is known about patterns of mental health among conservationists and its associated protective and risk factors. A better understanding can help improve working conditions, supporting conservationists’ job satisfaction, productivity, and engagement, while reducing costs from staff turnover, absenteeism, and presenteeism. We surveyed 2311 conservationists across 143 countries, asking about experiences of psychological distress, personal characteristics, and workplace conditions. Moderate or severe distress was reported by 27.8%. Respondents with low dispositional and conservation-specific optimism, poor physical health, limited social support, women, and early-career professionals were most at risk. Heavy workload, job demands, and organisational instability were linked to higher distress, but job stability and satisfaction with one’s contributions to conservation were associated with lower distress. We suggest ways employers and others could support conservationists’ mental health and ability to tackle the global ecological crisis. Conservation psychology Conservationists Environmentalists Mental health Occupational health Psychological distress Workplace wellbeing Figures Figure 1 Introduction As in other sectors, the challenges and rewards that conservationists face may be significant factors affecting their mental health 1 . Mental health has been defined as a “state of wellbeing in which the individual realises [their] own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to [their] community” 2 . Stage-based models of mental illness suggest a spectrum from low-level psychological distress to increasingly specific symptoms, finally passing diagnostic thresholds for mental illnesses 3 , 4 . Mental illness is a leading contributor to the global burden of disease, with over 260 million people estimated to have had depression in 2017 5 . In the UK alone, poor mental health was estimated to cost employers between £33 billion and £42 billion in 2016 6 . Most people experience variable mental health throughout their lives and can be helped to thrive even when experiencing mental illness 6 . Conservation can be a tough sector to work in. Conservationists exposed to the loss of nature but provided with inadequate support might face acute ecological grief 7 . This grief may be a natural and legitimate response to perceived societal inaction, feelings of powerlessness, and the expectation that future environmental targets will not be met 8 , 9 . These feelings may be exacerbated by the “gloom-and-doom” narrative prevalent in some conservation discourse 10 . The conservation sector is also underfunded. For example, conservation spending is estimated to be an order of magnitude smaller than is required to meet critical global biodiversity targets 11 . This underfunding may partly explain the prevalence of precarious, inadequately compensated, and poorly resourced conservation jobs (e.g., 12 ). Furthermore, the vocational nature of conservation work can encourage exploitative practices, such as long-term unpaid or low-paid work, that affects those from disadvantaged backgrounds and junior members of the profession worst 13 – 15 . Moreover, many conservation roles blur the boundary of personal and professional lives. For instance, conservation scientists often work outside regular office hours, may be based in remote locations, and spend significant time away from friends and family 16 , 17 . Similarly, some in the sector can have conflicting responsibilities and loyalties, which may be distressing. For instance, protected area rangers can come from or live in the communities they police, which may create tensions with friends, neighbours, and family 18 . In other cases, conservationists can face hard choices when trading-off objectives 19 , which could be compounded by the challenges of interdisciplinary research and practice 20 and ideological conflicts with peers (e.g., 21 ). These challenges are not equally experienced within the sector and can vary by job role, geography, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, gender, and other identities and social relations 22 – 24 . For example, several recent studies examine workplace stressors – such as isolation from family, poor health and safety, and inadequate compensation – experienced by conservation rangers 18,25−29 . Yet, working in conservation can also be rewarding. Many people across numerous sectors seek work that aligns with their values or contributes to societal causes 30 . Doing value-aligned work is also important for many conservationists, such as those motivated by their love of nature and its perceived intrinsic and instrumental values 31 . Engaging in value-aligned work can be a source of satisfaction and meaning in conservationists’ lives 12 . Some types of conservation work also provide beneficial opportunities to spend time in nature, travel, learn and grow, and interact with colleagues and other groups 31 , 32 . These challenges and rewards, and the balance between them, are likely to play a role in conservationists’ mental health. There are multiple reasons why the conservation sector should care about the mental health of its members. For individuals, good working conditions can enhance job satisfaction and quality of life beyond work 33 . Such conditions are often associated with better job performance and career advancement and might help those who want to remain in the sector to do so 34 . There are also pragmatic reasons why organisations should care about staff mental health. Good working conditions can increase staff engagement, creativity and productivity while reducing costs from absenteeism, presenteeism (working while being unwell), and staff turnover 6 , 35 . Good working conditions may also ease stress-induced workplace conflict and reduce incentives for misconduct 36 , 37 . In many countries, employers have a duty of care towards their staff; failure to fulfil this duty might pose liability risks. Across the sector, a more productive and innovative workforce might be better able to deliver conservation action. Substantial evidence suggests that good working conditions can be good for mental health 33 . Efforts to support mental health at work can involve ‘promoting the positive’, preventing harm, and helping manage mental illness regardless of the cause 1 , 6 . ‘Promoting the positives’ involves identifying and enhancing aspects of work that support job satisfaction and wellbeing. Among conservationists, these aspects may include feeling like one is making a “meaningful contribution” or spending time in nature 12 , 31 . Supporting mental health also involves preventing harm from workplace stressors. These include imbalances between workplace efforts and rewards, high job demand, job insecurity, and lack of social support from colleagues (e.g., 38 – 40 ). Finally, organisations can also provide adjustments to support those with mental illness to stay in or return to work (although these interventions are beyond the scope of this article). Healthcare, education, emergency services, and other sectors have a history of investigating and acting to support worker mental health. For example, we found multiple meta-analyses exploring risk factors for mental illness among healthcare workers and interventions to support them 41 , 42 . In contrast, we found only a few studies exploring mental health among conservationists (see Belhekar, et al. 28 and Gao and Li 26 , who examine psychological wellbeing and stress among rangers in India and China, respectively). As such, the conservation sector as a whole appears to have lagged behind other sectors. Nevertheless, there is growing recognition of the need to better support those in conservation, given the diverse challenges many in the sector face. For example, the International Ranger Federation aims to professionalise ranger roles and plans to develop minimum standards around working conditions and welfare 43 . Equally, the Lonely Conservationists website shares conservationists’ experiences and resources to support mental health ( www.lonelyconservationists.com ). Therefore, while the lessons learned in other sectors are likely to be informative, these should be evaluated and tailored to the unique challenges and rewards experienced by conservationists. This study aims to increase understanding of the patterns and risk factors of psychological distress – a state of emotional disturbance that impairs social functioning and daily activities 44 – within conservation. In doing so, we hope to catalyse efforts to support those in the sector better. We convenience-sampled conservationists through an internet survey ( https://livedataoxford.shinyapps.io/lifeinconservation/ ), available in six languages, from July 2019 to August 2020. We investigated two research questions. First, how prevalent is psychological distress within a sample of the conservation community? Second, what personal characteristics and workplace factors are associated with psychological distress? Psychological distress was measured using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (Kessler-10) 45 . Two structural equation models were fitted, exploring hypothesised associations between personal characteristics, workplace conditions, and latent psychological distress (Table 1 , see Supplementary Information (SI) 1 for details). One set of variables in the analysis related to the extent to which workplace rewards offset efforts, measured using a modified version of the effort-reward imbalance (ERI) instrument 46 . The first model (‘ERI-score model’) included the total ERI score for each respondent but excluded individual instrument items. Conversely, the second model (‘ERI-item model’) included each item of the ERI instrument but excluded total imbalance scores. Table 1 Personal characteristics and occupational risk factors that were expected to be associated with psychological distress in two models (see SI 1 for details). The ‘ERI-score model’ includes the effort-reward imbalance score but excludes each item of the effort-reward imbalance instrument. The ‘ERI-item model’ includes each item of the instrument but excludes the effort-reward imbalance score. * Variables moderately correlated with other explanatory variables ( rho > 0.6) were removed from the statistical analysis post-hoc. † Ordinal exogenous variables were treated as numeric. ‡ Conservation-specific items added to the original effort-reward imbalance instrument. Key: RL = reference level; + = expected positive association; - = expected negative association; and ? = ambiguous or unclear expected association. Association Name Model Description or statement - Dispositional optimism Both A latent variable derived from the Life Orientation Test – Revised 47 . Dispositional optimism is the general expectation of good outcomes in life 48 . - Situational optimism Both A latent variable describing situational optimism about conservation outcomes over the next decade 49 . Situational optimism is the expectation of positive outcomes within a specific context 50 . A correlation between situational and dispositional optimism was included in the analysis. - Gender Both Female or male (RL = female). ? Age * Both Age in years. ? Years in conservation Both Years working in conservation. ? National / non-national Both Working in one’s country of nationality or not (RL = national). ? Education Both University or non-university education (RL = non-University). - Physical health † Both “How is your physical health in general?” - Personal relationships † Both Satisfied with “your personal relationships?” - Friends and family support † Both Satisfied with “the support you get from your friends and family?” - Friends and family time † Both Satisfied with “the amount of time you are able to spend with friends and family” † + Effort-reward score ERI-score model The adapted effort-reward imbalance score 46 . + Heavy workload † ERI-item model “I have constant time pressure due to a heavy work load”. + Many disturbances *,† ERI-item model “I have many interruptions and disturbances while performing my job”. + Increasingly demanding job † ERI-item model “Over the past few years, my job has become more and more demanding”. + Not enough resources †,‡ ERI-item model “I do not have the resources I need to achieve my work goals”. + Not enough funding *,†,‡ ERI-item model “The organisation I work for does not have enough funding to achieve its main aims”. + Organisational instability †,‡ ERI-item model “The organisation I work for may not exist in five years’ time”. - Respect I deserve *,† ERI-item model “I receive the respect I deserve from my boss and work colleagues”. - Job advancement prospects *,† ERI-item model “My job promotion or advancement prospects are poor (reverse coding)”. - Do not expect undesirable job change † ERI-item model “I have experienced or I expect to experience an undesirable change in my work situation (reverse coding)”. - Good job security † ERI-item model “My job security is poor (reverse coding)”. - Respect and prestige † ERI-item model “Considering all my efforts and achievements, I receive the respect and prestige I deserve at work”. - Job advancement † ERI-item model “Considering all my efforts and achievements, my job promotion or advancement prospects are adequate”. - Income is alright † ERI-item model “Considering all my efforts and achievements, my salary or income is alright”. - Contribution to conservation †,‡ ERI-item model “I am satisfied with the contribution I make to conservation”. - Social pride †,‡ ERI-item model “My friends and family are proud that I work in conservation”. ? Position Both Academia and research or practice and policy (RL = academia and research). + Dangerous at night *,† Both “It is dangerous to go outside at night alone”. + Dangerous situations † Both “My work puts me in dangerous situations”. + Not feeling safe † Both “I do not feel safe, even where I live”. + Working hours Both Work hours per week. Results Prevalence of psychological distress among respondents Our survey was completed by 2311 respondents who said they were familiar with conservation across 143 countries (Table 2 ). Of these, 2213 were completed in English, 55 in French, 24 in Portuguese, 17 in Spanish, 2 in Kiswahili, and none in Khmer. Respondents had a mean Kessler-10 score of 20.9 (standard deviation (SD) = 7.0) and median score of 20.0 (inter-quartile range = 9.0). Among the respondents, 14.8% had scores suggesting moderate distress (25-29), and a further 13.0% had scores indicating severe distress (> 30). Table 2 Respondent characteristics by gender. Continuous variables are described with means (and standard deviations), and categorical variables are described with counts (and percentages). Key: LOTR = Life Orientation Test – Revised; ERI (original) = scores from the original effort-reward imbalance instrument; ERI (new) = scores from a modified effort-reward imbalance instrument that includes five new items specific to conservation. Characteristic Overall N = 2311 Women N = 1208 Men N = 969 Non-binary N = 5 Unspecified N = 129 Kessler-10 score 20.9 (7.0) 21.7 (7.3) 19.8 (6.5) 30.8 (7.2) 21.9 (6.7) LOTR score 15.0 (3.9) 15.1 (3.9) 15.1 (3.8) 9.0 (5.8) 14.2 (3.5) Age 37.0 (11.2) 35.1 (9.5) 39.2 (12.7) 29.6 (2.9) 37.8 (10.7) Years in conservation 12.2 (10.5) 10.2 (8.2) 14.3 (12.1) 7.8 (3.1) 26.6 (17.1) National / non-national National 1704 (77%) 920 (76%) 755 (78%) 5 (100%) 24 (75%) Non-national 509 (23%) 287 (24%) 214 (22%) 0 (0%) 8 (25%) Unknown 98 1 0 0 97 Education Non-university 141 (6.1%) 50 (4.1%) 78 (8.0%) 0 (0%) 13 (10%) University 2069 (90%) 1158 (96%) 888 (92%) 5 (100%) 18 (14%) Unknown 101 (4.4%) 0 (0%) 3 (0.3%) 0 (0%) 98 (76%) Position Academic 1094 (47%) 584 (48%) 491 (51%) 3 (60%) 16 (12%) Practice 729 (32%) 393 (33%) 323 (33%) 2 (40%) 11 (8.5%) Unknown 488 (21%) 231 (19%) 155 (16%) 0 (0%) 102 (79%) Working hours 43.5 (13.2) 43.2 (12.9) 44.0 (13.6) 49.0 (10.8) 43.2 (10.1) Nationality (region) Central & Southern Asia 249 (11%) 117 (9.7%) 129 (13%) 0 (0%) 3 (9.4%) Eastern & South-Eastern Asia 116 (5.2%) 79 (6.5%) 37 (3.8%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Europe & Northern America 1308 (59%) 752 (62%) 526 (54%) 5 (100%) 25 (78%) Latin America & the Caribbean 157 (7.1%) 80 (6.6%) 76 (7.8%) 0 (0%) 1 (3.1%) Northern Africa & Western Asia 32 (1.4%) 11 (0.9%) 21 (2.2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Oceania 131 (5.9%) 72 (6.0%) 57 (5.9%) 0 (0%) 2 (6.2%) Sub-Saharan Africa 220 (9.9%) 96 (8.0%) 123 (13%) 0 (0%) 1 (3.1%) Unknown 98 1 0 0 97 ERI (original) 1.2 (0.5) 1.3 (0.5) 1.2 (0.4) 1.4 (0.6) 1.3 (0.5) ERI (new) 1.1 (0.4) 1.1 (0.4) 1.1 (0.3) 1.2 (0.4) 1.1 (0.4) Personal characteristics and workplace conditions associated with psychological distress Two structural equation models were implemented with 2306 observations (five respondents with non-binary gender identities were excluded from the sample for reasons described in the methods). Both models fitted the data well (see SI 2). Dispositional optimism was negatively associated with distress in both models (Figure 1 .a.). For instance, those with one SD higher dispositional optimism reported 0.29 SD lower distress than those at the mean (in the ‘ERI-score model’). Situational optimism about conservation outcomes was slightly negatively associated with psychological distress; those with one SD greater situational optimism than the mean reporting 0.05 SD lower distress (‘ERI-score model’). Men reported lower distress than women. For instance, men reported 0.21 SD lower psychological distress than women (‘ERI-score model’). Years of experience in conservation was negatively associated with distress in both models. For instance, those in conservation for five years reported 0.19 SD higher distress than those in conservation for 15 years (‘ERI-score model’). The results also suggested co-morbidity between physical health and psychological distress in both models; those who said their physical health was bad reported 0.18 SD higher distress than those who said their health was fair (‘ERI-score model’). All three social support measures were negatively associated with psychological distress in both models. For example, those satisfied with the support received from their friends and family reported 0.25 SD lower distress than those who said they were dissatisfied (‘ERI-score model’). Likewise, workplace characteristics were associated with psychological distress in both models (Figure 1 .b.). For instance, those reporting one SD higher ERI scores had 0.27 SD higher psychological distress than those at the mean (‘ERI-score model’). Moreover, many of the individual effort-reward instrument items were also associated with psychological distress. Notably, those who agreed with the statement “I am satisfied with the contribution I make to conservation” reported 0.24 SD lower psychological distress than those who disagreed (‘ERI-item model’). This effect represented the second largest negative association with psychological distress, following dispositional optimism. As another example, those who agreed with the statement “I have constant time pressure due to a heavy work load” reported 0.11 SD higher psychological distress than those who disagreed (‘ERI-item model’). Equally, those who agreed with the statement “Considering all my efforts and achievements, I receive the respect and prestige I deserve at work” reported 0.07 SD lower distress than those who disagreed with the statement (‘ERI-score model’). Furthermore, personal insecurity was positively associated with distress in both models. For example, those who agreed that they did not feel safe, even where they lived, reported 0.23 SD higher distress than those who disagreed (‘ERI-item model’). Supplementary analysis removing dispositional optimism (SI 3), replacing situational optimism with a measure of collective conservation goals progress (SI 4), exploring the role of age (SI 5), and disaggregating the analysis by gender (SI 6) were used to explore the sensitivity of our results. Discussion Psychological distress was prevalent within our sample of 2311 conservationists; more than one in four had scores suggesting moderate or severe distress. Both personal characteristics and workplace conditions were associated with this distress. Individuals with low dispositional and situational optimism, poor health, limited social support, women, and at early career stages were most at risk. Workplace efforts (like high job demand and organisational insecurity) and rewards (like feeling as if one is contributing to conservation), and imbalances between them, were also associated with distress risk. Care should be taken when directly comparing Kessler-10 scores between studies in different sectors, as they may vary because of demographic and other characteristics rather than workplace differences. However, respondents’ distress scores tended to be higher than some general population samples. For instance, the 8841 Australian adults sampled in a nationally representative 2007 study had a mean Kessler-10 score of 14.5 51 . A 2017 study among 2425 rural Bangladeshis reported average Kessler-10 scores of 16.7 (SD = 11.3) 52 . However, whether conservationists are more or less distressed than other groups is perhaps less important than identifying risk factors that can be managed to reduce distress, regardless of its absolute levels. Study considerations The conservation sector is large and diverse, and there is no widely agreed-upon definition of a conservationist. Our sampling approach meant most respondents were university-level educated, spoke English, and were from Europe or Northern America. The sample included only 164 individuals who identified as rangers or fieldworkers. Consequently, our results do not reflect the experiences of those in frontline roles, who may face unique and substantial challenges and risks 18,25−29 . Improving working conditions in offices and headquarters, but overlooking those in frontline roles, may create or worsen health inequalities within the conservation sector. As a result, the suggestions below should be considered hand-in-hand with measures specific to frontline roles. Although our survey asked about age and gender, we did not explore how other identities and social relations – such as race, sexual orientation, disability, and their intersections – affect workplace wellbeing 22 , 23 . Similarly, resident communities and Indigenous groups play crucial roles in conserving nature, but our study does not explicitly explore their experiences. Future research could explore these dimensions, potentially using in-depth qualitative methods to provide nuanced insights (e.g., 24 ). Our study was a cross-sectional observational study, and so does not allow for causal inference. While some of our observations are supported by prior research (such as the impacts of ERI 53 ) others were exploratory (like the role of situational optimism). As a result, these exploratory findings should be treated cautiously. Finally, the Kessler-10 is a brief screening instrument that indicates the scale of psychological distress but cannot be used to diagnose specific conditions. So, while our research indicates the prevalence and risk factors for distress among conservationists, further research is needed to understand how these translate into patterns of mental illness. Workplace wellbeing in conservation Swaisgood and Sheppard 10 suggest there may be a culture of “learned helplessness” within the conservation sector 49 , potentially leading to demotivation and distress. Our results suggest that those with lower situational optimism about conservation tend to report higher levels of distress, but this effect size was relatively small when controlling for dispositional optimism. In contrast, respondents’ satisfaction with their individual contributions to conservation was one of the largest predictors of distress. This contrast suggests that respondents may be less distressed by the “bigger picture” of ongoing nature loss, but more concerned about their individual contributions. This corroborates other research suggesting that ecological grief emerges partly from feelings of individual and collective powerlessness to prevent environmental degradation 8 . Qualitative results from a companion study of the same sample of respondents found that many focus on their contributions to stay motivated in the face of ongoing nature loss 12 . Further research is needed to understand the causal relationships between individuals’ satisfaction with their contributions to conservation and their experiences of distress. However, nature would be worse-off in the absence of conservationists 54 , 55 . Optimism movements, like Conservation Optimism , Earth Optimism , and Ocean Optimism , that share examples of positive conservation outcomes may help illustrate this fact 49 . Some individuals struggling with the “bigger picture” may find it helpful to engage with these movements and concentrate on their positive roles within collective conservation efforts. Additionally, those with low dispositional optimism appeared to be at greater risk of psychological distress. Dispositional optimism is generally stable over an individual’s life course 48 . Therefore, individuals struggling with low dispositional optimism might benefit most from support when working in challenging roles or avoid such positions altogether, where feasible 49 . In general, women tend to report higher rates of psychological distress than men for multiple and complex reasons, regardless of profession 44 . Within conservation, women can face unequal compensation, exclusion, harassment and institutional injustice, assumptions of inadequacy, and other forms of discrimination 24 , 56 . Efforts to address these issues could include offering women mentoring and career development opportunities, improving organisational justice and transparency, and addressing salary inequalities 24 . These efforts could also include fostering supportive work relationships, such as encouraging leaders to demonstrate confidence in women employees, provide constructive guidance, and introduce them to their networks 24 . Those involved in conservation for longer were expected to be more established in their careers, with more secure and better compensated roles, than early-career conservationists 12 . Moreover, people tend to become less distressed with age, which was strongly associated with experience in our study 44 . Consequently, our results indicate the need for targeted support for early-career conservationists. Moreover, lack of experience can be a barrier to entry for those wanting to enter the conservation sector, particularly for those from disadvantaged backgrounds 12 , 13 , 15 . While unpaid volunteer positions can help some individuals gain experience, employers should ask if their use of unpaid labour propagates inequalities and undermines meritocracy in the sector. Moreover, they might examine their hiring practices and adopt competency rather than experience-based recruitment approaches 12 , especially for junior positions. Work and non-work factors can also interact to affect psychological distress. Our results corroborate other research illustrating how poor general health, inadequate social support, and feeling in danger can be linked to worse mental health 57 – 59 . Employers can support employees’ work-life balance by, for instance, adopting sustainable career management approaches, such as allowing career breaks, part-time or flexible working patterns, and investing in employees’ development 60 . They can also reduce incentives to overwork, such as setting realistic deadlines, valuing quality over quantity, and increasing employees control of their day-to-day activities. Workplace challenges and rewards found in other sectors – like heavy job load or the expectation of an undesirable job change 38 – 40 – appeared to be important determinants of distress in our study. This result has several implications. First, improved worker wellbeing may not be conditional on addressing the global biodiversity crisis or associated feelings of ecological grief. In other words, conservationists can be supported to thrive at work, even when environmental trends look dire. Second, it implies that many challenges faced by our respondents are not unique to the sector. Consequently, conservation organisations can probably learn much from how other sectors, such as healthcare, education, emergency services, have identified and managed these issues (e.g., 41 , 42 ). Many generic guidelines exist across the world to help organisations manage staff mental health and wellbeing. Among these, the UK Government’s Thriving at Work mental health core standards provide up-to-date and accessible advice applicable across organisational sizes and contexts 6 . The authors of these standards suggest users tailor them to specific sectors, which we have done (Table 3 , see SI 7 for further details and limitations around each option). Table 3 Suggestions for employers for supporting staff mental health and wellbeing demonstrated through hypothetical but illustrative vignettes. See SI 7 for details, limitations and risks, links to resources, and a description of our approach to tailoring the Thriving at Work mental health core standards to the conservation sector 6 . Suggestions Hypothetical vignettes Understand experiences, attitudes, and knowledge among staff. Asili na Watu is a Tanzanian organisation with 20 employees. They asked their staff to complete a short anonymous survey, describing the things they found most challenging and rewarding in their jobs. They used these results to guide the development of their wellbeing at work plan. Produce, implement, and update a wellbeing at work plan. Bugs Benevolence Society is a medium-sized non-governmental organisation with mostly office-based staff. They found high rates of sickness absence due to staff burnout. So, they formed a committee, led by the human resource manager, to look into this issue. The committee found that these issues stemmed from poor work planning and a culture that rewarded overwork. So, they designed a six-month plan with senior management for how they would address these issues. This plan included specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals to implement the other suggestions presented in this table. Develop awareness of mental health and resources among all staff. The National Nature Agency is a governmental organisation with over 1000 staff. They have resources on mental health, and the support available to staff, on their intranet. However, these resources are rarely used. In response, senior leadership asked their human resource teams to tailor the resources for each office. They also launched an awareness-raising campaign at their all-staff meeting, which included anonymous stories and clear guidance on available support. Encourage open conversations about wellbeing and mental health and the support available. As part of their awareness-raising campaign, the National Nature Agency also encouraged office managers to set aside informal spaces where staff could socialise within each office. In parallel, they suggested that team leaders set an example by being open about their struggles and the resources and support that helped them cope. Provide good working conditions – ‘promoting the positives’. Many of Asili na Watu’s staff started working in conservation because of their love of natural history and spending time in nature. However, many of the office-based staff do not have opportunities to spend time in nature. So, the executive director organised bird watching and hiking activities on the last Friday of every month, open to all staff members. They also produce an annual internal report that shares achievements while recognising and reflecting on problems and issues. This report emphasises the positive contributions of individuals and teams, ensuring that the contributions of all staff are recognised. Provide good working conditions – removing the risks. Bugs Benevolence Society identified a set of actions for addressing burnout and overwork within their mental health at work plan. This included implementing policies around flexible working, not working beyond a maximum number of hours, and opportunities to take career breaks. They also evaluated whether they met statutory requirements around work hours, minimum wages, holiday, sick, and maternity pay, and workplace discrimination. Moreover, they also recognised that organisational instability was a source of distress in their organisation. So, the leadership team commissioned a working group to evaluate the organisations’ resilience and long-term sustainability. One of the working groups conclusions was the need to grow their ‘rainy day fund’, amassed from 2.5% of every grant application. Promote effective team leadership. Bugs Benevolence Society recognised that issues of overwork stemmed from the organisation’s culture and management approaches. In response, they organised training for team leaders in strategic planning, time management, and effective leadership. They also altered employee performance evaluations to focus on impacts (like achieving on-the-ground project goals) rather than inputs (like the amount of time spent at work) and outputs (like the number of reports produced). Routinely monitor employee mental health and wellbeing. The National Nature Agency subscribed to a mood tracker app, which employees can voluntarily choose to use. The app allows staff to indicate how they are feeling and provide anonymous feedback. These anonymised and aggregated data are used by human resource personnel to track staff morale. Furthermore, struggling employees can use the app to ask the human resource team for help. The suggestions presented above focus on employer-employee relations. However, being unable to secure work in the conservation sector can also be distressing 12 . Recognising this, initiatives including Conservation Careers ( https://www.conservation-careers.com/ ) and Young Ecologists Talk & Interact (YETI, https://www.meetyeti.net/ ) consolidate and advertise opportunities for those seeking work. More broadly, other actors may also play a role in supporting conservationists. For example, professional associations (like the Society for Conservation Biology ) could help develop and promote best practice workplace guidelines. A good example comes from the Universal Ranger Support Alliance , which developed an action plan to professionalise ranger roles 43 . Other support could include developing tools and resources to help organisations evaluate and strengthen their resilience and long-term sustainability, such as those offered by Capacity for Conservation ( https://capacityforconservation.org/ ). Moreover, funders may evaluate how and where they direct their resources, including making good workplace practices and policies a condition of receiving grants and providing capacity-building funds. Funders might also consider providing funding over longer times, with a greater share of budgets used for staff overheads, and helping organisations build ‘rainy day funds’ to enhance institutional and employment stability. Conclusion Most people spend a significant amount of their waking lives at work, and workplace conditions can strongly influence mental health 1 . Furthermore, supporting workers’ mental health and wellbeing can contribute to their quality of life, increase productivity and engagement, and reduce organisational costs 6 , 35 , 36 . Yet, while some conservation organisations proactively support staff mental health, there is limited empirical evidence to guide and expand on these efforts (but see Belhekar, et al. 28 and Gao and Li 26 ). We provide the first large study examining mental health and its predictors in a broad international sample of conservationists. Psychological distress appeared common among our respondents. Some social groups are at particular risk, particularly women, early-career professionals, or those with low dispositional and situational optimism. Individuals, employers, funders, professional societies and others can play a role in addressing the root causes of this distress, such as by tackling workplace discrimination or avoiding practices that may propagate social inequalities. Moreover, our results illustrate how workplace factors can contribute towards or alleviate distress among conservationists. Employers, funders, and professional societies should seek to reduce these workplace risks, like overwork and job instability. Simultaneously, they may promote the positives, such as celebrating individual and collective contributions to conservation efforts – especially from those whose efforts are under-recognised. In general, while some aspects of conservation work reflected in our sample are unique, much can be learned from the steps taken in other sectors. Identifying cost-effective workplace mental health interventions that ultimately improve outcomes for people and nature would help justify using scarce resources to support conservationists. We encourage the conservation community as a whole to think about better ways to support those who support nature. We suggest ways this could be done, drawing on best practice guidelines. These efforts are likely to take time, resources, and commitment. Nevertheless, supporting conservationists will be increasingly critical going forward, given their essential roles in addressing the global biodiversity and climate crises. Methods An Ethical Review Board at the University of Oxford approval the study protocol (R62487/RE002, SI 8). The target population included those who self-identified as conservationists (see SI 9). These were convenience sampled through internet surveys available in Spanish, English, French, Kiswahili, Portuguese, and Khmer. This internet survey was shared through conservation in person at an international conference, by directly contacting organisations, through listservs and newsletters, and social media networks. Variable description Participants completed the Kessler-10, which has consistent psychometric properties across demographic groups and countries (e.g., 45,61,62 ). This instrument consists of ten Likert-scaled items asking how frequently symptoms are experienced, each with five response levels from “ None of the time” (scored 1) to “ All of the time” (scored 5). Scores across each item are added to provide a total score, ranging from 10 (indicating no distress) to 50 (indicating severe distress). Those scoring 25-29 are likely to be moderately distressed, and those scoring 30 or above are likely to be severely distressed 63 . Rather than using these raw scores, we used the scale to estimate latent psychological distress. Latent dispositional optimism was estimated using the Life Orientation Test-Revised, using the factor structure described in other literature (see SI 10) 47,49,64 . Latent situational optimism was estimated using a ten-item instrument developed in a companion study 49 . In summary, this instrument included pairs of statements corresponding to the five Strategic Goals of the C onvention on Biological Diversity’s Aichi Biodiversity Targets 65 . Respondents were asked about the likelihood that each statement would be achieved in the next decade. This latent variable was estimated using the factor structure described in Pienkowski, et al. 49 (see SI 11). According to the effort-reward imbalance model, people work on the expectation that their efforts will be compensated with rewards; an imbalance occurs when efforts exceed rewards 66 . The original ERI instrument includes three Likert-scaled items describing ‘efforts’ and seven describing ‘rewards’ 46 . We adapted this instrument by adding three new effort items and two reward items relevant to the conservation sector (see SI 12). Effort-reward imbalance scores are calculated following Equation 1. In this equation, i is the individual, e is the sum score of effort items, r is the sum score of reward items, and c is the difference in the number of items in the numerator and denominator. This score was used in the ‘ERI-score model’. We were also interested in the association between each item of the effort-reward imbalance instrument and psychological distress; these items were included (and the imbalance score was excluded) in the ‘ERI-item model’. Statistical analysis All analysis was performed using the ‘R’ statistics software (version 4.0.2) 67 . After coding missing categorical data as ‘unknown’, 1.3% of values in the survey data were missing, mostly where individuals did not complete the survey or chose not to disclose their age or years in conservation (see SI 13). Missing values were replaced with synthetic ones following multivariate imputation by chained equations; ten imputed datasets were created using the ‘mice’ package (version 3.9.0, SI 14) 68 . Five observations from those reporting non-binary gender identities were removed from the statistical analysis, as their inclusion introduced statistical separation. The ‘ERI-score model’ and ‘ERI-item model’ were estimated for each of the ten imputed datasets, using the robust weighted least squares estimator and polychoric correlation. For each model, estimates and variances were pooled using Rubin’s Rules, and coefficient estimates were presented in standardised units 69 . Declarations Data and code availability Study data is available at doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.17089037 and code at https://github.com/Pienkowski/LiC-conservation_distress. Acknowledgements We thank all those who participated in the Life in Conservation internet survey. This work was supported by the Natural Environment Research Council (grant number NE/L002612/1) and the Tasso Leventis Foundation , University of Oxford . Author contributions TP : Conceptualization; Methodology; Software; Formal analysis; Investigation; Resources; Data Curation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualization; Project administration; Funding acquisition. AK : Conceptualization; Methodology; Formal analysis; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualization; Supervision. SCT : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualization. EDL : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualization. MH : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualization. MK : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualization. WNSA : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review & Editing. GB : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review & Editing. SB : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review & Editing. VM : Writing - Review & Editing. SP : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review & Editing. RR : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review & Editing. IZ : Investigation; Writing - Review & Editing. EJMG : Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Resources; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review & Editing; Visualization; Supervision; Funding acquisition. References LaMontagne, A. D. et al. Workplace mental health: Developing an integrated intervention approach. BMC Psychiatry 14 , 131, doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-14-131 (2014). World Health Organization (WHO). 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1279448,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe estimated association in standard deviations (SD) between latent psychological distress and personal characteristics and occupational risk factors among 2306 respondents. The ‘ERI-score model’ included the effort-reward imbalance score but excluded the individual instrument items, while the ‘ERI-item model’ included these items but excluded the score. ‘SO ~ DO’ indicates the correlation between situational and dispositional optimism. Continuous variables were scaled and centred. ‘Unknown’ response levels are not shown.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3ProtectingthosewhoprotectnatureFigure1v1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1132018/v1/9f134b6183713b75bd348ae8.jpg"},{"id":18700757,"identity":"59e06882-f7ee-4967-aa89-c4498b883f43","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-02-28 19:30:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":589838,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1132018/v1/1eb5dcd1-eea4-40e6-94b7-839bc3fe3659.pdf"},{"id":17062602,"identity":"8f34758c-b0a0-4d14-9365-0b0c1f3b4411","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-01-06 15:51:39","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":7675196,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary information","description":"","filename":"5ProtectingthosewhoprotectnatureSIv1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1132018/v1/6d4822432697f6950d5b2ecc.docx"},{"id":17062603,"identity":"e10001dd-95b9-43f3-ab1b-c80eb3e4ac68","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-01-06 15:51:39","extension":"docx","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":7675196,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"5ProtectingthosewhoprotectnatureSIv1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1132018/v1/0e9d31c0a2acffeff317aa54.docx"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Protecting those who protect nature by supporting conservationists’ mental wellbeing","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs in other sectors, the challenges and rewards that conservationists face may be significant factors affecting their mental health\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Mental health has been defined as a \u0026ldquo;state of wellbeing in which the individual realises [their] own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to [their] community\u0026rdquo;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Stage-based models of mental illness suggest a spectrum from low-level psychological distress to increasingly specific symptoms, finally passing diagnostic thresholds for mental illnesses\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Mental illness is a leading contributor to the global burden of disease, with over 260 million people estimated to have had depression in 2017\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e. In the UK alone, poor mental health was estimated to cost employers between \u0026pound;33 billion and \u0026pound;42 billion in 2016\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e. Most people experience variable mental health throughout their lives and can be helped to thrive even when experiencing mental illness\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConservation can be a tough sector to work in. Conservationists exposed to the loss of nature but provided with inadequate support might face acute ecological grief\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This grief may be a natural and legitimate response to perceived societal inaction, feelings of powerlessness, and the expectation that future environmental targets will not be met\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These feelings may be exacerbated by the \u0026ldquo;gloom-and-doom\u0026rdquo; narrative prevalent in some conservation discourse\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The conservation sector is also underfunded. For example, conservation spending is estimated to be an order of magnitude smaller than is required to meet critical global biodiversity targets\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This underfunding may partly explain the prevalence of precarious, inadequately compensated, and poorly resourced conservation jobs (e.g., \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e). Furthermore, the vocational nature of conservation work can encourage exploitative practices, such as long-term unpaid or low-paid work, that affects those from disadvantaged backgrounds and junior members of the profession worst\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, many conservation roles blur the boundary of personal and professional lives. For instance, conservation scientists often work outside regular office hours, may be based in remote locations, and spend significant time away from friends and family\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Similarly, some in the sector can have conflicting responsibilities and loyalties, which may be distressing. For instance, protected area rangers can come from or live in the communities they police, which may create tensions with friends, neighbours, and family\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In other cases, conservationists can face hard choices when trading-off objectives\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which could be compounded by the challenges of interdisciplinary research and practice\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and ideological conflicts with peers (e.g., \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e). These challenges are not equally experienced within the sector and can vary by job role, geography, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, gender, and other identities and social relations\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR23\" citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For example, several recent studies examine workplace stressors \u0026ndash; such as isolation from family, poor health and safety, and inadequate compensation \u0026ndash; experienced by conservation rangers\u003csup\u003e18,25\u0026minus;29\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYet, working in conservation can also be rewarding. Many people across numerous sectors seek work that aligns with their values or contributes to societal causes\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Doing value-aligned work is also important for many conservationists, such as those motivated by their love of nature and its perceived intrinsic and instrumental values\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Engaging in value-aligned work can be a source of satisfaction and meaning in conservationists\u0026rsquo; lives\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Some types of conservation work also provide beneficial opportunities to spend time in nature, travel, learn and grow, and interact with colleagues and other groups\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese challenges and rewards, and the balance between them, are likely to play a role in conservationists\u0026rsquo; mental health. There are multiple reasons why the conservation sector should care about the mental health of its members. For individuals, good working conditions can enhance job satisfaction and quality of life beyond work\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Such conditions are often associated with better job performance and career advancement and might help those who want to remain in the sector to do so\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. There are also pragmatic reasons why organisations should care about staff mental health. Good working conditions can increase staff engagement, creativity and productivity while reducing costs from absenteeism, presenteeism (working while being unwell), and staff turnover\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Good working conditions may also ease stress-induced workplace conflict and reduce incentives for misconduct\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In many countries, employers have a duty of care towards their staff; failure to fulfil this duty might pose liability risks. Across the sector, a more productive and innovative workforce might be better able to deliver conservation action.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstantial evidence suggests that good working conditions can be good for mental health\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Efforts to support mental health at work can involve \u0026lsquo;promoting the positive\u0026rsquo;, preventing harm, and helping manage mental illness regardless of the cause\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. \u0026lsquo;Promoting the positives\u0026rsquo; involves identifying and enhancing aspects of work that support job satisfaction and wellbeing. Among conservationists, these aspects may include feeling like one is making a \u0026ldquo;meaningful contribution\u0026rdquo; or spending time in nature\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Supporting mental health also involves preventing harm from workplace stressors. These include imbalances between workplace efforts and rewards, high job demand, job insecurity, and lack of social support from colleagues (e.g., \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e). Finally, organisations can also provide adjustments to support those with mental illness to stay in or return to work (although these interventions are beyond the scope of this article).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealthcare, education, emergency services, and other sectors have a history of investigating and acting to support worker mental health. For example, we found multiple meta-analyses exploring risk factors for mental illness among healthcare workers and interventions to support them\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In contrast, we found only a few studies exploring mental health among conservationists (see Belhekar, et al. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Gao and Li \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, who examine psychological wellbeing and stress among rangers in India and China, respectively). As such, the conservation sector as a whole appears to have lagged behind other sectors. Nevertheless, there is growing recognition of the need to better support those in conservation, given the diverse challenges many in the sector face. For example, the \u003cem\u003eInternational Ranger Federation\u003c/em\u003e aims to professionalise ranger roles and plans to develop minimum standards around working conditions and welfare\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Equally, the \u003cem\u003eLonely Conservationists\u003c/em\u003e website shares conservationists\u0026rsquo; experiences and resources to support mental health (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://www.lonelyconservationists.com\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ewww.lonelyconservationists.com\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, while the lessons learned in other sectors are likely to be informative, these should be evaluated and tailored to the unique challenges and rewards experienced by conservationists.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to increase understanding of the patterns and risk factors of psychological distress \u0026ndash; a state of emotional disturbance that impairs social functioning and daily activities\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; within conservation. In doing so, we hope to catalyse efforts to support those in the sector better. We convenience-sampled conservationists through an internet survey (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://livedataoxford.shinyapps.io/lifeinconservation/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), available in six languages, from July 2019 to August 2020. We investigated two research questions. First, how prevalent is psychological distress within a sample of the conservation community? Second, what personal characteristics and workplace factors are associated with psychological distress? Psychological distress was measured using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (Kessler-10)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Two structural equation models were fitted, exploring hypothesised associations between personal characteristics, workplace conditions, and latent psychological distress (Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, see Supplementary Information (SI) 1 for details). One set of variables in the analysis related to the extent to which workplace rewards offset efforts, measured using a modified version of the effort-reward imbalance (ERI) instrument\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The first model (\u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;) included the total ERI score for each respondent but excluded individual instrument items. Conversely, the second model (\u0026lsquo;ERI-item model\u0026rsquo;) included each item of the ERI instrument but excluded total imbalance scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePersonal characteristics and occupational risk factors that were expected to be associated with psychological distress in two models (see SI 1 for details). The \u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo; includes the effort-reward imbalance score but excludes each item of the effort-reward imbalance instrument. The \u0026lsquo;ERI-item model\u0026rsquo; includes each item of the instrument but excludes the effort-reward imbalance score. \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e Variables moderately correlated with other explanatory variables (\u003cem\u003erho\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.6) were removed from the statistical analysis post-hoc. \u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003eOrdinal exogenous variables were treated as numeric. \u003csup\u003e\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003eConservation-specific items added to the original effort-reward imbalance instrument. Key: RL = reference level; + = expected positive association; - = expected negative association; and ? = ambiguous or unclear expected association.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eName\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription or statement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDispositional optimism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA latent variable derived from the Life Orientation Test \u0026ndash; Revised\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Dispositional optimism is the general expectation of good outcomes in life\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSituational optimism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA latent variable describing situational optimism about conservation outcomes over the next decade\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Situational optimism is the expectation of positive outcomes within a specific context\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A correlation between situational and dispositional optimism was included in the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale or male (RL = female).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge in years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears in conservation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears working in conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational / non-national\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorking in one\u0026rsquo;s country of nationality or not (RL = national).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity or non-university education (RL = non-University).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical health\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;How is your physical health in general?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePersonal relationships\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatisfied with \u0026ldquo;your personal relationships?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFriends and family support\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatisfied with \u0026ldquo;the support you get from your friends and family?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFriends and family time\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatisfied with \u0026ldquo;the amount of time you are able to spend with friends and family\u0026rdquo;\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffort-reward score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-score model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adapted effort-reward imbalance score\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeavy workload\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I have constant time pressure due to a heavy work load\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany disturbances\u003csup\u003e*,\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I have many interruptions and disturbances while performing my job\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreasingly demanding job\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Over the past few years, my job has become more and more demanding\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot enough resources\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;,\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I do not have the resources I need to achieve my work goals\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot enough funding\u003csup\u003e*,\u0026dagger;,\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The organisation I work for does not have enough funding to achieve its main aims\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganisational instability\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;,\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The organisation I work for may not exist in five years\u0026rsquo; time\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespect I deserve\u003csup\u003e*,\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I receive the respect I deserve from my boss and work colleagues\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJob advancement prospects\u003csup\u003e*,\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;My job promotion or advancement prospects are poor (reverse coding)\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDo not expect undesirable job change\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I have experienced or I expect to experience an undesirable change in my work situation (reverse coding)\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGood job security\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;My job security is poor (reverse coding)\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespect and prestige\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Considering all my efforts and achievements, I receive the respect and prestige I deserve at work\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJob advancement\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Considering all my efforts and achievements, my job promotion or advancement prospects are adequate\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncome is alright\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Considering all my efforts and achievements, my salary or income is alright\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContribution to conservation\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;,\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I am satisfied with the contribution I make to conservation\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial pride\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;,\u0026Dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI-item model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;My friends and family are proud that I work in conservation\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePosition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademia and research or practice and policy (RL = academia and research).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDangerous at night\u003csup\u003e*,\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;It is dangerous to go outside at night alone\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDangerous situations\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;My work puts me in dangerous situations\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot feeling safe\u003csup\u003e\u0026dagger;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;I do not feel safe, even where I live\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e+\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorking hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWork hours per week.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePrevalence of psychological distress among respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur survey was completed by 2311 respondents who said they were familiar with conservation across 143 countries (Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Of these, 2213 were completed in English, 55 in French, 24 in Portuguese, 17 in Spanish, 2 in Kiswahili, and none in Khmer. Respondents had a mean Kessler-10 score of 20.9 (standard deviation (SD) = 7.0) and median score of 20.0 (inter-quartile range = 9.0). Among the respondents, 14.8% had scores suggesting moderate distress (25-29), and a further 13.0% had scores indicating severe distress (\u0026gt; 30).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondent characteristics by gender. Continuous variables are described with means (and standard deviations), and categorical variables are described with counts (and percentages). Key: LOTR = Life Orientation Test \u0026ndash; Revised; ERI (original) = scores from the original effort-reward imbalance instrument; ERI (new) = scores from a modified effort-reward imbalance instrument that includes five new items specific to conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN = 2311\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN = 1208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMen\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN = 969\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-binary\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN = 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnspecified\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eN = 129\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKessler-10 score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.9 (7.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7 (7.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8 (6.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.8 (7.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.9 (6.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLOTR score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0 (3.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1 (3.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1 (3.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0 (5.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2 (3.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.0 (11.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.1 (9.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.2 (12.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.6 (2.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.8 (10.7)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears in conservation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2 (10.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.2 (8.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3 (12.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.8 (3.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.6 (17.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational / non-national\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1704 (77%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e920 (76%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e755 (78%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24 (75%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-national\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e509 (23%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e287 (24%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e214 (22%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 (25%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-university\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e141 (6.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50 (4.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78 (8.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (10%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2069 (90%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1158 (96%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e888 (92%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 (14%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e101 (4.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (0.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98 (76%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePosition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1094 (47%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e584 (48%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e491 (51%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (60%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16 (12%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e729 (32%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e393 (33%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e323 (33%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (40%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (8.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e488 (21%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e231 (19%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155 (16%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102 (79%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorking hours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.5 (13.2)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.2 (12.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.0 (13.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.0 (10.8)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.2 (10.1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNationality (region)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCentral \u0026amp; Southern Asia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e249 (11%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117 (9.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129 (13%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (9.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEastern \u0026amp; South-Eastern Asia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116 (5.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79 (6.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37 (3.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEurope \u0026amp; Northern America\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1308 (59%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e752 (62%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e526 (54%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 (78%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLatin America \u0026amp; the Caribbean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e157 (7.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 (6.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76 (7.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (3.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNorthern Africa \u0026amp; Western Asia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32 (1.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 (0.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21 (2.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOceania\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e131 (5.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72 (6.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57 (5.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (6.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-Saharan Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220 (9.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96 (8.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e123 (13%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (3.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI (original)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 (0.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3 (0.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 (0.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4 (0.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3 (0.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eERI (new)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 (0.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 (0.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 (0.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2 (0.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.1 (0.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePersonal characteristics and workplace conditions associated with psychological distress\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo structural equation models were implemented with 2306 observations (five respondents with non-binary gender identities were excluded from the sample for reasons described in the methods). Both models fitted the data well (see SI 2). Dispositional optimism was negatively associated with distress in both models (Figure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.a.). For instance, those with one SD higher dispositional optimism reported 0.29 SD lower distress than those at the mean (in the \u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;). Situational optimism about conservation outcomes was slightly negatively associated with psychological distress; those with one SD greater situational optimism than the mean reporting 0.05 SD lower distress (\u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;). Men reported lower distress than women. For instance, men reported 0.21 SD lower psychological distress than women (\u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;). Years of experience in conservation was negatively associated with distress in both models. For instance, those in conservation for five years reported 0.19 SD higher distress than those in conservation for 15 years (\u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;). The results also suggested co-morbidity between physical health and psychological distress in both models; those who said their physical health was bad reported 0.18 SD higher distress than those who said their health was fair (\u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;). All three social support measures were negatively associated with psychological distress in both models. For example, those satisfied with the support received from their friends and family reported 0.25 SD lower distress than those who said they were dissatisfied (\u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLikewise, workplace characteristics were associated with psychological distress in both models (Figure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.b.). For instance, those reporting one SD higher ERI scores had 0.27 SD higher psychological distress than those at the mean (\u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;). Moreover, many of the individual effort-reward instrument items were also associated with psychological distress. Notably, those who agreed with the statement \u0026ldquo;I am satisfied with the contribution I make to conservation\u0026rdquo; reported 0.24 SD lower psychological distress than those who disagreed (\u0026lsquo;ERI-item model\u0026rsquo;). This effect represented the second largest negative association with psychological distress, following dispositional optimism. As another example, those who agreed with the statement \u0026ldquo;I have constant time pressure due to a heavy work load\u0026rdquo; reported 0.11 SD higher psychological distress than those who disagreed (\u0026lsquo;ERI-item model\u0026rsquo;). Equally, those who agreed with the statement \u0026ldquo;Considering all my efforts and achievements, I receive the respect and prestige I deserve at work\u0026rdquo; reported 0.07 SD lower distress than those who disagreed with the statement (\u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;). Furthermore, personal insecurity was positively associated with distress in both models. For example, those who agreed that they did not feel safe, even where they lived, reported 0.23 SD higher distress than those who disagreed (\u0026lsquo;ERI-item model\u0026rsquo;). Supplementary analysis removing dispositional optimism (SI 3), replacing situational optimism with a measure of collective conservation goals progress (SI 4), exploring the role of age (SI 5), and disaggregating the analysis by gender (SI 6) were used to explore the sensitivity of our results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003ePsychological distress was prevalent within our sample of 2311 conservationists; more than one in four had scores suggesting moderate or severe distress. Both personal characteristics and workplace conditions were associated with this distress. Individuals with low dispositional and situational optimism, poor health, limited social support, women, and at early career stages were most at risk. Workplace efforts (like high job demand and organisational insecurity) and rewards (like feeling as if one is contributing to conservation), and imbalances between them, were also associated with distress risk.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCare should be taken when directly comparing Kessler-10 scores between studies in different sectors, as they may vary because of demographic and other characteristics rather than workplace differences. However, respondents\u0026rsquo; distress scores tended to be higher than some general population samples. For instance, the 8841 Australian adults sampled in a nationally representative 2007 study had a mean Kessler-10 score of 14.5\u003csup\u003e51\u003c/sup\u003e. A 2017 study among 2425 rural Bangladeshis reported average Kessler-10 scores of 16.7 (SD = 11.3)\u003csup\u003e52\u003c/sup\u003e. However, whether conservationists are more or less distressed than other groups is perhaps less important than identifying risk factors that can be managed to reduce distress, regardless of its absolute levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy considerations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe conservation sector is large and diverse, and there is no widely agreed-upon definition of a conservationist. Our sampling approach meant most respondents were university-level educated, spoke English, and were from Europe or Northern America. The sample included only 164 individuals who identified as rangers or fieldworkers. Consequently, our results do not reflect the experiences of those in frontline roles, who may face unique and substantial challenges and risks\u003csup\u003e18,25\u0026minus;29\u003c/sup\u003e. Improving working conditions in offices and headquarters, but overlooking those in frontline roles, may create or worsen health inequalities within the conservation sector. As a result, the suggestions below should be considered hand-in-hand with measures specific to frontline roles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough our survey asked about age and gender, we did not explore how other identities and social relations \u0026ndash; such as race, sexual orientation, disability, and their intersections \u0026ndash; affect workplace wellbeing\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Similarly, resident communities and Indigenous groups play crucial roles in conserving nature, but our study does not explicitly explore their experiences. Future research could explore these dimensions, potentially using in-depth qualitative methods to provide nuanced insights (e.g., \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study was a cross-sectional observational study, and so does not allow for causal inference. While some of our observations are supported by prior research (such as the impacts of ERI\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e) others were exploratory (like the role of situational optimism). As a result, these exploratory findings should be treated cautiously.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the Kessler-10 is a brief screening instrument that indicates the scale of psychological distress but cannot be used to diagnose specific conditions. So, while our research indicates the prevalence and risk factors for distress among conservationists, further research is needed to understand how these translate into patterns of mental illness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWorkplace wellbeing in conservation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSwaisgood and Sheppard \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e suggest there may be a culture of \u0026ldquo;learned helplessness\u0026rdquo; within the conservation sector\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, potentially leading to demotivation and distress. Our results suggest that those with lower situational optimism about conservation tend to report higher levels of distress, but this effect size was relatively small when controlling for dispositional optimism. In contrast, respondents\u0026rsquo; satisfaction with their individual contributions to conservation was one of the largest predictors of distress. This contrast suggests that respondents may be less distressed by the \u0026ldquo;bigger picture\u0026rdquo; of ongoing nature loss, but more concerned about their individual contributions. This corroborates other research suggesting that ecological grief emerges partly from feelings of individual and collective powerlessness to prevent environmental degradation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Qualitative results from a companion study of the same sample of respondents found that many focus on their contributions to stay motivated in the face of ongoing nature loss\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Further research is needed to understand the causal relationships between individuals\u0026rsquo; satisfaction with their contributions to conservation and their experiences of distress. However, nature would be worse-off in the absence of conservationists\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Optimism movements, like \u003cem\u003eConservation Optimism\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEarth Optimism\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eOcean Optimism\u003c/em\u003e, that share examples of positive conservation outcomes may help illustrate this fact\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Some individuals struggling with the \u0026ldquo;bigger picture\u0026rdquo; may find it helpful to engage with these movements and concentrate on their positive roles within collective conservation efforts. Additionally, those with low dispositional optimism appeared to be at greater risk of psychological distress. Dispositional optimism is generally stable over an individual\u0026rsquo;s life course\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, individuals struggling with low dispositional optimism might benefit most from support when working in challenging roles or avoid such positions altogether, where feasible\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, women tend to report higher rates of psychological distress than men for multiple and complex reasons, regardless of profession\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Within conservation, women can face unequal compensation, exclusion, harassment and institutional injustice, assumptions of inadequacy, and other forms of discrimination\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Efforts to address these issues could include offering women mentoring and career development opportunities, improving organisational justice and transparency, and addressing salary inequalities\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These efforts could also include fostering supportive work relationships, such as encouraging leaders to demonstrate confidence in women employees, provide constructive guidance, and introduce them to their networks\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThose involved in conservation for longer were expected to be more established in their careers, with more secure and better compensated roles, than early-career conservationists\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Moreover, people tend to become less distressed with age, which was strongly associated with experience in our study\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Consequently, our results indicate the need for targeted support for early-career conservationists. Moreover, lack of experience can be a barrier to entry for those wanting to enter the conservation sector, particularly for those from disadvantaged backgrounds\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. While unpaid volunteer positions can help some individuals gain experience, employers should ask if their use of unpaid labour propagates inequalities and undermines meritocracy in the sector. Moreover, they might examine their hiring practices and adopt competency rather than experience-based recruitment approaches\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, especially for junior positions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWork and non-work factors can also interact to affect psychological distress. Our results corroborate other research illustrating how poor general health, inadequate social support, and feeling in danger can be linked to worse mental health\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR58\" citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Employers can support employees\u0026rsquo; work-life balance by, for instance, adopting sustainable career management approaches, such as allowing career breaks, part-time or flexible working patterns, and investing in employees\u0026rsquo; development\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. They can also reduce incentives to overwork, such as setting realistic deadlines, valuing quality over quantity, and increasing employees control of their day-to-day activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorkplace challenges and rewards found in other sectors \u0026ndash; like heavy job load or the expectation of an undesirable job change\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; appeared to be important determinants of distress in our study. This result has several implications. First, improved worker wellbeing may not be conditional on addressing the global biodiversity crisis or associated feelings of ecological grief. In other words, conservationists can be supported to thrive at work, even when environmental trends look dire. Second, it implies that many challenges faced by our respondents are not unique to the sector. Consequently, conservation organisations can probably learn much from how other sectors, such as healthcare, education, emergency services, have identified and managed these issues (e.g., \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e). Many generic guidelines exist across the world to help organisations manage staff mental health and wellbeing. Among these, the UK Government\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003eThriving at Work\u003c/em\u003e mental health core standards provide up-to-date and accessible advice applicable across organisational sizes and contexts\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The authors of these standards suggest users tailor them to specific sectors, which we have done (Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, see SI 7 for further details and limitations around each option).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuggestions for employers for supporting staff mental health and wellbeing demonstrated through hypothetical but illustrative vignettes. See SI 7 for details, limitations and risks, links to resources, and a description of our approach to tailoring the \u003cem\u003eThriving at Work\u003c/em\u003e mental health core standards to the conservation sector\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuggestions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypothetical vignettes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstand experiences, attitudes, and knowledge among staff.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAsili na Watu\u003c/em\u003e is a Tanzanian organisation with 20 employees. They asked their staff to complete a short anonymous survey, describing the things they found most challenging and rewarding in their jobs. They used these results to guide the development of their wellbeing at work plan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduce, implement, and update a wellbeing at work plan.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBugs Benevolence Society\u003c/em\u003e is a medium-sized non-governmental organisation with mostly office-based staff. They found high rates of sickness absence due to staff burnout. So, they formed a committee, led by the human resource manager, to look into this issue. The committee found that these issues stemmed from poor work planning and a culture that rewarded overwork. So, they designed a six-month plan with senior management for how they would address these issues. This plan included specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals to implement the other suggestions presented in this table.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevelop awareness of mental health and resources among all staff.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eNational Nature Agency\u003c/em\u003e is a governmental organisation with over 1000 staff. They have resources on mental health, and the support available to staff, on their intranet. However, these resources are rarely used. In response, senior leadership asked their human resource teams to tailor the resources for each office. They also launched an awareness-raising campaign at their all-staff meeting, which included anonymous stories and clear guidance on available support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEncourage open conversations about wellbeing and mental health and the support available.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs part of their awareness-raising campaign, the \u003cem\u003eNational Nature Agency\u003c/em\u003e also encouraged office managers to set aside informal spaces where staff could socialise within each office. In parallel, they suggested that team leaders set an example by being open about their struggles and the resources and support that helped them cope.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvide good working conditions \u0026ndash; \u0026lsquo;promoting the positives\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany of \u003cem\u003eAsili na Watu\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/em\u003e staff started working in conservation because of their love of natural history and spending time in nature. However, many of the office-based staff do not have opportunities to spend time in nature. So, the executive director organised bird watching and hiking activities on the last Friday of every month, open to all staff members. They also produce an annual internal report that shares achievements while recognising and reflecting on problems and issues. This report emphasises the positive contributions of individuals and teams, ensuring that the contributions of all staff are recognised.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvide good working conditions \u0026ndash; removing the risks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBugs Benevolence Society\u003c/em\u003e identified a set of actions for addressing burnout and overwork within their mental health at work plan. This included implementing policies around flexible working, not working beyond a maximum number of hours, and opportunities to take career breaks. They also evaluated whether they met statutory requirements around work hours, minimum wages, holiday, sick, and maternity pay, and workplace discrimination. Moreover, they also recognised that organisational instability was a source of distress in their organisation. So, the leadership team commissioned a working group to evaluate the organisations\u0026rsquo; resilience and long-term sustainability. One of the working groups conclusions was the need to grow their \u0026lsquo;rainy day fund\u0026rsquo;, amassed from 2.5% of every grant application.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePromote effective team leadership.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBugs Benevolence Society\u003c/em\u003e recognised that issues of overwork stemmed from the organisation\u0026rsquo;s culture and management approaches. In response, they organised training for team leaders in strategic planning, time management, and effective leadership. They also altered employee performance evaluations to focus on impacts (like achieving on-the-ground project goals) rather than inputs (like the amount of time spent at work) and outputs (like the number of reports produced).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoutinely monitor employee mental health and wellbeing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eNational Nature Agency\u003c/em\u003e subscribed to a mood tracker app, which employees can voluntarily choose to use. The app allows staff to indicate how they are feeling and provide anonymous feedback. These anonymised and aggregated data are used by human resource personnel to track staff morale. Furthermore, struggling employees can use the app to ask the human resource team for help.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe suggestions presented above focus on employer-employee relations. However, being unable to secure work in the conservation sector can also be distressing\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Recognising this, initiatives including \u003cem\u003eConservation Careers\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.conservation-careers.com/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eYoung Ecologists Talk \u0026amp; Interact\u003c/em\u003e (YETI, \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.meetyeti.net/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) consolidate and advertise opportunities for those seeking work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore broadly, other actors may also play a role in supporting conservationists. For example, professional associations (like the \u003cem\u003eSociety for Conservation Biology\u003c/em\u003e) could help develop and promote best practice workplace guidelines. A good example comes from the \u003cem\u003eUniversal Ranger Support Alliance\u003c/em\u003e, which developed an action plan to professionalise ranger roles\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Other support could include developing tools and resources to help organisations evaluate and strengthen their resilience and long-term sustainability, such as those offered by \u003cem\u003eCapacity for Conservation\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://capacityforconservation.org/\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, funders may evaluate how and where they direct their resources, including making good workplace practices and policies a condition of receiving grants and providing capacity-building funds. Funders might also consider providing funding over longer times, with a greater share of budgets used for staff overheads, and helping organisations build \u0026lsquo;rainy day funds\u0026rsquo; to enhance institutional and employment stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eMost people spend a significant amount of their waking lives at work, and workplace conditions can strongly influence mental health\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Furthermore, supporting workers\u0026rsquo; mental health and wellbeing can contribute to their quality of life, increase productivity and engagement, and reduce organisational costs\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Yet, while some conservation organisations proactively support staff mental health, there is limited empirical evidence to guide and expand on these efforts (but see Belhekar, et al. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and Gao and Li \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe provide the first large study examining mental health and its predictors in a broad international sample of conservationists. Psychological distress appeared common among our respondents. Some social groups are at particular risk, particularly women, early-career professionals, or those with low dispositional and situational optimism. Individuals, employers, funders, professional societies and others can play a role in addressing the root causes of this distress, such as by tackling workplace discrimination or avoiding practices that may propagate social inequalities. Moreover, our results illustrate how workplace factors can contribute towards or alleviate distress among conservationists. Employers, funders, and professional societies should seek to reduce these workplace risks, like overwork and job instability. Simultaneously, they may promote the positives, such as celebrating individual and collective contributions to conservation efforts \u0026ndash; especially from those whose efforts are under-recognised. In general, while some aspects of conservation work reflected in our sample are unique, much can be learned from the steps taken in other sectors. Identifying cost-effective workplace mental health interventions that ultimately improve outcomes for people and nature would help justify using scarce resources to support conservationists.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe encourage the conservation community as a whole to think about better ways to support those who support nature. We suggest ways this could be done, drawing on best practice guidelines. These efforts are likely to take time, resources, and commitment. Nevertheless, supporting conservationists will be increasingly critical going forward, given their essential roles in addressing the global biodiversity and climate crises.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eAn \u003cem\u003eEthical Review Board\u003c/em\u003e at the \u003cem\u003eUniversity of Oxford\u003c/em\u003e approval the study protocol (R62487/RE002, SI 8). The target population included those who self-identified as conservationists (see SI 9). These were convenience sampled through internet surveys available in Spanish, English, French, Kiswahili, Portuguese, and Khmer. This internet survey was shared through conservation in person at an international conference, by directly contacting organisations, through listservs and newsletters, and social media networks.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eVariable description\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants completed the Kessler-10, which has consistent psychometric properties across demographic groups and countries (e.g.,\u0026nbsp;\u003csup\u003e45,61,62\u003c/sup\u003e). This instrument consists of ten Likert-scaled items asking how frequently symptoms are experienced, each with five response levels from\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u003c/span\u003eNone of the time\u0026rdquo; (scored 1) to\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u003c/span\u003eAll of the time\u0026rdquo; (scored 5). Scores across each item are added to provide a total score, ranging from 10 (indicating no distress) to 50 (indicating severe distress). Those scoring 25-29 are likely to be moderately distressed, and those scoring 30 or above are likely to be severely distressed\u003csup\u003e63\u003c/sup\u003e. Rather than using these raw scores, we used the scale to estimate latent psychological distress.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLatent dispositional optimism was estimated using the Life Orientation Test-Revised, using the factor structure described in other literature (see SI 10)\u003csup\u003e47,49,64\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;Latent situational optimism was estimated using a ten-item instrument developed in a companion study\u003csup\u003e49\u003c/sup\u003e. In summary, this instrument included pairs of statements corresponding to the five Strategic Goals of the\u0026nbsp;C\u003cem\u003eonvention on Biological Diversity\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/em\u003e Aichi Biodiversity Targets\u003csup\u003e65\u003c/sup\u003e. Respondents were asked about the likelihood that each statement would be achieved in the next decade. This latent variable was estimated using the factor structure described in\u0026nbsp;Pienkowski, et al. \u003csup\u003e49\u003c/sup\u003e (see SI 11).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the effort-reward imbalance model, people work on the expectation that their efforts will be compensated with rewards; an imbalance occurs when efforts exceed rewards\u003csup\u003e66\u003c/sup\u003e. The original ERI instrument includes three Likert-scaled items describing \u0026lsquo;efforts\u0026rsquo; and seven describing \u0026lsquo;rewards\u0026rsquo;\u003csup\u003e46\u003c/sup\u003e. We adapted this instrument by adding three new effort items and two reward items relevant to the conservation sector (see SI 12). Effort-reward imbalance scores are calculated following Equation 1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAeEAAACGCAYAAADqzDJYAAAIJ0lEQVR4nO3dUXWzzBqAUSygAQt4QEI0xAIOcBAHKEABBjCAAzy85+Jfw0pSSJu2OVPy7b1WbtqQ0F706cDMpAgAIIsi9wkAwL9KhAEgExEGgExEGAAyEWEAyESEASATEQaATEQYADIRYQDIRIQBIBMRBoBMRBgAMhFhAMhEhAEgExEGgExEGAAyEWEAyESEASATEQaATEQYADIRYQDIRIQBIBMRfnPDMMTpdIqiKKIoiqiqKqZpyn1aAIQIv7Xz+RxFUUTXdbEsS0zTFEVRRNM0uU8NgBDht9W2bRRFEZfL5ebraTQMQH4i/Ibmed6MbRoJn8/nTGcGwDURfkP3o+BpmuJyuURZllHXdSzLkvkMAYgQ4bfUNM06EasoiqjrOk6nU/R9v/n8YRiiLMv/81kCIMJvKEUYgL/NX+o3tBfhaZridDptPndvlAzA64jwG+q67uae8LIscblcNtcIL8sSRVHEPM85ThXgn3a4CKe1r5897mPz6LimaWIYhk/f634U+Zd1XRdlWUZRFFGWZZzP583QjuNoyRJAJoeLcEREXdeba2Aj/ru8ujfJaOu4aZrWr2+FOH2vaZq3nFXcdZ0lSwCZHDLC6T7mOI4fvtd13e6INR13P0oex3F3J6l0zFag30HTNJv/zADweoeMcBqdPquqqs3jHkU4HfOOo+CIWP+Zadv2bX9GgL/qcBFOE4nquv7WcVuh7ft+857vd9/rSOq6jrIszY4GyOBwEU6j1vv7mFVVbV6eToZhWD/M4F4aWd8fn45p2/Z3Th4ArhwuwvfLb66/9kjayvE6tMMwrBO5tkaC6ZifjhLT+T3z8ElHAO/vcBG+35LxemvGR9Jo9/pRlmW0bbu7RjYdYw0tAK9wuAingF5rmubTZTb3od4aUW8dYw0tAK9yqAjvfSh913UPY7p3HzmNhh8d8xc36Hj20vZvPgD4PYf6q3q5XHYnVz2yN+rdWzf86JhrX/30IfeEAdhyqAinbSS3Ns5II9cte7F9NPHqUaAB4DccKsKPNs5ommZ39Jj2UL6XRtZbS5D2jrl+v9+YOQ3Av+swEZ7neXOi1LIs64h26zJ1Cu3WLOd0j7mqqpuwPzrm+n3NnAbgJw4R4XmeN5cY3T/2Ntu4ftyPotOIt6qqmOd585gtPn0IgJ86RIT/Ip8+BMBPifA3+fQhAH5KhL8p96cPdV23TlRL/wyM47hOGPvK0qmk7/ubncjSTmIAvJYIf1POTx/qum6dhFZVVTRNE33fr5fHm6b58iYjae/sFPI0We3ZtdgAPE+ED64syyjL8lv3p/fWSe+txQbgd4nwgV0v23r2kng61s5cAPmI8IH1ff/p1pp7futjGgH4PhE+sK3PSN6ytcd1moj1lc1GvrpHNgDPEeEDSxuYfEeKMAD5+Ct8UGnbzM/u6e7tcf3VCNsjG+B1RPig0vaan63n3dvjOn284vVSpGEYommam8vb9sgGeB0RPqgU0c+WEj3a47pt23Xv7LIs43Q6fbi/bI9sgNcR4Tf30z2u7ZEN8Doi/OZ+use1PbIBXkeE39xP97jOvUc2wDsT4Tf30z2uc+6RDfDuRBgAMhFhAMhEhAEgExEGgExEGAAyEWEAyESEASATEQaATEQYADIRYQDIRIQBIBMRBoBMRBgAMhFhAMhEhAEgExEGgExEGAAyEWEAyESEASATEQaATEQYADIRYQDIRIQBIBMRBoBMRBgAMhFhAMhEhAEgExEGgExEGAAyEWEAyESEASATEQaATEQYADIRYQDIRIQBIBMRBoBMRBgAMhFhAMhEhAEgExEG4E+b5znKsoxhGHKfyq8TYYB/TNM0URTFw0fXdblPc5UjwvM8x+VyibquX/q7EGGAf9A0Tbux7boua4Trus723sn5fI6qql7+D4kIA/yjHgUmV4TneY6i+BtpGsdRhAF4ja3AjOMY4zhmOZ9lWaKuaxEG4P1tBeZ0Om1GeBiGNZB1XccwDHE6nSLi9h7z9WsXRRFN09y8zjRNN89vmibmeY6IWF///ti+76Npmg/nerlc1kvGVVXdfH+e52jbNsqyjHme43Q6rc9L7/cZEQbgZfYmZd1HuO/7KMty/XqK03Vg70ewaVR7H+GqqtZ4p/vS5/N5/X4KdDKOY5Rl+SGGXddFXddrUC+XSxRFEW3bRkSs0U3HLcuyTvC6fr9HRBiAl/nKSHhZlijLMvq+v3le0zQ3gb2P59ZzIuLDa33lde5juCxLFEXx4ZzO53MURbGG+avntEeEAXiZr9wTTiG6Hx1/N8IR/0W07/t19PxshPfOaRiGm6+LMAB/1lcC89sR7vs+qqqKtm3X+8PfjfD9uuH7cxVhAP6sR4EZxzH6vl9D9Nnl6LZtPw1eugd8Hc/vRDgtY0r3lpO+76MoiliWZfe1RBiA7FIQ00Sma2kiVopZXdc3E7Pmef4w6arruiiKIqZpimVZbmYup+elqF0ul4j47/JxVVXRNM0a5vQ6y7Ks55YuM1+fa4p+eq10TtfBTJe708+RvvbVzUC23vf6500zr39ChAH+MV/ZtvJ6BvGyLOsxVVXFOI4fRpTXz2maZr3UfD6fY5qmD++dXictI0oj7WmaoizLqKoqpmlaw721nWbXdTdLlFKQt37GiI+zwZ/9HV0TYQCyeeayLvtEGICnifDvEGEAnlZV1Z/4oIWjE2EAnvLMvVUe89sDgExEGAAyEWEAyESEASATEQaATEQYADIRYQDIRIQBIBMRBoBMRBgAMhFhAMhEhAEgExEGgExEGAAyEWEAyOR/L18cDyzhogEAAAAASUVORK5CYII=\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"isPasted\"\u003eIn this equation, \u003cem\u003ei\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eis the individual, \u003cem\u003ee\u003c/em\u003e is the sum score of effort items, \u003cem\u003er\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eis the sum score of reward items, and \u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e is the difference in the number of items in the numerator and denominator. This score was used in the \u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo;. We were also interested in the association between each item of the effort-reward imbalance instrument and psychological distress; these items were included (and the imbalance score was excluded) in the \u0026lsquo;ERI-item model\u0026rsquo;.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll analysis was performed using the \u0026lsquo;R\u0026rsquo; statistics software (version 4.0.2)\u003csup\u003e67\u003c/sup\u003e. After coding missing categorical data as \u0026lsquo;unknown\u0026rsquo;, 1.3% of values in the survey data were missing, mostly where individuals did not complete the survey or chose not to disclose their age or years in conservation (see SI 13). Missing values were replaced with synthetic ones following multivariate imputation by chained equations; ten imputed datasets were created using the \u0026lsquo;mice\u0026rsquo; package (version 3.9.0, SI 14)\u003csup\u003e68\u003c/sup\u003e. Five observations from those reporting non-binary gender identities were removed from the statistical analysis, as their inclusion introduced statistical separation. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u0026lsquo;ERI-score model\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;ERI-item model\u0026rsquo; were estimated for each of the ten imputed datasets, using the robust weighted least squares estimator and polychoric correlation. For each model, estimates and variances were pooled using Rubin\u0026rsquo;s Rules, and coefficient estimates were presented in standardised units\u003csup\u003e69\u003c/sup\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eData and code availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudy data is available at doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.17089037 and code at https://github.com/Pienkowski/LiC-conservation_distress.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe thank all those who participated in the Life in Conservation internet survey. This work was supported by the \u003cem\u003eNatural Environment Research Council\u003c/em\u003e (grant number NE/L002612/1) and the \u003cem\u003eTasso Leventis Foundation\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;University of Oxford\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTP\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Software; Formal analysis; Investigation; Resources; Data Curation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualization; Project administration; Funding acquisition.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eAK\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Formal analysis; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualization; Supervision.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eSCT\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualization.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eEDL\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualization.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eMH\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualization.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eMK\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualization.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eWNSA\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eGB\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eSB\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eVM\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eSP\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eRR\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eIZ\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;Investigation; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eEJMG\u003c/strong\u003e: Conceptualization; Methodology; Investigation; Resources; Writing - Original Draft; Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing; Visualization; Supervision; Funding acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLaMontagne, A. 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B. in \u003cem\u003eMultiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys\u003c/em\u003e (ed Donald B Rubin) 1-76 (John Wiley \u0026amp; Sons, 1987).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Conservation psychology, Conservationists, Environmentalists, Mental health, Occupational health, Psychological distress, Workplace wellbeing","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1132018/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1132018/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBiodiversity conservation work can be challenging but rewarding, with potential consequences for conservationists\u0026rsquo; mental health. Yet, little is known about patterns of mental health among conservationists and its associated protective and risk factors. A better understanding can help improve working conditions, supporting conservationists\u0026rsquo; job satisfaction, productivity, and engagement, while reducing costs from staff turnover, absenteeism, and presenteeism. We surveyed 2311 conservationists across 143 countries, asking about experiences of psychological distress, personal characteristics, and workplace conditions. Moderate or severe distress was reported by 27.8%. Respondents with low dispositional and conservation-specific optimism, poor physical health, limited social support, women, and early-career professionals were most at risk. Heavy workload, job demands, and organisational instability were linked to higher distress, but job stability and satisfaction with one\u0026rsquo;s contributions to conservation were associated with lower distress. We suggest ways employers and others could support conservationists\u0026rsquo; mental health and ability to tackle the global ecological crisis.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Protecting those who protect nature by supporting conservationists’ mental wellbeing","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-01-06 15:51:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1132018/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"4a50261a-351d-46b2-80de-d64e5b8ebccf","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 6th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-02-28T19:30:45+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-01-06 15:51:37","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-1132018","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1132018","identity":"rs-1132018","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"FbvkV6FR0MCFSLy54lSbu","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}