Diversified farming and agroecology: Assessing cacao and coffee smallholders’ food security, dietary diversity, and vulnerability to hurricanes and other hazards in Central America

Diversified farming and agroecology: Assessing cacao and coffee smallholders’ food security, dietary diversity, and vulnerability to hurricanes and other hazards in Central America | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Diversified farming and agroecology: Assessing cacao and coffee smallholders’ food security, dietary diversity, and vulnerability to hurricanes and other hazards in Central America Christopher Bacon, William A Sundstrom This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4903058/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Diversified farming is one of several agroecological strategies for reducing smallholders’ risk and building resilience to climate change and other hazards. Accumulating evidence shows that farmers can use agroecology to improve household food security and influence food system transformations. However, additional research is needed to identify which agroecological strategies are used by whom and the degree to which diversification, household characteristics, context, or other strategies contribute to farmer well-being. In 2022, we conducted a livelihood, agriculture, and food security survey with 429 smallholders sampled randomly from farmers affiliated with cooperatives selling coffee or cacao in northern Nicaragua. We focus on farmer strategies and practices associated with 9 key agroecology principles and their relation to food security, water security, and dietary diversity. Next, we integrated statistical analysis into our participatory mixed methods approach using partner feedback and 13 farmer interviews to inform and interpret regression models. Cacao farmers in the wetter growing zone reported more crop diversity, organic production, and less seasonal hunger than coffee growers. Food and input price inflation was a more pressing concern than impacts from hurricanes Eta and Iota for all producers. Our multivariate analysis suggested that location was less important than surplus subsistence (corn and bean) production, water security, farm size, and income, all correlated significantly with improved seasonal hunger. Production diversity and farmers’ formal education correlated with household dietary diversity. This is among the first studies comparing coffee and cacao producers and assessing their agroecological strategies in relation to food security, water security, nutrition, and vulnerability. Findings are relevant for many of the 15 million smallholder coffee and cacao growers seeking more sustainable livelihoods and for potentially modifying the useful multidimensional agroecological indicators frameworks, like the UN FAO’s Tool for Agroecological Performance Assessment, to include measures of farmers’ water and food security. Agroecology climate change Hurricanes Eta and Iota food sovereignty water security Nicaragua Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction Diversified farming systems are proposed as critical strategies for reducing smallholders’ risk and building resilience to climate change, conflict, and COVID-19 in increasingly complex multi-hazard environments and an ongoing food systems polycrisis (Guido et al., 2020; Altieri et al., 2015). When low-input smallholders adopt agroecology-based diversification, evidence suggests it can generate substantial social and economic benefits (Wezel et al, 2020), which can include food security and nutrition (UN SDG 2, Zero Hunger), climate resilience (SDG 12, Climate Action), and sustainable land and water management (SDG 15, Life on Land) (Benzer Kerr et al., 2023). However, better explanations, integrated indicators, and empirical research are all needed to identify which diversification activities are currently in use by whom, how and why farmers are using them, potential trade-offs vs. a specialization strategy, and the degree to which they contribute to food security, dietary diversity, household incomes, and resilience, under different circumstances (Stratton et al., 2021). Addressing these issues is increasingly urgent given the precarious livelihoods of more than 2.5 billion people who depend on agriculture, including the 500 million plus smallholders (FAO, 2019). Despite converging agendas that highlight diversified production as a crucial strategy for helping small-scale farmers reduce disaster risk, conserve biodiversity, cut climate emissions, enhance food security, and bolster resilience in agriculture and food systems (Rasmussen et al., 2024; Hufnagel et al., 2020), contentious debates loom over how to expedite broader food system transformations, who should spearhead them, and their ultimate direction (Anderson et al., 2021). An influential report entitled From Uniformity to Diversity analyzed obstacles and opportunities for moving from an industrialized monoculture or traditional subsistence agriculture toward agroecological diversified farming (IPES-Food, 2016). While the IPES report helped shift the policy agenda toward an alternative approach to food systems transformation (Anderson et al., 2019; Gliessman & Ferguson, 2020), the assumptions about initial starting conditions oversimplified smallholder strategies. In reality, most smallholders are neither purely subsistence producers growing food for self-consumption nor entirely specialized market-oriented commercial farmers selling all of their harvests; instead, they often combine subsistence and commercial agriculture to try to make a living, make it meaningful (Bacon et al., 2021), and access food and other basic needs (Burnett & Murphy, 2014). Questions about how farmers combine subsistence and market-oriented production and how these combinations relate to food security, resilience, and risk are especially salient for tropical commodity producers. Coffee and cacao are globally significant tropical perennial crops and often serve as vital agroforestry systems and an important testing ground for assessing strategies to build resilience to powerful hazards while also addressing the long-term challenges of poverty and food and nutrition insecurity (Pérez-Neira et al., 2023; Bacon et al., 2008). Tens of millions of farmers and thousands of local institutions worldwide have developed diverse strategies to export these crops to international markets while aiming to address crucial livelihood challenges, including food security. Cacao cultivation spans approximately 11 million hectares globally, while coffee occupies 20.2 million hectares, with around 31% of cacao and 48% of coffee grown under shade trees within agroforestry systems (Somarriba et al., 2024: p586). Coffee and cacao agroforestry systems can, in some cases, contribute to biodiversity conservation, temperature regulation, farmer resilience to hurricanes and drought, and reduced exposure to pesticides; however, there can also be trade-offs in terms of yields (Perfecto et al., 2019; Vast & Somarriba, 2014). Moreover, these diverse systems potentially enhance farmers' food security, even if shorter-term incomes are temporarily lower than they would be under intensified production (Belsky & Siebert, 2003). However, in many regions, the proportion of coffee and cacao grown under diverse native and planted shade trees vs. more specialized shade trees with reduced biodiversity has declined. The expansion of both crops can be associated with deforestation, suggesting that the environmental benefits of these agroforestry crops are neither guaranteed nor ever increasing (Jha et al., 2014; Somarriba et al., 2024). In coffee and cacao systems, the rapid expansion of sustainability-certified global markets has coincided with the persistence of significant challenges faced by smallholder farmers and workers in the Global South. A substantial majority of cacao production—approximately 70%—is managed by over 6 million smallholder farmers in Latin America, West Africa, and Indonesia. Most of these farmers typically live on less than $2 per day, relying heavily on cacao for 60% to 90% of their income (Tscharntke et al., 2023: pg. 2). While the global value of exported cacao beans had a combined value of USD 8.6 billion in 2017 (Voora et al., 2019a), the international value of chocolate sales, consisting of cacao and many other inputs, reached USD 100 billion by 2021 (Bermudez et al., 2022). By 2017, experts valued global coffee exports at USD 19 billion and retail markets at USD 83 billion (Voora et al. 2019b); notably, coffee production involved 12.5 million farms, of which 67–80% were smallholders (Rinhart et al., 2021). In addition to vulnerability to climate change, COVID-19, and other hazards, many coffee and cacao producers face food insecurity (Guido et al., 2020; Pérez-Neira et al., 2023). While efforts have focused on creating sustainable coffee and cacao value chains, it’s essential to consider local factors such as farm sizes, management, crop selection, livelihoods, community dynamics, and agro-climatic conditions. These elements may impact food security more than commodity prices and sustainability standards alone. Addressing vulnerabilities related to climate change and other hazards is crucial for the livelihoods of these farmers, coffee, and cacao industries, and agricultural communities and landscapes worldwide. We argue that more research is needed to support smallholder farmers as they develop different diversified (or specialized) production and livelihood strategies and seek to build resilience to increasingly hazard-prone environments (Bacon et al., 2021). Gaps in the literature include developing useful interdisciplinary indicators (Wiget et al., 2020). Additional research is primarily needed to provide broad-based empirical evidence on which types of diversified production and degrees of market dependence– as well as other forms of household adaptive capacity– are most likely to contribute to farmers' self-defined goals and desirable socio-economic outcomes, such as food and nutritional security (Lim et al. 2020; Stratton et al., 2021), and to reduce vulnerability and build resilience to increasingly common hazards emerging at the interface of public health, climate change, and global economic shifts. This study aims to develop a comparative analysis of the extent of diversified farming among small-scale farmers exporting coffee or cacao from Nicaragua and examine how crop choice, diversified, and agroecological strategies relate to farmers’ food security, dietary diversity, water security, and vulnerability. We organized this study around the following research questions (RQ):. RQ1: To what extent does diversified and agroecological farming exist among smallholders selling coffee or cacao from Nicaragua into international markets? RQ2: How do farmers' livelihood and production strategies (e.g., subsistence vs. market-oriented) and farm/household characteristics relate to critical outcomes, such as food security, dietary diversity, and resilience? RQ3: What are the prospects for using agroecology to guide diversification and change in food systems in ways that advance smallholders’ food sovereignty? In response to RQ1, we expected to find that the surveyed farmers in Nicaragua manage similar levels of diversification compared to other smallholder coffee and cacao farmers worldwide (Rasmussen et al. 2024). We also expected producers in the Segovias region to report more agroecological practices because of the longer history of agroecology-inspired farmer-to-farmer and institutional organizing in this part of the country (Holt-Giménez, 2006; Schiller et al., 2023) and the longer-term certified organic, fairtrade and Rainforest Alliance production (Bacon et al., 2021) vs. the agricultural frontier concentration of cacao farmers areas near Waslala, . In response to RQ2, we expected to find that greater diversification is associated with improved household food security and dietary diversity, as seen in global studies (Rasmussen et al., 2024) and recent work with coffee producers in the region (Bacon et al., 2023), as well as reduced vulnerability to impacts from hurricanes, droughts, and inflation. On the question of subsistence vs. market-oriented production strategies, we expected to find associations linking farmers with more market dependence with increased vulnerability to food insecurity in the face of COVID, hurricanes, and other specific (Rodriguez-Camayo et al., 2024; Rhiney et al., 2021). We also aimed to assess the relative importance of diversification and related practices versus wealth and income (broadly conceived), farm size, or other sources of support in reducing vulnerability to different hazards. We expected to find that farm households face tradeoffs between wealth (or income) and risk reduction through diversification and that on-farm diversification is relatively effective against agricultural hazards (e.g., droughts and rapid food price shifts). Finally, we use RQ3 to explore broader questions about the obstacles and possibilities for food systems change in ways to pursue food sovereignty. The findings from this research are significant because they identify how smallholder farmers and local institutions, with varying levels of diversification, respond to a standard set of globally significant hazards such as COVID-19, hurricanes, drought, and inflation. We assess farmers’ diversified practices concerning their subsistence production, sales to regional and national markets, and participation in “sustainable” global coffee and cacao value chains, linking farming practices and market engagements with seasonal livelihood patterns in food and water security. These findings have implications for a broader agenda aimed at rethinking local food systems governance debates from the bottom up with a stronger emphasis on the actual, complex practices of smallholders navigating multiple hazards and greater attention to the struggles for justice, sovereignty, and resilience (Wood et al., 2023). 2. Methods 2.1 Study location Nicaragua is an ideal location to study diversification processes among smallholder coffee and cacao farmers and how these practices correlate with food and water security, nutrition, vulnerability and resilience in a multi-hazard environment. First, like many places in the world, Nicaragua is a hazard-prone environment, with the majority of farmers dependent on rainfed agriculture, making them highly vulnerable to climate change impacts (Radel et al., 2018; Quiroga et al., 2020); findings here are broadly generalizable to millions of smallholders and rural institutions across Central America and southern Mexico. Significant hazards in the five years before we conducted our survey campaign in 2022 included (1) the coffee leaf rust pathogen (2) a 2019 drought, (3) rapidly shifting food and input prices, (4) political unrest in 2018, (5) the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, and (6) hurricanes Eta and Iota that slammed into Nicaragua in November 2020 (Shultz et al., 2021). Second, Nicaragua has a large population of relatively organized rural smallholders with several organizations partnering with social movement leaders and others to help incubate a strong focus on political and grassroots approaches to learning and sharing agroecology and diversified farming, and to advancing food sovereignty (McCune et al., 2017). Government and civil society efforts may offer a way to scale these food systems transformation approaches (Schiller et al., 2023). Finally, the most recent hazards, including the back-to-back impacts of class 4 and class 5 Hurricanes Eta and Iota and the coronavirus pandemic from 2020-2023, underline the urgency of identifying cost-effective responses while offering researchers an opportunity to study the genesis and impacts of differential responses. The study area includes smallholder coffee growers in Nicaragua’s central north-to-northwest mountain Segovias region, which encompasses the provinces of Estelí, Madriz, and Nueva Segovia, and cacao producers from the North Caribbean Region. The predominance of rainfed agriculture influences the annual cropping patterns in both regions. In the Segovias, farmers generally (in an average precipitation year) cultivate corn, beans, and vegetable gardens during the rainy months of May through November, with lighter sporadic rains occurring into December (Bacon et al., 2021), a marked a mid-summer drought occurring July 15 - August 15th, and a dry season from December through the end of April. Within the Segovias, we partnered with a well-established multi-service farmer cooperative focused on coffee marketing to a diverse range of specialty, Fairtrade, organic, and other certified coffee markets (PRODECOOP R.L.), as well as a sustainable agriculture association within Nicaragua's national farmers and ranchers association (UNAG), known as the Campesino-a-Campesino (farmer-to-farmer) program (PCaC); some of these farmers participate in social movements that share diversified agroecological farming and promote food sovereignty, and have contributed to the formation smallholder civil society organizations (Holt-Gimenez, 2006; Edelman, 2008). In contrast to the tropical dry forest and semi-humid uplands in the Segovias (Kelley et al. 2018), the second study area focused on cacao producers in Waslala, located in Nicaragua’s North Caribbean Region. This region is semi-tropical to tropical humid with altitudes averaging 420 masl and total annual precipitation of 1300mm to 1500mm (URACCAN, 2021). In Waslala, there is more rain than the Segovias and more rainy days during the drier months of December, January, and February (World Bank 2021), effectively extending the annual rain-fed cropping season by two or three months for many farmers. Nicaragua’s central government did not officially recognize Waslala as a municipality until 1989 (URACCAN, 2021). Since 1990, the European Union and others have invested in several larger agricultural development projects that have prioritized agroforestry-based cacao production to counter the deforestation associated with cattle operations by connecting farmers to more sustainable markets (Fréguin-Gresh et al., 2022; Orozco-Aguilar et al., 2021). Farmers and local nonprofits have created cooperatives, secured organic, Rainforest Alliance, and Fairtrade certifications, and linked to external buyers, including Ritter Sport, which currently purchases 90% plus of the cacao from the cooperative of farmers that we surveyed in this study. 2.2. Overview of participatory action research approach and study sample Scholars have found that participatory approaches and mixed methods are increasingly effective strategies for explaining smallholder livelihoods, local institutions, farming practices, and context (Bezner Kerr et al., 2019; Chevalier, 2019). The research team comprises university-based academics in the United States, a research coordinator from northern Nicaragua, and a dynamic combination of Nicaragua-based cooperative leaders, non-profit agency staff, and farmers and community promoters. A long-term community-based participatory action research (CB-PAR) partnership with the PRODECOOP coffee exporting cooperative union and UNAG that started in 2001 has facilitated a mutual learning process and ongoing refinement of field research strategies, design, and questions for surveys, focus groups, and results in dissemination activities (Bacon et al., 2017). Several survey enumerators have participated in past studies, and many are experienced farmers and community leaders from the Segovias region who have helped co-define the research agenda with cooperative leaders. During several workshops, the field research team, including PRODECOOP and UNAG-PCaC affiliated survey enumerators, helped us train the new enumerators from Waslala, and then together, the team field tested, critiqued, and revised the survey questions. The team also shared and cross-checked early results with cooperative leaders, enumerators, and the local non-profit organization during workshops in December of 2022 and then received substantive feedback after sharing results in broader multi-stakeholder seminars in June 2023 and July 2024. In response to partner organizations' requests, the research team organized cross-site farmer-farmer exchanges and documented locally innovative practices of a seed saver in the Segovias and dynamic cacao farmers in Waslala. The stratified randomized sample for this study (see Table 1) draws from an initial sample from previous research conducted with the population of farmers affiliated with the PRODECOOP cooperatives, UNAG’s Campesino-a-Campesino program in the Segovias, and a sample of unaffiliated farmers identified as the nearest neighbors growing coffee at a similar altitude (see Bacon et al. 2017 and 2021 for details). Similar to the process in the Segovias, we randomly selected farmers affiliated with the cacao-exporting Nueva Waslala Cooperative from a cooperative registry and then approached them to participate in this study. A third sample of 30 vegetable farmers located in the Department of Jinotega was also surveyed during the same period of 2022 but is not included in the analysis of this article due to the small number of observations and our focus on comparing the coffee and cacao growing regions. As part of a mixed methods approach, we complemented the survey data with focus groups and semi-structured interviews with previously surveyed households to develop farmer case studies documenting innovative experiences and collecting new data about local food prices. [ Table 1 about here ] 2.3 Data: Multidimensional livelihoods, agriculture, and food security survey We analyze responses from 429 smallholder households conducted in the study region from June to August 2022: 309 from the coffee-growing region of Las Segovias and 120 from the cacao-growing region of Waslala. For this paper, we consider each household to be managing a single farm; consequently, we use the terms “farm” and “household” interchangeably as the unit of analysis in the survey. We designed this multi-dimensional livelihood, agriculture, and food security survey drawing on best practices and studies that analyze agroecological approaches and diversified production (Wezel et al., 2020; Mottet et al., 2020) as well as replicating questions from previous research with the Segovias sample (Bacon et al., 2021). The survey included previously validated questions for assessing farmer livelihoods, income sources, land use and cropping patterns, seasonal food and water insecurity, resources and entitlements, hazard impacts, coping responses, participation in local organizations and community groups, gender relations, and agricultural production. We also expanded concepts, questions, and indicators to strengthen our assessment of learning and agroecology, innovation, diversification, water security, nutrition security, and resilience. New questions in this survey drew from our review of essential agroecological principles (HLPE, 2019), the metrics used by the Tool for Agroecology Performance Evaluation (TAPE) (Mottet et al., 2020), and related approaches that address the challenges of multidimensional farm and food system assessments (Leippert et al., 2020). 2.4 Measuring Agroecological Strategies and Practices “Agroecology (AE) has been proposed as a transformative approach to climate change mitigation and adaptation that reduces climate risk while supporting long-term productivity and resilience of food systems by applying ecological and humanistic principles (Benzer Kerr et al. 2023: 101275).” As a multidimensional principles-based scientific approach, participatory socio-ecological practices, and a social movement demanding more just and sustainable food systems (Mendez et al., 2013), agroecology is complex to define and measure (Wiget et al. 2020). In the last five years, scholars have started elaborating on the multidimensional assessment of agroecological and biodiverse farming systems and broader agroecological transformations (Moeller et al., 2023; Moffit et al., 2021). The High-Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) has combined robust scientific literature review with a participatory process to elaborate 13 agroecology principles that connect with three pathways for an agroecology-based food systems transformation (HLPE, 2018); these principles are also closely related to the specific sets of questions and rubrics included in the TAPE tools (Wezel et al., 2020). In our process of identifying agroecological strategies and practices, we recognized that there is no definitive set of agroecological practices; instead, an agricultural practice can be considered as more or less agroecological depending on the extent to which the farmers or food systems change agents are implementing key principles that rely on ecological processes more than purchased inputs, are more equitable, environmentally sustainable, locally adapted, and adopt a systems-oriented approach to manage interactions (HLPE, 2019: p14) In this study, we were especially interested in how higher-level agroecological strategies– such as crop diversification, diversified incomes, and animal integration– relate to desirable social outcomes– especially resilience, food security, and dietary diversity. The degree of interconnection between these strategies is also potentially significant; for example, strategies to support the co-creation of knowledge could improve social values and dietary diversity through education, and increased farmer connectivity with local organizations could support post-hazard resilience (Carrico et al., 2019: FAO, 2019). Table 2 summarizes the specific agroecological strategies we focused on for this study, the practices measured through the survey questions and index variables, and the broader agroecological principles related to these strategies. To identify agroecological strategies empirically, we drew from our past ethnographic research with farmers and identified specific agroecological practices that characterize each strategy. Examples of agroecological practices include intercropping, crop rotation, and adding organic soil amendments (Gliessman et al., 2018). Strategies integrate several practices; for example, ecological soil management is a strategy that includes the use of several different composting and cover cropping practices, and crop diversification consists of the number of crop species and crop rotation practices (Rasmussen et al., 2024). We organized these strategies to align with 9 of HLPE’s 13 agroecology principles, such as biodiversity, soil health, and participation (HLPE, 2019; FAO, 2019). Here, we are specifically interested in linking strategies and practices that enable plausible pathways of transformative change toward food systems (Wezel et al., 2020, p.1). [ Table 2 about here ] 2.5 Characterizing and measuring diversification Given that diversification is a key overarching agroecological strategy and a focal area for this study, we examine several ways that research on diversified farming and livelihoods characterizes and calculates it (Whittman et al., 2017; Rasmussen et al., 2024; FAO, 2019). We employ a range of alternative dimensions and metrics to capture different aspects of diversified practices and assess the robustness of our findings. As inputs to measuring farm or crop diversification, our survey gathered information on farm products and quantities produced, their value, and land use. We measure product diversification using two core measures plus one measure capturing the degree of specialization. First, we simply count the number of distinct agricultural products reported by each household/farm (analogous to species richness in the biodiversity literature), all together and separately for crops (plants) and animal species. Farms producing more varieties of output can be considered more diversified, with the important caveat that a simple count of product types ignores the quantity produced or the relative importance of each product. Our second product diversification metric employs estimates of the market value of the farm’s production of each product, as measured by the reported annual harvest multiplied by local unit price. We elicited local agricultural prices from various sources, including survey responses, interviews with local experts, and regional and international wholesale price reports. Combining the reported annual output of various products and unit prices, we calculate the estimated output value for each product and sum it to obtain the farm’s total product value. Then, using the fraction of the farm’s total product value attributable to each product, we calculate a Gini-Simpson index of product value diversification for each household (see supplemental section for alternative diversity indices). Using the same product values, we also calculate a simple measure of specialization: namely, the percent of the household’s production value accounted for by its largest-value single product. We use analogous measures to capture household cash income source diversification, an indicator of economic diversity or livelihood diversification. 2.5 Household self-sufficiency and subsistence production We used survey questions about crops the households produced for consumption to assess the contributions of subsistence production. The most direct question asked for the fraction (roughly in categorical quartile ranges) of the household’s food grown on their farm. We code the responses on a scale of 0-100, with the number representing roughly the percentage of own food grown as opposed to obtained by purchase or other means. In addition, the survey asked about annual production and household consumption needs for beans and corn, the two key staple crops in the region. We assessed whether each household’s production of corn and beans was in surplus or deficit relative to its self-reported consumption needs. 2.6 Food insecurity, dietary diversity, and water insecurity Household-level survey questions assessing multiple dimensions of food security have been validated in multiple contexts worldwide (Pérez-Escamilla, 2012). In this study, as in our previous surveys in the same study area, we measure seasonal food insecurity by the reported number of “lean months”–specific calendar months when food was scarce during the preceding year (this section draws substantially from the food security methodology section in our previous article, Bacon et al., 2021, p. 6). This is a standard indicator for assessing one of the most frequently reported forms of food insecurity (Niles & Salerno, 2018). Experience-based measures such as these help identify “hidden” or “silent” hunger, often overlooked by other measures focused on nutrition or dietary diversity. We complemented measures of seasonal hunger with indicators to assess the severity of food insecurity and nutrition quality measures of dietary diversity. To assess severity, we culturally adapted a global set of common household coping mechanisms frequently reported during periods of hardship (Maxwell et al., 2014). We aggregated these responses using weights elicited in focus groups conducted in the study area, following established methods (Bacon et al., 2021). We measure dietary diversity using a dietary recall question that reports how many days the family consumed food from various categories (food groups) during the preceding week. Using the reported number of days (out of 7) as weights, we calculated each household's Gini-Simpson dietary diversity index (also known as a Berry index, Drescher et al., 2007). Our strategies to assess water insecurity–like those for food security– focused on the temporality of access and coping mechanisms due to water-related stress. To assess the seasonality of water access, we asked about households’ months of perceived water scarcity (lean months) from the household’s primary water sources – resulting in a measure analogous to lean months for food (Bacon et al., 2021). To understand the severity of water shortages, we asked how families are coping with water-related stress, using questions from the IWISE instrument, a globally comparable set of survey questions, to assess coping responses, such as frequency of conflicts over water access, bathing in less preferred places, or going to bed thirsty (Young et al., 2021). 2.7 Hazards and vulnerability Households in the region confronted specific hazardous events in the five years before the survey, such as Hurricanes Eta and Iota of 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2019 drought, the 2018 political unrest and violence that swept parts of the country, and recent dramatic increases in the prices of food and inputs, as well as more generic hazards such as price fluctuations, crop loss due to pests or weather events, sickness or death of family members, etc. For each of a series of specific and general hazards, our survey asked respondents to assess the severity of the impact on their household and what coping responses they employed in responding to it. In this paper, we focus on the five specific hazard events enumerated above. For each hazard, we assign a severity score of 0 (no impact), 1 (medium impact), or 2 (most severe) and add the scores across five general hazards for an index of perceived severity (scaled to 0-10). In addition, using focus-group-based weights of coping response severity, we calculate a hazard coping score. 2.8. Qualitative research methods In addition to several survey questions about the origins of the ideas and vegetative or seed material for the various forms of diversified production reported in the survey, the team conducted qualitative research consisting of observations during participatory workshops and farmer interviews, drawing on a decade of author Bacon’s ethnographic research to establish trust with partner organizations in the study area. These observations are helpful for study design and interpretation of results. Our first round of participatory workshops in 2021 worked with the survey enumerators and cooperative leaders as we introduced the study, recorded their feedback, documented hazard responses to their most pressing concerns, and incorporated ideas to improve the survey. In 2022, two participatory workshops focused on survey enumerator training, survey field tests, adjusting questions, and then capturing and cross-checking the initial survey results that were reported. In December of 2022 and again in July of 2023 and 2024, the research team presented and dialogued about study findings during multiple stakeholder workshops in Nicaragua. The forum comprised a cluster of cooperative, civil society organizations, local universities, international development agency staff, and occasionally municipal government officials committed to addressing food security and climate change in Nicaragua’s dry corridor. Our team took detailed notes and brief recordings during workshops, and we used the insights to identify critical regressors for statistical analysis of survey results and identify the border obstacles and opportunities for food systems transformation. This article analyzes 13 farmer case studies conducted in 2023 to understand farmers' interpretations of diversification, subsistence vs. specialization strategies, hazard impacts, and their self-identified accomplishments, challenges, and opportunities. We also elicited more details about products harvested and local prices. After conducting the interviews, we reviewed and edited the transcriptions before coding the text. Although we established several codes apriori that aimed to intersect with the salient variables for the survey analysis, most codes emerged inductively after reading the transcripts (Saldaña, 2021). We used Taguette (version 10.0) to organize the codes thematically. 3.0 Results and Discussion Table 3 summarizes key variables from the 2022 survey data set, with means and medians separately by region (see supplemental Table A-1 details on all variables). The last column reports the sign and statistical significance of a two-sided test of the difference in means between the two regions (Waslala minus Segovias). Respondents averaged 52 years old, and about two-thirds were men. The median household reported 5 residents, with mean household size similar across the regions. Respondents were, on average, 8 years younger in Waslala than Segovias. Only 21% of respondents had completed secondary education– fewer in Waslala than Segovias (15% vs. 23%, respectively). Farm sizes are small, averaging 6.8 ha, with Waslala farms, on average, significantly larger. Although Waslala farms are larger, reported annual gross cash incomes are similar across the two regions, with a median of C$56,000, equivalent to about $1560 at official currency exchange rates in 2022. [ Table 3 about here ] Cash crop regional patterns show that 78% of Segovias respondents reported selling coffee, and 99% of Waslala respondents reported selling cacao. Selling other agricultural products– particularly beans, animal products, and fruit– is also fairly common. About a third of respondents report that their household obtains income from wage or salary earnings, with the practice considerably more common in Segovias. 3.1. Adoption of diversification and agroecological strategies Table 3 reports agricultural and livelihood diversification measures, specialization, subsistence/ self-sufficiency, and agroecological strategies and practices described in the methodology section above. For diversification of crops, crop values, and income sources, the general pattern across alternative metrics indicates a greater degree of diversification among farmers in the cacao-growing Waslala region compared with the coffee-growing Segovias region. On average, Waslala farmers produced 11.5 crops and livestock products per farm, reported more sources of income, and were less specialized in producing their top-value crop than Segovias farmers, who averaged 10.0 crops and livestock products. These farmers’ production diversity is nearly double the average in a study of 2500+ farmers in 11 countries (Rasmussen et al, 2024). Waslala farmers are also less specialized in cash-crop (cacao or coffee) production or income than Segovias farmers. In terms of subsistence agriculture, regional differences in the fraction of food produced on the farm are small and not statistically significant. Still, Waslala farmers were substantially more likely than Segovias farmers to report growing enough corn and beans to meet their self-reported household consumption needs (82% vs. 35%). Table 3 reports on several agroecology strategies beyond diversified production. Under Soil health and input management , 65% of farmers report organic certification for at least one crop. Waslala farmers were more likely than Segovias farmers to report certified organic production (81% vs. 58%). However, our sample surveyed a subset of Segovias farmers unaffiliated with any of the local producers’ organizations, whereas all of the Waslala farmers belonged to an organic/fair trade cacao growers coop. The index of agroecological strategies is based on a sum of 11 measures of strategies, scaling each on a 0-1 scale and weighting them equally. This index might be interpreted as a crude measure of a household’s degree of engagement with agroecology across a wide range of practices. The mean and median of the index are somewhat greater in the Segovias region than Waslala, and the difference is statistically significant if not large. 3.2. Farmer explanations of diversification and its impacts Farmers explained their diversification strategies for subsistence production, income, and food security in interviews. In summarizing their recent accomplishments, a PCaC-affiliated farmer said, “Now 50% of [what we eat] is from our farm's production. With diversification, there has been a change because it is no longer bought in the market because it is produced by us together with the family.” (PCaC Interview 13). Another farmer illustrates the notion of diversification for consumption and sale and suggests a certain joy in managing crop diversity, “Well, for us, it means something enjoyable, knowing that on our plot we have various types of plants that we can consume or sell, supporting ourselves in this way economically or through consumption, without having to go to the market to buy it at a price…Maybe we don't have [the money] in our pocket, but rather have [the food] within our reach.”(PRODECOOP Interview 8). Other farmers explained strategies for combining their cash crops with diversification for both sale and subsistence in planning their livelihood strategies and meeting their daily food needs. For example, a diversified female cacao farmer in Waslala stated, “The strategy we use when we earn some money is not spending it all at once. We value what we spend, for example, like cacao, biweekly gives us money, every 15 days I buy rice, sugar, coffee, oil, and soap, that is to say, we value the expense. In the case of eggs, they are not bought because I have hens laying them. I don't buy the cuajada [cheese] either because we have it here. Neither is cassava, because here on the farm we have it, [we also have] bananas and all that. And so we don't spend that money all at once. Also, when I make sales, I use half of the profit for food, depending on what I earn, and I leave half for other needs (Interview 2) . In contrast to other farmers, one farmer explained their specialization strategy, stating, “ My idea this year is to plant coffee, not focus too much on beans because they are quick productions, but they also lead to debt, it sinks us as we say. In coffee, it is 3 years [after planting to the first harvest], but it remains solid because it is more resistant to drought, and production can be better. Beans have many pests that affect them, and corn is also less resistant. That's why I want to change the production system and focus more on coffee.” (PRODECOOP Interview 11) 3.3 How diversification relates to household food and water security, dietary diversity, and hazards We now turn to the relationship between farmer practices, such as diversified production, subsistence agriculture, and agroecological practices on the one hand, and key outcomes, such as food and water security, dietary diversity, and the severity of impacts of specific and general hazards on the other– the core concerns of our RQ2. As indicated in Table 3, across our sample, the median household reported 2 food lean months over the preceding year and 2 water-lean months. One farmer explained their experience of food lean months by saying, “ There is no shortage, but meals are more limited, for example, if they consume 5 lb of corn a day, they will consume 2 lb. Generally, in June and July, because these are the times when there is no work or income. (Prodecoop Interview 11). This farmer shared a common example of rationing during these lean-food months other farmers describe skipping meals. This farmer also correlates seasonal hunger with the precipitation patterns and agricultural calendars, as we have seen before in the Segovias (Bacon et al., 2021) and the seasonality of rural livelihoods worldwide (Devereux et al., 2012). They describe how the first rains and annual cropping cycle begin in May, and then, after a mid-summer drought, the second heavier precipitation period (and second growing season) occurs from August to December. In contrast, the cacao farmers in Waslala reported less seasonal hunger and significantly less water insecurity (see Table 3). In interviews and coded survey responses, farmers attribute their food security partially to the consistency of the cacao harvest, which unlike the single coffee harvest in December - January, produces a harvest every 15 days (Waslala Interview 2). However, the cooperative leaders noted that harvests decrease during this region's shorter drier period of March and April. Food lean months and food insecurity coping scores were both lower on average for Waslala households than Segovias, and the incidence of water insecurity was dramatically less in Waslala, reflecting prevailing precipitation differences across these regions. Both food and water lean months are highly seasonal in our study area, as displayed in panel (a) of Figure 2. The seasonal pattern of food-lean months is similar across the regions, with June, July, and August being the most food-insecure months. Figure 2(a) also illustrates the much greater incidence of water-lean months in Segovias, especially during March and April. In addition to lower food and water insecurity rates, Waslala households reported less severe impacts and coping responses to specific and general hazards. Figure 2(b) breaks down the perceived severity of the six specific hazards enumerated in the survey. At the time of the 2022 survey, inflation of food and input prices was the “top of mind” hazard in both regions. Otherwise, far fewer Waslala households reported that any of these hazards were “most severe” compared with Segovias. The lower reported hurricane impact in Waslala is somewhat surprising, given that the path of both hurricanes Eta and Iota went more directly over Waslala than the Segovias region. We expected to see the low impact of coffee leaf rust in Waslala, as few farmers cultivated coffee. Table 4 reports OLS regression results for four key outcome variables: dietary diversity (scale 0-100), seasonal food insecurity (lean months), hazard impact severity (scale 0-10), and income (logged). We use the same set of regressors in each case, encompassing a basic regional control and household characteristics such as respondent age and education; farm size and household cash income; seasonal water insecurity as measured by reported water lean months; an indicator for potential self-sufficiency in the dietary staples corn and beans; and a broad set of measures of diversified agriculture and agroecological strategies, as discussed above. Although we report only OLS results here for simplicity and ease of interpretation, in cases where an alternative estimation technique might be appropriate (such as a logit or binomial model), results are quite similar. [ Table 4 about here ] A key research question explored in this article is whether diversified farming practices can enhance food security, one aspect of which is dietary diversity. The first column of Table 4 reports the results for a regression predicting the Gini-Simpson Index of dietary diversity (scaled 0-100), based on a seven-day recall of food groups consumed in the household. (Results are qualitatively very similar if, instead, the dependent variable is a simple count of the number of different food groups consumed over the prior seven days.) The regression reveals several important insights. First, dietary diversity is significantly positively associated with the respondent's education level. Second, dietary diversity is significantly positively associated with farm diversification – both the number of crops and the number of animal species. The magnitudes of these effects are substantial as assessed by their implied standardized coefficients: One standard deviation (SD) in either variable is associated with a 0.2 SD increase in the dietary diversity index. Figure 3 plots the bivariate relationship between product and dietary diversity by region. Another striking pattern revealed by the first regression in Table 4 is that dietary diversity is strongly negatively associated with water lean months, with an implied standardized coefficient of about -0.3. Coefficients on the measures of various agroecology strategies reveal a mix of effects; in most cases, the strategies appear to be positively or insignificantly associated with dietary diversity. The second regression in Table 4 examines the correlates of food lean months, our preferred measure of seasonal food in security. Consistent with findings from previous work in the region, lean food months are negatively associated with farm size and income. Food-lean months are positively associated with water-lean months, and the effect is both statistically significant and quantitatively meaningful. Finally, households that are potentially self-sufficient in corn and beans report significantly less food insecurity. The dependent variable in the third regression of Table 4 is a score for the reported severity of hazard impacts across the five specific hazards. Waslala households and larger farms reported substantially lower overall hazard impacts. Among the agroecology strategies, non-crop diversity practices and reported active involvement in the farmer organization are positively associated with hazard impacts. The final model regresses log of cash income on the same regressors. Larger farms report significantly higher incomes, as do more diversified farms, as measured by number of crops. The positive association between crop diversity and cash income suggests that diversified production does not entail an adverse tradeoff in yields or economic viability, as might be the case if there were substantial returns to specialization or scale economies. 3.4 Prospects for using agroecology and diversification for advancing food sovereignty In this section, we integrate interview and survey results with longer-term ethnographic observation and the scientific literature to assess the challenges and possibilities for smallholders using agroecological diversification as a critical strategy for securing food sovereignty. As shown in Table 4, we found that crop diversity is associated with greater dietary diversity and higher incomes. These findings were expected and resonate with other research showing that farmers' crop diversity correlates with dietary diversity in many cases and using a variety of measures (Jones, 2017; Rasmussen et al., 2024). Diversified farming is a strategy aligned with the agroecological biodiversity principle (see Table 2) and intended to work with other principles, such as managing soil health and co-production of knowledge, as farmers and food systems change agents aim to interrelate strategies and move towards food sovereignty. In this sense, agroecology is more of a participatory “process of continuous transition based on core principles (Altieri, 2018; HLPE, 2019), values and politics (Nyeleni, 2015), and/or specific cultural, ecological, or social elements (FAO, 2019)” (Anderson et al., 2021, p. 14). Food sovereignty is the right of all people to produce food locally and sustainably through agroecological methods that respect regional climatic, cultural, and geographical contexts (Via Campesina, 2024). Food sovereignty is a politically contested process of change that entails shifting power and access relations and starts from the specific challenges and opportunities of people, places, and food systems (Shattuck et al., 2015). We found that climate change exacerbated water insecurity, and its relationships with farmers’ food security and dietary diversity (see Table 4) is a pressing emerging challenge. A Segovia's farmer expressed their experiences of precipitation whiplash, stating, “ Well, you haven't seen a change, right? Because we are used to it. Now with these changes... In those times, we looked at hurricanes….And right now, it's different because with the drought we have right now, don't believe it, this worries us a lot. ( PRODECOOP Interview 10). Indeed, scientists have predicted that accelerated climate change will correlate with more intense late-season hurricanes, like Eta and Iota in 2020 (Avilia-Diaz et al., 2023), intense droughts (Stewart et al., 2021), and extreme weather events (Tan et al., 2023). Across all interview transcripts, water insecurity was the most frequently occurring code, followed by diversification, beans, and income. As researchers who benefited from TAPE (Mottet et al., 2020) and other multidimensional agroecology measures when designing our study, we value their participatory processes and recognize the challenges of creating flexible and context-dependent, action-oriented indicators that work across ecological, social, and political domains (Darmaun et al., 2023). However, given the importance of water access for food security, agriculture, and agroecological diversification, we recommend more significant attention to sustainable water management practices and strategies to ensure water security. An equally important challenge is persistent economic poverty related to low farm gate prices, rising food/input costs (see Figure 2), and broader political and economic processes that leave many smallholders struggling to mobilize the labor, land, and capital that could help them use diversification to transform their farms and livelihoods. The uneven exchange entitlements that farmers navigate as they sell corn and beans by the 100 lb. sack at low prices during the November and December harvests and then buy them for consumption at higher prices in June and July exacerbate food insecurity and poverty (Devereux, 2001). Path dependence and the lock-in of conventional food systems is a third major challenge. Although many farmers practice organic coffee and cacao farming (See Table 2), like other farmers in Central America (Morris et al., 2013), some cultivate chemically dependent corn and beans in separate plots. While these farmers note that this may help save labor in the short term, in interviews, they complain about the expenses and debt associated with the companies and farmer organizations that distribute chemicals, seeds, and credit before planting. Our survey analysis (see Table 4) showed that reported chemical usage correlated with more food-lean months and lower dietary diversity. Path dependence and conventional system lock-in challenges also include commodity-focused investments, as global buyers and banks primarily support coffee and cacao cooperatives' exports. Despite these challenges, Nicaraguan farmers and allies could use existing strengths and agroecological strategies to advance food sovereignty. First, we recommend re-invigorated partnerships with cacao, coffee, and UNAG-PCaC farmer organizations. These partnerships need to be significant enough to counter the influences from corporate buyers and banks and guided by research, community needs, and farmer participation. The partnership could also focus on our second strategy aiming to co-create knowledge, share innovations across horizontal farmer-to-farmer networks within the cooperative structure as other Caribbean countries have done (Rosset et. al., 2011), and expand technical assistance investments. Context-dependent innovations for water conservation, storage, management, and purification could reduce water insecurity (Bacon et al., 2021b), and other innovations could expand seed-saving networks and facilitate access to materials for diversification and climate adaptation (UNAG-PCaC Interview 15). These efforts could also foster experimentation building from surveyed farmers' strong sense of production and marketing autonomy - more than 70% reported they were either very or quite autonomous. Cooperative and local institutions could explore partnerships with movement groups, universities, and national programs (Schiller et al., 2023) to convene agroecology field schools (Rosset et al., 2019), engaging evidence about effective strategies and strengthening food sharing, solidarity, and trust needed to engage the politics and practices advancing food sovereignty. 4.0 Conclusions This study found that Nicaragua’s smallholder coffee and cacao farmers manage extensive agricultural diversity, averaging between 10 and 11.5 crops and animals per farm, higher than in many other places (Rasmussen, 2024). From our 2022 livelihood, agriculture, and food security survey, with 429 smallholders sampled randomly from farmers affiliated with cooperatives selling coffee or cacao, we found that farmers used strategies related to nine agroecology principles (HLPE, 2019). Cacao farmers in the wetter growing zone reported more crop diversity, organic production, and less seasonal hunger than coffee growers in the Segovias region. Farmers in both places reported vulnerability to food and input price inflation as their most pressing concern, eclipsing Hurricane Eta and Iota's impacts. Moving beyond this comparison of coffee growers in Segovias and cacao producers in Waslala, our multivariate analysis of seasonal hunger found that location was less critical than surplus subsistence (corn and bean) production, water security, farm size, and income. Confirming findings from other studies (Jones, 2017 ; Benzer Kerr et. al., 2019 ), we found that farm crop and animal diversity correlated with household dietary diversity and higher incomes, suggesting the importance of this agroecological strategy. This is among the first studies comparing cacao and coffee farmers’ agroecological strategies in relation to farmer food security, water security, nutrition, and vulnerability. These findings are relevant for many of the 15 million plus smallholder coffee and cacao growers seeking more sustainable livelihoods in the Global South. Our research also suggests that multidimensional agroecological evaluation frameworks could benefit from greater attention to water security. Declarations Funding and conflicts of interest The work was supported by the National Science Foundation, United States [BCS 2117976], with additional support from Santa Clara University’s College of Arts and Sciences, Office of President and Provosts, and the Environmental Justice and Common Good Initiative. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Ethics approval This research was reviewed and approved for ethical conduct of research with human subjects by Santa Clara University's Institutional Review Board. Consent to participate Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. Consent for publication The authors affirm that individual shown in Figure 1a has provided informed consent for publication of the images. This indiviudal is a collaobrating reseracher and not an enrolled subject in the study. Data availability statement - Code availability statement The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study will be made available in the Harvard Dataverse repository (https://dataverse.harvard.edu/) upon publication. Authors contribution Both authors contributed to the study conception and design. C.B. led all field research and data collection. Data analyses were performed together. 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BMJ Global Health, 6(10), e006460. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006460 Tables Table 1: Stratified study populations and randomized sample of small-scale farmer households, with affiliations Region / Municipality Coffee or Cacao Co-op: Population Coffee or Cacao Co-op: Sample UNAG-PCaC: Population UNAG-PCaC: Sample Unaffiliated/ other: Sample Las Segovias Telpaneca 91 55 63 14 19 San Lucas 84 30 77 22 33 Pueblo Nuevo 39 16 80 15 7 Las Sabanas 63 21 80 18 19 Jalapa 49 29 0 0 11 Waslala 255 120 N/A N/A N/A Total sample 271 99 89 Notes: Farmers in Las Segovias are affiliated with coffee exporting cooperatives or unaffiliated coffee growers. Farmers in Waslala are affiliated with a cacao exporting cooperative. Source: 2022 surveys and cooperative registries. Table 2: Description of agroecological strategies, practices, and principles Agroecology Strategies Agroecology Practices Agroecology Principles CROP DIVERSITY Number of crops cultivated; crop rotation (Y/N); is a fallow included (Y/N); temporal diversity– is there cover cropping (Y/N) Biodiversity . Maintain and enhance the diversity of species, functional diversity, and genetic resources and thereby maintain overall agroecosystem biodiversity in time and space. NON-CROP DIVERSITY Hedgerows (Y/N); estimated productive farm area covered by natural or diverse vegetation (e.g., natural grasses, grasslands, regeneration areas, wildflower strips, stone barriers, living fences, windbreaks, natural ponds or wetlands, etc.)(scored 0-4, 0% =1, 4 >25%); forests or forest fragments (Y/N); other forms of non-crop diversity (e.g., number of tree species trees>=5) Biodiversity. ECOLOGICAL NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Manure application on different crops (Y/N); green manure application (Y/N); inoculant application (Y/N); residue incorporation (Y/N); Presence of nutrient mobilizing plants (mostly legumes) (Y/N) Soil health . Secure and enhance soil health functioning for improved plant growth, particularly by managing organic matter and enhancing soil biological activity. ORGANIC MANAGEMENT Organic certification (Y/N) Synergy - Enhance positive ecological interaction, synergy, integration and complementarity amongst the elements of agroecosystems (animals, crops, trees, soil, and water); also Soil health. ANIMAL INTEGRATION Number of livestock species included in holdings; number of fowl species; presence of beekeeping (Y/N), total animal spp.; total animal products Animal health. Ensure animal health and welfare. Note: While we measured the presence and type of livestock and fowl on the farm, we did not ask specific questions about practices to ensure animal health. SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION Estimated productive farm area covered by natural or diverse vegetation (0-4, repeat of non-crop diversity question); bunds (Y/N), contour planting (Y/N); other soil and water conservation practices (Y/N) Soil health. INPUT REDUCTION Pesticides (Y/N); synthetic fertilizer (Y/N) I nput reduction. Reduce or eliminate dependency on purchased inputs and increase self-sufficiency. PARTICIPATION Cooperative membership (Y/N) - farmer org; degree of active participation in Cooperative - farmer org; other local organization memberships (e.g., church, drinking water or watershed committees, social groups, political parties, unions, social movements) Participation . Encourage social organization and greater participation in decision-making by food producers and consumers to support decentralized governance and local adaptive management of agricultural and food systems. CO-CREATION OF KNOWLEDGE Farmer-to-farmer exchanges impacted diversification practices on the farm (Y/N); reports technical assistance impacted farming (Y/N); reports active participation in training programs (Y/N); education secondary or higher (Y/N) Co-creation of knowledge. Enhance co-creation and horizontal sharing of knowledge, including local and scientific innovation, primarily through farmer-to-farmer exchange. SOCIAL VALUES AND DIETS Degree of perceived autonomy in production decisions (0-4); Degree of perceived autonomy in marketing decisions (0-4); Reported availability of culturally relevant foods in the community (0-4); Use of food sharing practices for food security Social values and diets. Build food systems based on the culture, identity, tradition, social, and gender equity of local communities that provide healthy, diversified, seasonally and culturally appropriate diets. We also included sovereignty questions. ECONOMIC DIVERSITY Count income sources; income source diversity index value; fraction of product value from top product. Economic diversification. Diversify on-farm incomes by ensuring that small-scale farmers have greater financial independence and value-addition opportunities while enabling them to respond to consumer demand. We included on and off-farm and income. Sources: Wezel et al., 2020 p40; FAO, 2019; HLPE, 2019 : Our analysis here focused on strategies related to 9 of the 13 HLPE Agroecology Principles. Table 3: Summary statistics and regional comparisons of key variables Variable nobs mean sd median max possible mean: Segov. mean: Waslala median Segov. medianWaslala Diff Was. - Seg. Demographics Age of respondent 422 52.17 14.32 51.00 NA 54.43 46.35 53.00 44.00 -- Female respondent 415 0.33 0.47 0.00 1 0.38 0.20 0.00 0.00 -- Education of respondent secondary or higher 429 0.21 0.41 0.00 1 0.23 0.15 0.00 0.00 - Number of persons in HH 422 5.00 4.42 5.00 NA 4.94 5.15 4.00 5.00 Livelihoods, income, and wealth Farm size (ha) 415 6.79 12.52 3.52 NA 4.24 13.30 2.11 7.82 ++ Cash income from top 5 sources preceding year (Córdobas) 429 97270 127876 56050 NA 97188 97482 52000 67938 Sells cacao 429 0.28 0.45 0.00 1 0.00 0.99 0.00 1.00 ++ Sells coffee 429 0.61 0.49 1.00 1 0.78 0.18 1.00 0.00 -- Wage or salary worker 429 0.33 0.47 0.00 1 0.39 0.17 0.00 0.00 -- Agricultural diversity Product value diversity index, Gini-Simpson (0-100) 427 62.04 19.05 67.36 100 59.66 68.13 64.68 73.32 ++ Number of crops (distinct plant products) 427 7.99 3.95 8.00 35 8.14 7.61 7.00 8.00 Number of distinct livestock / fowl species 427 2.41 1.72 2.00 7 1.98 3.52 2.00 3.00 ++ Percent of product value from top product 427 51.72 18.97 48.04 100 54.00 45.92 51.25 41.85 -- Count of key crop rotation practices 429 0.70 0.74 1.00 3 0.51 1.20 0.00 1.00 ++ Count of key non-crop diversity practices 429 1.57 0.95 2.00 4 1.53 1.67 1.00 2.00 Income source and livelihood diversity Income source diversity index, Gini-Simpson (0-100) 421 34.39 22.21 38.52 100 30.33 44.71 34.54 48.87 ++ Percent of income from top source 421 74.31 19.09 75.00 100 77.95 65.07 78.32 61.76 -- Number of distinct income sources, farm 426 2.14 1.22 2.00 9 1.98 2.56 2.00 2.00 ++ Number of distinct income sources, nonfarm 426 0.62 0.66 1.00 7 0.77 0.24 1.00 0.00 -- Soil health and input management Has certified organic production 429 0.65 0.48 1.00 1 0.58 0.81 1.00 1.00 ++ Count of ecological nutrient practices 429 0.66 1.00 0.00 5 0.86 0.14 0.00 0.00 -- Count of soil and water conservation practices 429 0.70 1.02 0.00 4 0.96 0.04 1.00 0.00 -- Reports application of chemical pesticide 429 0.43 0.50 0.00 1 0.35 0.63 0.00 1.00 ++ Reports application of chemical fertilizer 429 0.33 0.47 0.00 1 0.35 0.27 0.00 0.00 Participation, knowledge sharing, social values Affiliated with farmer organization 429 0.81 0.39 1.00 1 0.74 1.00 1.00 1.00 ++ Active in farmer organization 429 0.57 0.50 1.00 1 0.62 0.46 1.00 0.00 -- Reports technical assistance or training 429 0.53 0.50 1.00 1 0.65 0.23 1.00 0.00 -- Count of social values practices 429 2.90 0.99 3.00 4 2.77 3.26 3.00 3.00 ++ Index of agroecological strategies Index of agroecological strategies 421 28.33 11.71 27.84 100 29.32 25.83 29.26 25.76 -- Subsistence / self-sufficiency Grows half or more of food on own farm 398 0.41 0.49 0.00 1 0.43 0.37 0.00 0.00 Percent of HH food grown on farm (estimated from quartiles) 398 39.57 27.97 25.00 100 40.12 37.99 25.00 25.00 Grows surplus of both beans and corn relative to reported HH need 422 0.48 0.50 0.00 1 0.35 0.82 0.00 1.00 ++ Percent of total farm production value from cacao or coffee 427 29.01 26.85 20.99 100 33.34 17.91 31.53 10.80 -- Percent of cash income from sale of cacao or coffee 421 57.64 34.68 63.64 100 59.65 52.54 73.68 50.98 - Food and water insecurity and hazard impact Food lean months 429 2.16 1.43 2.00 12 2.40 1.55 2.00 2.00 -- Food insecurity coping score (0-100) 429 3.07 8.79 0.00 100 4.20 0.16 0.00 0.00 -- Dietary diversity index (7-day), Gini-Simpson (0-100) 429 81.17 9.30 84.30 100 81.01 81.57 84.72 83.13 Water lean months 429 1.62 1.97 2.00 12 2.18 0.17 2.00 0.00 -- Water IWISE coping score (0-100) 428 4.60 6.62 0.00 100 6.14 0.63 5.56 0.00 -- Perceived specific hazard severity index (0-100) 429 64.64 30.47 70.00 100 79.06 27.50 80.00 25.00 -- Number of distinct sources of support for specific hazards 429 2.93 2.22 2.00 9 3.58 1.26 3.00 1.00 -- Number of resilience practices 429 2.59 2.81 1.00 12 3.15 1.17 2.00 1.00 -- Notes: Reported sample sizes vary due to some variables' missing values (non-responses). Last column: Sign and significance of difference in sample means, Waslala - Segovias: -, + p < 0.05; --, ++ p < 0.01. Source: 2022 household survey. Table 4: Regressions: Dietary diversity, food insecurity, hazard impact, and income Dietary diversity index Food lean months Hazard impact score Log income Waslala -0.499 -0.042 -4.799*** -0.433* (1.075) (0.233) (0.340) (0.190) Age of respondent 0.039 0.001 0.015* -0.007 (0.024) (0.005) (0.007) (0.004) Respondent education secondary or higher 2.141** -0.087 -0.242 -0.025 (0.792) (0.164) (0.261) (0.142) Farm size (ha) -0.038 -0.035*** -0.047** 0.044*** (0.046) (0.010) (0.014) (0.010) Log of cash income from top five sources last year -0.328 -0.243*** 0.080 (0.334) (0.071) (0.124) Number of distinct crops (plant products) 0.429*** 0.002 0.013 0.078*** (0.099) (0.022) (0.036) (0.015) Number of water lean months -1.317*** 0.137** 0.096 -0.064 (0.212) (0.042) (0.053) (0.042) Has surplus in both beans and corn relative to HH need -0.356 -0.446** -0.266 0.076 (0.828) (0.170) (0.276) (0.128) Count of key crop rotation practices -1.286* 0.116 0.349* 0.013 (0.605) (0.118) (0.173) (0.091) Count of key non-crop diversity practices -0.673 0.157* 0.410*** 0.022 (0.422) (0.080) (0.122) (0.073) Count of ecological nutrient practices 1.095* -0.085 -0.180 -0.002 (0.426) (0.090) (0.124) (0.061) Number of distinct animal species 0.980*** -0.019 0.045 0.050 (0.248) (0.049) (0.071) (0.045) Count of soil and water conservation practices 2.007*** 0.116 -0.059 -0.095 (0.448) (0.103) (0.134) (0.068) Reports application of chemical fertilizer or pesticide -1.964* 0.336* -0.019 -0.220 (0.791) (0.158) (0.217) (0.112) Active in farmer organization -4.984*** -0.306 0.983*** 0.024 (0.686) (0.163) (0.238) (0.126) Reports technical assistance or training -0.235 0.410** 0.007 0.042 (0.744) (0.139) (0.215) (0.116) Count of social values practices 0.348 0.053 -0.329* 0.116 (0.390) (0.083) (0.131) (0.065) Index of income source diversity (0-100) 0.040* 0.001 0.007 -0.002 (0.016) (0.003) (0.005) (0.003) Num.Obs. 392 392 392 392 R2 Adj. 0.424 0.188 0.652 0.226 Notes: Ordinary least squares. Standard errors in parentheses. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. Dietary diversity index is Gini-Simpson (Berry) index based on 7-day food group recall (0-100); food lean months is number of lean months in preceding year (max 12); hazard impact score is perceived severity of impact of 5 recent hazards, with range of 0-10 (10 most severe across all five hazards); income is total cash income from top five sources, logged to mitigate skewness in the dependent variable. Source: Household surveys 2022. Supplementary Files Article1Supplementalsection.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4903058","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":368485376,"identity":"3a0265f0-73c4-4882-89c2-dedeff094d58","order_by":0,"name":"Christopher Bacon","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAo0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCTBpA+HwkKAljXQth0nQwj+7+eGHjzvO2/PPSGB88LaNGEvuHDOWnHnmduKMGwnMhnOJ0WIgkWDGzNt2OwHIYJPmJU5L+jeglnP2QC3sv4nUkgOy5QDjBqAtzERpkbhzplhyZlty4owzD5sl55wjQgv/7PaNHz622dnztycf/PCmjAgtSICxgTT1o2AUjIJRMApwAwCZmTISNFCiIAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2534-6900","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christopher","middleName":"","lastName":"Bacon","suffix":""},{"id":368485377,"identity":"0da8dbbc-4611-433c-af60-8e3f0a365139","order_by":1,"name":"William A Sundstrom","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4401-4936","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"William","middleName":"A","lastName":"Sundstrom","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-08-12 23:29:04","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4903058/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4903058/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":75388248,"identity":"190ce9de-9f27-4f40-bd96-6bacef0bae2c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-04 04:42:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6260413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExport and diversified farming crops\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(a): top left - cacao beans drying on elevated racks after fermentatio; (b) Top middle – cacao (\u003cem\u003eTheobroma cacao\u003c/em\u003e) tree with pods. (c): a roadside fruit stand near Waslala, Nicaragua. (d) Bottom left – green coffee\u003cem\u003e (Coffea arabica) \u003c/em\u003echerries in farmers field near Estelí, Nicaragua. (f): Bottom right – Corn and beans field, Nicaragua. Credits: All photos taken by team members.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4903058/v1/e98683825172904b711f1fd5.png"},{"id":75388249,"identity":"4dbba285-ea96-4f4b-a3eb-5f6734e83589","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-04 04:42:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2519975,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegional patterns in seasonal food and water insecurity and hazard impacts\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(a) Seasonality of incidence of food and water lean months, by region: Percent of survey households reporting difficulty obtaining sufficient food or drinking water, respectively, during each calendar month. (b) Reported severity of recent specific hazards, by region. Source: household surveys 2022. n= 429\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4903058/v1/280157b45bdad9d92871ceda.jpeg"},{"id":75388372,"identity":"a5b0e295-fe58-4f18-acdd-bf2a549b4b99","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-04 04:50:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1309454,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFarm diversification and dietary diversity, by region. \u003c/strong\u003eThe curved blue lines use loess smoothing. Dietary diversity is measured using a Gini-Simpson (Berry) index of consumption of food groups, for a seven-day recall period, scaled to 0-100. Source: Household surveys 2022. n= 424.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"fig3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4903058/v1/74881c73718d1da6f995c16d.jpeg"},{"id":79587921,"identity":"694817cf-2fd6-429a-82b6-d67b79dd08de","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-31 12:45:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":12335113,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4903058/v1/7c86eb03-7c4f-4ce8-b0e9-d95c9b050a0a.pdf"},{"id":75388251,"identity":"728b900e-8f50-4b70-903c-8554ca96ebec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-04 04:42:02","extension":"pdf","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":117088,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Article1Supplementalsection.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4903058/v1/915fc5d61f2b1cbf09e05d7c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Diversified farming and agroecology: Assessing cacao and coffee smallholders’ food security, dietary diversity, and vulnerability to hurricanes and other hazards in Central America","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDiversified farming systems are proposed as critical strategies for reducing smallholders\u0026rsquo; risk and building resilience to climate change, conflict, and COVID-19 in increasingly complex multi-hazard environments and an ongoing food systems polycrisis (Guido et al., 2020; Altieri et al., 2015). When low-input smallholders adopt agroecology-based diversification, evidence suggests it can generate substantial social and economic benefits (Wezel et al, 2020), which can include food security and nutrition (UN SDG 2, Zero Hunger), climate resilience (SDG 12, Climate Action), and sustainable land and water management (SDG 15, Life on Land) (Benzer Kerr et al., 2023). \u0026nbsp; However, better explanations, integrated indicators, and empirical research are all needed to identify which diversification activities are currently in use by whom, how and why farmers are using them, potential trade-offs vs. a specialization strategy, and the degree to which they contribute to food security, dietary diversity, household incomes, and resilience, under different circumstances (Stratton et al., 2021). Addressing these issues is increasingly urgent given the precarious livelihoods of more than 2.5 billion people who depend on agriculture, including the 500 million plus smallholders (FAO, 2019). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite converging agendas that highlight diversified production as a crucial strategy for helping small-scale farmers reduce disaster risk, conserve biodiversity, cut climate emissions, enhance food security, and bolster resilience in agriculture and food systems (Rasmussen et al., 2024; Hufnagel et al., 2020), contentious debates loom over how to expedite broader food system transformations, who should spearhead them, and their ultimate direction (Anderson et al., 2021). \u0026nbsp;An influential report entitled \u003cem\u003eFrom Uniformity to Diversity\u003c/em\u003e analyzed obstacles and opportunities for moving from an industrialized monoculture or traditional subsistence agriculture toward agroecological diversified farming (IPES-Food, 2016). While the IPES report helped shift the policy agenda toward an alternative approach to food systems transformation (Anderson et al., 2019; \u0026nbsp;Gliessman \u0026amp; Ferguson, 2020), the assumptions about initial starting conditions oversimplified smallholder strategies. In reality, most smallholders are neither purely subsistence producers growing food for self-consumption nor entirely specialized market-oriented commercial farmers selling all of their harvests; instead, they often combine subsistence and commercial agriculture to try to make a living, make it meaningful (Bacon et al., 2021), and access food and other basic needs (Burnett \u0026amp; Murphy, 2014). Questions about how farmers combine subsistence and market-oriented production and how these combinations relate to food security, resilience, and risk are especially salient for tropical commodity producers.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoffee and cacao are globally significant tropical perennial crops and often serve as vital agroforestry systems and an important testing ground for assessing strategies to build resilience to powerful hazards while also addressing the long-term challenges of poverty and food and nutrition insecurity (P\u0026eacute;rez-Neira et al., 2023; Bacon et al., 2008). Tens of millions of farmers and thousands of local institutions worldwide have developed diverse strategies to export these crops to international markets while aiming to address crucial livelihood challenges, including food security. Cacao cultivation spans approximately 11 million hectares globally, while coffee occupies 20.2 million hectares, with around 31% of cacao and 48% of coffee grown under shade trees within agroforestry systems \u0026nbsp;(Somarriba et al., 2024: p586). Coffee and cacao agroforestry systems can, in some cases, contribute to biodiversity conservation, temperature regulation, farmer resilience to hurricanes and drought, and reduced exposure to pesticides; however, there can also be trade-offs in terms of yields (Perfecto et al., 2019; Vast \u0026amp; Somarriba, 2014). Moreover, these diverse systems potentially enhance farmers\u0026apos; food security, even if shorter-term incomes are temporarily lower than they would be under intensified production (Belsky \u0026amp; Siebert, 2003). However, in many regions, the proportion of coffee and cacao grown under diverse native and planted shade trees vs. more specialized shade trees with reduced biodiversity has declined. The expansion of both crops can be associated with deforestation, suggesting that the environmental benefits of these agroforestry crops are neither guaranteed nor ever increasing (Jha et al., 2014; Somarriba et al., 2024).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn coffee and cacao systems, the rapid expansion of sustainability-certified global markets has coincided with the persistence of significant challenges faced by smallholder farmers and workers in the Global South. A substantial majority of cacao production\u0026mdash;approximately 70%\u0026mdash;is managed by over 6 million smallholder farmers in Latin America, West Africa, and Indonesia. Most of these farmers typically live on less than $2 per day, relying heavily on cacao for 60% to 90% of their income (Tscharntke et al., 2023: pg. 2). While the global value of exported cacao beans had a combined value of USD 8.6 billion in 2017 (Voora et al., 2019a), the international value of chocolate sales, consisting of cacao and many other inputs, reached USD 100 billion by 2021 (Bermudez et al., 2022). By 2017, experts valued global coffee exports at USD 19 billion and retail markets at USD 83 billion (Voora et al. 2019b); notably, coffee production involved 12.5 million farms, of which 67\u0026ndash;80% were smallholders (Rinhart et al., 2021). \u0026nbsp;In addition to vulnerability to climate change, COVID-19, and other hazards, many coffee and cacao producers face food insecurity (Guido et al., 2020; P\u0026eacute;rez-Neira et al., 2023). While efforts have focused on creating sustainable coffee and cacao value chains, it\u0026rsquo;s essential to consider local factors such as farm sizes, management, crop selection, livelihoods, community dynamics, and agro-climatic conditions. These elements may impact food security more than commodity prices and sustainability standards alone. Addressing vulnerabilities related to climate change and other hazards is crucial for the livelihoods of these farmers, coffee, and cacao industries, and agricultural communities and landscapes worldwide. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe argue that more research is needed to support smallholder farmers as they develop different diversified (or specialized) production and livelihood strategies and seek to build resilience to increasingly hazard-prone environments (Bacon et al., 2021). Gaps in the literature include developing useful interdisciplinary indicators (Wiget et al., 2020). Additional research is primarily needed to provide broad-based empirical evidence on which types of diversified production and degrees of market dependence\u0026ndash; as well as other forms of household adaptive capacity\u0026ndash; are most likely to contribute to farmers\u0026apos; self-defined goals and desirable socio-economic outcomes, such as food and nutritional security (Lim et al. 2020; Stratton et al., 2021), and to reduce vulnerability and build resilience to increasingly common hazards emerging at the interface of public health, climate change, and global economic shifts.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to develop a comparative analysis of the extent of diversified farming among small-scale farmers exporting coffee or cacao from Nicaragua and examine how crop choice, diversified, and agroecological strategies relate to farmers\u0026rsquo; food security, dietary diversity, water security, and vulnerability. We organized this study around the following research questions (RQ):.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRQ1: To what extent does diversified and agroecological farming exist among smallholders selling coffee or cacao from Nicaragua into international markets?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRQ2: How do farmers\u0026apos; livelihood and production strategies (e.g., subsistence vs. market-oriented) and farm/household characteristics relate to critical outcomes, such as food security, dietary diversity, and resilience?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRQ3: What are the prospects for using agroecology to guide diversification and change in food systems in ways that advance smallholders\u0026rsquo; food sovereignty?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn response to RQ1, we expected to find that the surveyed farmers in Nicaragua manage similar levels of diversification compared to other smallholder coffee and cacao farmers worldwide (Rasmussen et al. 2024). We also expected producers in the Segovias region to report more agroecological practices because of the longer history of agroecology-inspired farmer-to-farmer and institutional organizing in this part of the country (Holt-Gim\u0026eacute;nez, 2006; Schiller et al., 2023) and the longer-term certified organic, fairtrade and Rainforest Alliance production (Bacon et al., 2021) vs. the agricultural frontier concentration of cacao farmers areas near Waslala, . In response to RQ2, we expected to find that greater diversification is associated with improved household food security and dietary diversity, as seen in global studies (Rasmussen et al., 2024) and recent work with coffee producers in the region (Bacon et al., 2023), as well as reduced vulnerability to impacts from hurricanes, droughts, and inflation. On the question of subsistence vs. market-oriented production strategies, we expected to find associations linking farmers with more market dependence with increased vulnerability to food insecurity in the face of COVID, hurricanes, and other specific (Rodriguez-Camayo et al., 2024; Rhiney et al., 2021). We also aimed to assess the relative importance of diversification and related practices versus wealth and income (broadly conceived), farm size, or other sources of support in reducing vulnerability to different hazards. We expected to find that farm households face tradeoffs between wealth (or income) and risk reduction through diversification and that on-farm diversification is relatively effective against agricultural hazards (e.g., droughts and rapid food price shifts). Finally, we use RQ3 to explore broader questions about the obstacles and possibilities for food systems change in ways to pursue food sovereignty.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings from this research are significant because they identify how smallholder farmers and local institutions, with varying levels of diversification, respond to a standard set of globally significant hazards such as COVID-19, hurricanes, drought, and inflation. We assess farmers\u0026rsquo; diversified practices concerning their subsistence production, sales to regional and national markets, and participation in \u0026ldquo;sustainable\u0026rdquo; global coffee and cacao value chains, linking farming practices and market engagements with seasonal livelihood patterns in food and water security. These findings have implications for a broader agenda aimed at rethinking local food systems governance debates from the bottom up with a stronger emphasis on the actual, complex practices of smallholders navigating multiple hazards and greater attention to the struggles for justice, sovereignty, and resilience (Wood et al., 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study location\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNicaragua is an ideal location to study diversification processes among smallholder coffee and cacao farmers and how these practices correlate with food and water security, nutrition, vulnerability and resilience in a multi-hazard environment. First, like many places in the world, Nicaragua is a hazard-prone environment, with the majority of farmers dependent on rainfed agriculture, making them highly vulnerable to climate change impacts (Radel et al., 2018; Quiroga et al., 2020); findings here are broadly generalizable to millions of smallholders and rural institutions across Central America and southern Mexico. Significant hazards in the five years before we conducted our survey campaign in 2022 included (1) the coffee leaf rust pathogen (2) a 2019 drought, (3) rapidly shifting food and input prices, (4) political unrest in 2018, (5) the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, and (6) hurricanes Eta and Iota that slammed into Nicaragua in November 2020 (Shultz et al., 2021). Second, Nicaragua has a large population of relatively organized rural smallholders with several organizations partnering with social movement leaders and others to help incubate a strong focus on political and grassroots approaches to learning and sharing agroecology and diversified farming, and to advancing food sovereignty (McCune et al., 2017). Government and civil society efforts may offer a way to scale these food systems transformation approaches (Schiller et al., 2023). Finally, the most recent hazards, including the back-to-back impacts of class 4 and class 5 Hurricanes Eta and Iota and the coronavirus pandemic from 2020-2023, underline the urgency of identifying cost-effective responses while offering researchers an opportunity to study the genesis and impacts of differential responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study area includes smallholder coffee growers in Nicaragua\u0026rsquo;s central north-to-northwest mountain Segovias region, which encompasses the provinces of Estel\u0026iacute;, Madriz, and Nueva Segovia, and cacao producers from the North Caribbean Region. The predominance of rainfed agriculture influences the annual cropping patterns in both regions. In the Segovias, farmers generally (in an average precipitation year) cultivate corn, beans, and vegetable gardens during the rainy months of May through November, with lighter sporadic rains occurring into December (Bacon et al., 2021), a marked a mid-summer drought occurring July 15 - August 15th, and a dry season from December through the end of April.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin the Segovias, we partnered with a well-established multi-service farmer cooperative focused on coffee marketing to a diverse range of specialty, Fairtrade, organic, and other certified coffee markets (PRODECOOP R.L.), as well as a sustainable agriculture association within Nicaragua\u0026apos;s national farmers and ranchers association (UNAG), known as the Campesino-a-Campesino (farmer-to-farmer) program (PCaC); some of these farmers participate in social movements that share diversified agroecological farming and promote food sovereignty, and have contributed to the formation smallholder civil society organizations (Holt-Gimenez, 2006; Edelman, 2008).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast to the tropical dry forest and semi-humid uplands in the Segovias (Kelley et al. 2018), the second study area focused on cacao producers in Waslala, located in Nicaragua\u0026rsquo;s North Caribbean Region. This region is semi-tropical to tropical humid with altitudes averaging 420 masl and total annual precipitation of 1300mm to 1500mm (URACCAN, 2021). In Waslala, there is more rain than the Segovias and more rainy days during the drier months of December, January, and February (World Bank 2021), effectively extending the annual rain-fed cropping season by two or three months for many farmers. Nicaragua\u0026rsquo;s central government did not officially recognize Waslala as a municipality until 1989 (URACCAN, 2021). Since 1990, the European Union and others have invested in several larger agricultural development projects that have prioritized agroforestry-based cacao production to counter the deforestation associated with cattle operations by connecting farmers to more sustainable markets (Fr\u0026eacute;guin-Gresh et al., 2022; Orozco-Aguilar et al., 2021). Farmers and local nonprofits have created cooperatives, secured organic, Rainforest Alliance, and Fairtrade certifications, and linked to external buyers, including Ritter Sport, which currently purchases 90% plus of the cacao from the cooperative of farmers that we surveyed in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.2. Overview of participatory action research approach and study sample\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eScholars have found that participatory approaches and mixed methods are increasingly effective strategies for explaining smallholder livelihoods, local institutions, farming practices, and context (Bezner Kerr et al., 2019; Chevalier, 2019). The research team comprises university-based academics in the United States, a research coordinator from northern Nicaragua, and a dynamic combination of Nicaragua-based cooperative leaders, non-profit agency staff, and farmers and community promoters. A long-term community-based participatory action research (CB-PAR) partnership with the PRODECOOP coffee exporting cooperative union and UNAG that started in 2001 has facilitated a mutual learning process and ongoing refinement of field research strategies, design, and questions for surveys, focus groups, and results in dissemination activities (Bacon et al., 2017). Several survey enumerators have participated in past studies, and many are experienced farmers and community leaders from the Segovias region who have helped co-define the research agenda with cooperative leaders. During several workshops, the field research team, including PRODECOOP and UNAG-PCaC affiliated survey enumerators, helped us train the new enumerators from Waslala, and then together, the team field tested, critiqued, and revised the survey questions. The team also shared and cross-checked early results with cooperative leaders, enumerators, and the local non-profit organization during workshops in December of 2022 and then received substantive feedback after sharing results in broader multi-stakeholder seminars in June 2023 and July 2024. In response to partner organizations\u0026apos; requests, the research team organized cross-site farmer-farmer exchanges and documented locally innovative practices of a seed saver in the Segovias and dynamic cacao farmers in Waslala.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe stratified randomized sample for this study (see Table 1) draws from an initial sample from previous research conducted with the population of farmers affiliated with the PRODECOOP cooperatives, UNAG\u0026rsquo;s Campesino-a-Campesino program in the Segovias, and a sample of unaffiliated farmers identified as the nearest neighbors growing coffee at a similar altitude (see Bacon et al. 2017 and 2021 for details). Similar to the process in the Segovias, we randomly selected farmers affiliated with the cacao-exporting Nueva Waslala Cooperative from a cooperative registry and then approached them to participate in this study. A third sample of 30 vegetable farmers located in the Department of Jinotega was also surveyed during the same period of 2022 but is not included in the analysis of this article due to the small number of observations and our focus on comparing the coffee and cacao growing regions. As part of a mixed methods approach, we complemented the survey data with focus groups and semi-structured interviews with previously surveyed households to develop farmer case studies documenting innovative experiences and collecting new data about local food prices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[ Table 1 about here ]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Data: Multidimensional livelihoods, agriculture, and food security survey\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe analyze responses from 429 smallholder households conducted in the study region from June to August 2022: 309 from the coffee-growing region of Las Segovias and 120 from the cacao-growing region of Waslala. For this paper, we consider each household to be managing a single farm; consequently, we use the terms \u0026ldquo;farm\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;household\u0026rdquo; interchangeably as the unit of analysis in the survey.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe designed this multi-dimensional livelihood, agriculture, and food security survey drawing on best practices and studies that analyze agroecological approaches and diversified production (Wezel et al., 2020; Mottet et al., 2020) as well as replicating questions from previous research with the Segovias sample (Bacon et al., 2021). The survey included previously validated questions for assessing farmer livelihoods, income sources, land use and cropping patterns, seasonal food and water insecurity, resources and entitlements, hazard impacts, coping responses, participation in local organizations and community groups, gender relations, and agricultural production. We also expanded concepts, questions, and indicators to strengthen our assessment of learning and agroecology, innovation, diversification, water security, nutrition security, and resilience. New questions in this survey drew from our review of essential agroecological principles (HLPE, 2019), the metrics used by the Tool for Agroecology Performance Evaluation (TAPE) (Mottet et al., 2020), and related approaches that address the challenges of multidimensional farm and food system assessments (Leippert et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Measuring Agroecological Strategies and Practices\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Agroecology (AE) has been proposed as a transformative approach to climate change mitigation and adaptation that reduces climate risk while supporting long-term productivity and resilience of food systems by applying ecological and humanistic principles (Benzer Kerr et al. 2023: 101275).\u0026rdquo; As a multidimensional principles-based scientific approach, participatory socio-ecological practices, and a social movement demanding more just and sustainable food systems (Mendez et al., 2013), agroecology is complex to define and measure (Wiget et al. 2020). In the last five years, scholars have started elaborating on the multidimensional assessment of agroecological and biodiverse farming systems and broader agroecological transformations (Moeller et al., 2023; Moffit et al., 2021). The High-Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) has combined robust scientific literature review with a participatory process to elaborate 13 agroecology principles that connect with three pathways for an agroecology-based food systems transformation (HLPE, 2018); these principles are also closely related to the specific sets of questions and rubrics included in the TAPE tools (Wezel et al., 2020). In our process of identifying agroecological strategies and practices, we recognized that there is no definitive set of agroecological practices; instead, an agricultural practice can be considered as more or less agroecological depending on the extent to which the farmers or food systems change agents are implementing key principles that rely on ecological processes more than purchased inputs, are more equitable, environmentally sustainable, locally adapted, and adopt a systems-oriented approach to manage interactions (HLPE, 2019: p14)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we were especially interested in how higher-level agroecological strategies\u0026ndash; such as crop diversification, diversified incomes, and animal integration\u0026ndash; relate to desirable social outcomes\u0026ndash; especially resilience, food security, and dietary diversity. The degree of interconnection between these strategies is also potentially significant; for example, strategies to support the co-creation of knowledge could improve social values and dietary diversity through education, and increased farmer connectivity with local organizations could support post-hazard resilience (Carrico et al., 2019: FAO, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 summarizes the specific agroecological strategies we focused on for this study, the practices measured through the survey questions and index variables, and the broader agroecological principles related to these strategies. To identify agroecological strategies empirically, we drew from our past ethnographic research with farmers and identified specific agroecological practices that characterize each strategy. Examples of agroecological practices include intercropping, crop rotation, and adding organic soil amendments (Gliessman et al., 2018). Strategies integrate several practices; for example, ecological soil management is a strategy that includes the use of several different composting and cover cropping practices, and crop diversification consists of the number of crop species and crop rotation practices (Rasmussen et al., 2024). We organized these strategies to align with 9 of HLPE\u0026rsquo;s 13 agroecology principles, such as biodiversity, soil health, and participation (HLPE, 2019; FAO, 2019). Here, we are specifically interested in linking strategies and practices that enable plausible pathways of transformative change toward food systems (Wezel et al., 2020, p.1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[ Table 2 about here ]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.5 Characterizing and measuring diversification\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven that diversification is a key overarching agroecological strategy and a focal area for this study, we examine several ways that research on diversified farming and livelihoods characterizes and calculates it (Whittman et al., 2017; Rasmussen et al., 2024; FAO, 2019). We employ a range of alternative dimensions and metrics to capture different aspects of diversified practices and assess the robustness of our findings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs inputs to measuring farm or crop diversification, our survey gathered information on farm products and quantities produced, their value, and land use. We measure product diversification using two core measures plus one measure capturing the degree of specialization. First, we simply count the number of distinct agricultural products reported by each household/farm (analogous to species richness in the biodiversity literature), all together and separately for crops (plants) and animal species. Farms producing more varieties of output can be considered more diversified, with the important caveat that a simple count of product types ignores the quantity produced or the relative importance of each product.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur second product diversification metric employs estimates of the market value of the farm\u0026rsquo;s production of each product, as measured by the reported annual harvest multiplied by local unit price. We elicited local agricultural prices from various sources, including survey responses, interviews with local experts, and regional and international wholesale price reports. Combining the reported annual output of various products and unit prices, we calculate the estimated output value for each product and sum it to obtain the farm\u0026rsquo;s total product value. Then, using the fraction of the farm\u0026rsquo;s total product value attributable to each product, we calculate a Gini-Simpson index of product value diversification for each household (see supplemental section for alternative diversity indices). Using the same product values, we also calculate a simple measure of specialization: namely, the percent of the household\u0026rsquo;s production value accounted for by its largest-value single product. We use analogous measures to capture household cash income source diversification, an indicator of economic diversity or livelihood diversification.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.5 Household self-sufficiency and subsistence production\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe used survey questions about crops the households produced for consumption to assess the contributions of subsistence production. The most direct question asked for the fraction (roughly in categorical quartile ranges) of the household\u0026rsquo;s food grown on their farm. We code the responses on a scale of 0-100, with the number representing roughly the percentage of own food grown as opposed to obtained by purchase or other means. In addition, the survey asked about annual production and household consumption needs for beans and corn, the two key staple crops in the region. We assessed whether each household\u0026rsquo;s production of corn and beans was in surplus or deficit relative to its self-reported consumption needs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.6 Food insecurity, dietary diversity, and water insecurity\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHousehold-level survey questions assessing multiple dimensions of food security have been validated in multiple contexts worldwide (P\u0026eacute;rez-Escamilla, 2012). In this study, as in our previous surveys in the same study area, we measure seasonal food insecurity by the reported number of \u0026ldquo;lean months\u0026rdquo;\u0026ndash;specific calendar months when food was scarce during the preceding year (this section draws substantially from the food security methodology section in our previous article, Bacon et al., 2021, p. 6). This is a standard indicator for assessing one of the most frequently reported forms of food insecurity (Niles \u0026amp; Salerno, 2018). Experience-based measures such as these help identify \u0026ldquo;hidden\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;silent\u0026rdquo; hunger, often overlooked by other measures focused on nutrition or dietary diversity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe complemented measures of seasonal hunger with indicators to assess the severity of food insecurity and nutrition quality measures of dietary diversity. To assess severity, we culturally adapted a global set of common household coping mechanisms frequently reported during periods of hardship (Maxwell et al., 2014). We aggregated these responses using weights elicited in focus groups conducted in the study area, following established methods (Bacon et al., 2021). We measure dietary diversity using a dietary recall question that reports how many days the family consumed food from various categories (food groups) during the preceding week. Using the reported number of days (out of 7) as weights, we calculated each household\u0026apos;s Gini-Simpson dietary diversity index (also known as a Berry index, Drescher et al., 2007).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur strategies to assess water insecurity\u0026ndash;like those for food security\u0026ndash; focused on the temporality of access and coping mechanisms due to water-related stress. To assess the seasonality of water access, we asked about households\u0026rsquo; months of perceived water scarcity (lean months) from the household\u0026rsquo;s primary water sources \u0026ndash; resulting in a measure analogous to lean months for food (Bacon et al., 2021). To understand the severity of water shortages, we asked how families are coping with water-related stress, using questions from the IWISE instrument, a globally comparable set of survey questions, to assess coping responses, such as frequency of conflicts over water access, bathing in less preferred places, or going to bed thirsty (Young et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.7 Hazards and vulnerability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHouseholds in the region confronted specific hazardous events in the five years before the survey, such as Hurricanes Eta and Iota of 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2019 drought, the 2018 political unrest and violence that swept parts of the country, and recent dramatic increases in the prices of food and inputs, as well as more generic hazards such as price fluctuations, crop loss due to pests or weather events, sickness or death of family members, etc. For each of a series of specific and general hazards, our survey asked respondents to assess the severity of the impact on their household and what coping responses they employed in responding to it. In this paper, we focus on the five specific hazard events enumerated above.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor each hazard, we assign a severity score of 0 (no impact), 1 (medium impact), or 2 (most severe) and add the scores across five general hazards for an index of perceived severity (scaled to 0-10). In addition, using focus-group-based weights of coping response severity, we calculate a hazard coping score.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e2.8. Qualitative research methods\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to several survey questions about the origins of the ideas and vegetative or seed material for the various forms of diversified production reported in the survey, the team conducted qualitative research consisting of observations during participatory workshops and farmer interviews, drawing on a decade of author Bacon\u0026rsquo;s ethnographic research to establish trust with partner organizations in the study area. These observations are helpful for study design and interpretation of results.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur first round of participatory workshops in 2021 worked with the survey enumerators and cooperative leaders as we introduced the study, recorded their feedback, documented hazard responses to their most pressing concerns, and incorporated ideas to improve the survey. In 2022, two participatory workshops focused on survey enumerator training, survey field tests, adjusting questions, and then capturing and cross-checking the initial survey results that were reported. In December of 2022 and again in July of 2023 and 2024, the research team presented and dialogued about study findings during multiple stakeholder workshops in Nicaragua. The forum comprised a cluster of cooperative, civil society organizations, local universities, international development agency staff, and occasionally municipal government officials committed to addressing food security and climate change in Nicaragua\u0026rsquo;s dry corridor. Our team took detailed notes and brief recordings during workshops, and we used the insights to identify critical regressors for statistical analysis of survey results and identify the border obstacles and opportunities for food systems transformation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis article analyzes 13 farmer case studies conducted in 2023 to understand farmers\u0026apos; interpretations of diversification, subsistence vs. specialization strategies, hazard impacts, and their self-identified accomplishments, challenges, and opportunities. We also elicited more details about products harvested and local prices. After conducting the interviews, we reviewed and edited the transcriptions before coding the text. Although we established several codes apriori that aimed to intersect with the salient variables for the survey analysis, most codes emerged inductively after reading the transcripts (Salda\u0026ntilde;a, 2021). We used Taguette (version 10.0) to organize the codes thematically.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 3 summarizes key variables from the 2022 survey data set, with means and medians separately by region (see supplemental Table A-1 details on all variables). The last column reports the sign and statistical significance of a two-sided test of the difference in means between the two regions (Waslala minus Segovias). Respondents averaged 52 years old, and about two-thirds were men. The median household reported 5 residents, with mean household size similar across the regions. Respondents were, on average, 8 years younger in Waslala than Segovias. Only 21% of respondents had completed secondary education\u0026ndash; fewer in Waslala than Segovias (15% vs. 23%, respectively). Farm sizes are small, averaging 6.8 ha, with Waslala farms, on average, significantly larger. Although Waslala farms are larger, reported annual gross cash incomes are similar across the two regions, with a median of C$56,000, equivalent to about $1560 at official currency exchange rates in 2022. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[ Table 3 about here ]\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCash crop regional patterns show that 78% of Segovias respondents reported selling coffee, and 99% of Waslala respondents reported selling cacao. Selling other agricultural products\u0026ndash; particularly beans, animal products, and fruit\u0026ndash; is also fairly common. About a third of respondents report that their household obtains income from wage or salary earnings, with the practice considerably more common in Segovias.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1. Adoption of diversification and agroecological strategies\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 reports agricultural and livelihood diversification measures, specialization, subsistence/ self-sufficiency, and agroecological strategies and practices described in the methodology section above. For diversification of crops, crop values, and income sources, the general pattern across alternative metrics indicates a greater degree of diversification among farmers in the cacao-growing Waslala region compared with the coffee-growing Segovias region. On average, Waslala farmers produced 11.5 crops and livestock products per farm, reported more sources of income, and were less specialized in producing their top-value crop than Segovias farmers, who averaged 10.0 crops and livestock products. These farmers\u0026rsquo; production diversity is nearly double the average in a study of 2500+ farmers in 11 countries (Rasmussen et al, 2024). Waslala farmers are also less specialized in cash-crop (cacao or coffee) production or income than Segovias farmers. In terms of subsistence agriculture, regional differences in the fraction of food produced on the farm are small and not statistically significant. Still, Waslala farmers were substantially more likely than Segovias farmers to report growing enough corn and beans to meet their self-reported household consumption needs (82% vs. 35%).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 reports on several agroecology strategies beyond diversified production. Under \u003cem\u003eSoil health and input management\u003c/em\u003e, 65% of farmers report organic certification for at least one crop. Waslala farmers were more likely than Segovias farmers to report certified organic production (81% vs. 58%). However, our sample surveyed a subset of Segovias farmers unaffiliated with any of the local producers\u0026rsquo; organizations, whereas all of the Waslala farmers belonged to an organic/fair trade cacao growers coop. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe index of agroecological strategies is based on a sum of 11 measures of strategies, scaling each on a 0-1 scale and weighting them equally. This index might be interpreted as a crude measure of a household\u0026rsquo;s degree of engagement with agroecology across a wide range of practices. The mean and median of the index are somewhat greater in the Segovias region than Waslala, and the difference is statistically significant if not large.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2. Farmer explanations of diversification and its impacts\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFarmers explained their diversification strategies for subsistence production, income, and food security in interviews. \u0026nbsp;In summarizing their recent accomplishments, a PCaC-affiliated farmer said, \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Now 50% of [what we eat] is from our farm\u0026apos;s production. With diversification, there has been a change because it is no longer bought in the market because it is produced by us together with the family.\u0026rdquo; (PCaC Interview 13).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eAnother farmer illustrates the notion of diversification for consumption and sale and suggests a certain joy in managing crop diversity,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026ldquo;Well, for us, it means something enjoyable, knowing that on our plot we have various types of plants that we can consume or sell, supporting ourselves in this way economically or through consumption, without having to go to the market to buy it at a price\u0026hellip;Maybe we don\u0026apos;t have [the money] in our pocket, but rather have [the food] within our reach.\u0026rdquo;(PRODECOOP Interview 8).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOther farmers explained strategies for combining their cash crops with diversification for both sale and subsistence in planning their livelihood strategies and meeting their daily food needs. For example, a diversified female cacao farmer in Waslala stated,\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026ldquo;The strategy we use when we earn some money is not spending it all at once. We value what we spend, for example, like cacao, biweekly gives us money, every 15 days I buy rice, sugar, coffee, oil, and soap, that is to say, we value the expense. In the case of eggs, they are not bought because I have hens laying them. I don\u0026apos;t buy the cuajada [cheese] either because we have it here. Neither is cassava, because here on the farm we have it, [we also have] bananas and all that. And so we don\u0026apos;t spend that money all at once. Also, when I make sales, I use half of the profit for food, depending on what I earn, and I leave half for other needs (Interview 2)\u003c/em\u003e. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast to other farmers, one farmer explained their specialization strategy, stating, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eMy idea this year is to plant coffee, not focus too much on beans because they are quick productions, but they also lead to debt, it sinks us as we say. In coffee, it is 3 years [after planting to the first harvest], but it remains solid because it is more resistant to drought, and production can be better. Beans have many pests that affect them, and corn is also less resistant. That\u0026apos;s why I want to change the production system and focus more on coffee.\u0026rdquo; (PRODECOOP Interview 11)\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 How diversification relates to household food and water security, dietary diversity, and hazards\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe now turn to the relationship between farmer practices, such as diversified production, subsistence agriculture, and agroecological practices on the one hand, and key outcomes, such as food and water security, dietary diversity, and the severity of impacts of specific and general hazards on the other\u0026ndash; the core concerns of our RQ2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs indicated in Table 3, across our sample, the median household reported 2 food lean months over the preceding year and 2 water-lean months. \u0026nbsp;One farmer explained their experience of food lean months by saying, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eThere is no shortage, but meals are more limited, for example, if they consume 5 lb of corn a day, they will consume 2 lb. Generally, in June and July, because these are the times when there is no work or income.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(Prodecoop Interview 11). This farmer shared a common example of rationing during these lean-food months other farmers describe skipping meals. \u0026nbsp; This farmer also correlates seasonal hunger with the precipitation patterns and agricultural calendars, as we have seen before in the Segovias (Bacon et al., 2021) and the seasonality of rural livelihoods worldwide (Devereux et al., 2012). They describe how the first rains and annual cropping cycle begin in May, and then, after a mid-summer drought, the second heavier precipitation period (and second growing season) occurs from August to December. In contrast, the cacao farmers in Waslala reported less seasonal hunger and significantly less water insecurity (see Table 3). In interviews and coded survey responses, farmers attribute their food security partially to the consistency of the cacao harvest, which unlike the single coffee harvest in December - January, produces a harvest every 15 days (Waslala Interview 2). However, the cooperative leaders noted that harvests decrease during this region\u0026apos;s shorter drier period of March and April. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFood lean months and food insecurity coping scores were both lower on average for Waslala households than Segovias, and the incidence of water insecurity was dramatically less in Waslala, reflecting prevailing precipitation differences across these regions. Both food and water lean months are highly seasonal in our study area, as displayed in panel (a) of Figure 2. The seasonal pattern of food-lean months is similar across the regions, with June, July, and August being the most food-insecure months. Figure 2(a) also illustrates the much greater incidence of water-lean months in Segovias, especially during March and April. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to lower food and water insecurity rates, Waslala households reported less severe impacts and coping responses to specific and general hazards. Figure 2(b) breaks down the perceived severity of the six specific hazards enumerated in the survey. At the time of the 2022 survey, inflation of food and input prices was the \u0026ldquo;top of mind\u0026rdquo; hazard in both regions. Otherwise, far fewer Waslala households reported that any of these hazards were \u0026ldquo;most severe\u0026rdquo; compared with Segovias. The lower reported hurricane impact in Waslala is somewhat surprising, given that the path of both hurricanes Eta and Iota went more directly over Waslala than the Segovias region. We expected to see the low impact of coffee leaf rust in Waslala, as few farmers cultivated coffee. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 reports OLS regression results for four key outcome variables: dietary diversity (scale 0-100), seasonal food insecurity (lean months), hazard impact severity (scale 0-10), and income (logged). We use the same set of regressors in each case, encompassing a basic regional control and household characteristics such as respondent age and education; farm size and household cash income; seasonal water insecurity as measured by reported water lean months; an indicator for potential self-sufficiency in the dietary staples corn and beans; and a broad set of measures of diversified agriculture and agroecological strategies, as discussed above. Although we report only OLS results here for simplicity and ease of interpretation, in cases where an alternative estimation technique might be appropriate (such as a logit or binomial model), results are quite similar.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e[ Table 4 about here ]\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA key research question explored in this article is whether diversified farming practices can enhance food security, one aspect of which is dietary diversity. The first column of Table 4 reports the results for a regression predicting the Gini-Simpson Index of dietary diversity (scaled 0-100), based on a seven-day recall of food groups consumed in the household. (Results are qualitatively very similar if, instead, the dependent variable is a simple count of the number of different food groups consumed over the prior seven days.)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe regression reveals several important insights. First, dietary diversity is significantly positively associated with the respondent\u0026apos;s education level. Second, dietary diversity is significantly positively associated with farm diversification \u0026ndash; both the number of crops and the number of animal species. The magnitudes of these effects are substantial as assessed by their implied standardized coefficients: One standard deviation (SD) in either variable is associated with a 0.2 SD increase in the dietary diversity index. Figure 3 plots the bivariate relationship between product and dietary diversity by region. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother striking pattern revealed by the first regression in Table 4 is that dietary diversity is strongly negatively associated with water lean months, with an implied standardized coefficient of about -0.3. Coefficients on the measures of various agroecology strategies reveal a mix of effects; in most cases, the strategies appear to be positively or insignificantly associated with dietary diversity. The second regression in Table 4 examines the correlates of food lean months, our preferred measure of seasonal food in security. Consistent with findings from previous work in the region, lean food months are negatively associated with farm size and income. Food-lean months are positively associated with water-lean months, and the effect is both statistically significant and quantitatively meaningful. Finally, households that are potentially self-sufficient in corn and beans report significantly less food insecurity. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dependent variable in the third regression of Table 4 is a score for the reported severity of hazard impacts across the five specific hazards. Waslala households and larger farms reported substantially lower overall hazard impacts. Among the agroecology strategies, non-crop diversity practices and reported active involvement in the farmer organization are positively associated with hazard impacts. The final model regresses log of cash income on the same regressors. Larger farms report significantly higher incomes, as do more diversified farms, as measured by number of crops. The positive association between crop diversity and cash income suggests that diversified production does not entail an adverse tradeoff in yields or economic viability, as might be the case if there were substantial returns to specialization or scale economies. \u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 Prospects for using agroecology and diversification for advancing food sovereignty\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this section, we integrate interview and survey results with longer-term ethnographic observation and the scientific literature to assess the challenges and possibilities for smallholders using agroecological diversification as a critical strategy for securing food sovereignty. As shown in Table 4, we found that crop diversity is associated with greater dietary diversity and higher incomes. These findings were expected and resonate with other research showing that farmers\u0026apos; crop diversity correlates with dietary diversity in many cases and using a variety of measures (Jones, 2017; \u0026nbsp; Rasmussen et al., 2024). Diversified farming is a strategy aligned with the agroecological biodiversity principle (see Table 2) and intended to work with other principles, such as managing soil health and co-production of knowledge, as farmers and food systems change agents aim to interrelate strategies and move towards food sovereignty. In this sense, agroecology is more of a participatory \u0026ldquo;process of continuous transition based on core principles (Altieri, 2018; HLPE, 2019), values and politics (Nyeleni, 2015), and/or specific cultural, ecological, or social elements (FAO, 2019)\u0026rdquo; (Anderson et al., 2021, p. 14). Food sovereignty is the right of all people to produce food locally and sustainably through agroecological methods that respect regional climatic, cultural, and geographical contexts (Via Campesina, 2024). Food sovereignty is a politically contested process of change that entails shifting power and access relations and starts from the specific challenges and opportunities of people, places, and food systems (Shattuck et al., 2015).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe found that climate change exacerbated water insecurity, and its relationships with farmers\u0026rsquo; food security and dietary diversity (see Table 4) is a pressing emerging challenge. A Segovia\u0026apos;s farmer expressed their experiences of precipitation whiplash, stating, \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eWell, you haven\u0026apos;t seen a change, right? Because we are used to it. Now with these changes... In those times, we looked at hurricanes\u0026hellip;.And right now, it\u0026apos;s different because with the drought we have right now, don\u0026apos;t believe it, this worries us a lot. (\u003c/em\u003ePRODECOOP Interview 10). Indeed, scientists have predicted that accelerated climate change will correlate with more intense late-season hurricanes, like Eta and Iota in 2020 (Avilia-Diaz et al., 2023), intense droughts (Stewart et al., 2021), and extreme weather events (Tan et al., 2023). Across all interview transcripts, water insecurity was the most frequently occurring code, followed by diversification, beans, and income. As researchers who benefited from TAPE (Mottet et al., 2020) and other multidimensional agroecology measures when designing our study, we value their participatory processes and recognize the challenges of creating flexible and context-dependent, action-oriented indicators that work across ecological, social, and political domains (Darmaun et al., 2023). However, given the importance of water access for food security, agriculture, and agroecological diversification, we recommend more significant attention to sustainable water management practices and strategies to ensure water security. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn equally important challenge is persistent economic poverty related to low farm gate prices, rising food/input costs (see Figure 2), and broader political and economic processes that leave many smallholders struggling to mobilize the labor, land, and capital that could help them use diversification to transform their farms and livelihoods. The uneven exchange entitlements that farmers navigate as they sell corn and beans by the 100 lb. sack at low prices during the November and December harvests and then buy them for consumption at higher prices in June and July exacerbate food insecurity and poverty (Devereux, 2001). Path dependence and the lock-in of conventional food systems is a third major challenge. Although many farmers practice organic coffee and cacao farming (See Table 2), like other farmers in Central America (Morris et al., 2013), some cultivate chemically dependent corn and beans in separate plots. While these farmers note that this may help save labor in the short term, in interviews, they complain about the expenses and debt associated with the companies and farmer organizations that distribute chemicals, seeds, and credit before planting. Our survey analysis (see Table 4) showed that reported chemical usage correlated with more food-lean months and lower dietary diversity. Path dependence and conventional system lock-in challenges also include commodity-focused investments, as global buyers and banks primarily support coffee and cacao cooperatives\u0026apos; exports. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite these challenges, Nicaraguan farmers and allies could use existing strengths and agroecological strategies to advance food sovereignty. First, we recommend re-invigorated partnerships with cacao, coffee, and UNAG-PCaC farmer organizations. These partnerships need to be significant enough to counter the influences from corporate buyers and banks and guided by research, community needs, and farmer participation. The partnership could also focus on our second strategy aiming to co-create knowledge, share innovations across horizontal farmer-to-farmer networks within the cooperative structure as other Caribbean countries have done (Rosset et. al., 2011), and expand technical assistance investments. Context-dependent innovations for water conservation, storage, management, and purification could reduce water insecurity (Bacon et al., 2021b), and other innovations could expand seed-saving networks and facilitate access to materials for diversification and climate adaptation (UNAG-PCaC Interview 15). These efforts could also foster experimentation building from surveyed farmers\u0026apos; strong sense of production and marketing autonomy - more than 70% reported they were either very or quite autonomous. Cooperative and local institutions could explore partnerships with movement groups, universities, and national programs (Schiller et al., 2023) to convene agroecology field schools (Rosset et al., 2019), engaging evidence about effective strategies and strengthening food sharing, solidarity, and trust needed to engage the politics and practices advancing food sovereignty.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study found that Nicaragua\u0026rsquo;s smallholder coffee and cacao farmers manage extensive agricultural diversity, averaging between 10 and 11.5 crops and animals per farm, higher than in many other places (Rasmussen, 2024). From our 2022 livelihood, agriculture, and food security survey, with 429 smallholders sampled randomly from farmers affiliated with cooperatives selling coffee or cacao, we found that farmers used strategies related to nine agroecology principles (HLPE, 2019). Cacao farmers in the wetter growing zone reported more crop diversity, organic production, and less seasonal hunger than coffee growers in the Segovias region. Farmers in both places reported vulnerability to food and input price inflation as their most pressing concern, eclipsing Hurricane Eta and Iota's impacts. Moving beyond this comparison of coffee growers in Segovias and cacao producers in Waslala, our multivariate analysis of seasonal hunger found that location was less critical than surplus subsistence (corn and bean) production, water security, farm size, and income. Confirming findings from other studies (Jones, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Benzer Kerr et. al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), we found that farm crop and animal diversity correlated with household dietary diversity and higher incomes, suggesting the importance of this agroecological strategy. This is among the first studies comparing cacao and coffee farmers\u0026rsquo; agroecological strategies in relation to farmer food security, water security, nutrition, and vulnerability. These findings are relevant for many of the 15\u0026nbsp;million plus smallholder coffee and cacao growers seeking more sustainable livelihoods in the Global South. Our research also suggests that multidimensional agroecological evaluation frameworks could benefit from greater attention to water security.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding and conflicts of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe work was supported by the National Science Foundation, United States [BCS 2117976], with additional support from Santa Clara University\u0026rsquo;s College of Arts and Sciences, Office of President and Provosts, and the Environmental Justice and Common Good Initiative. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was reviewed and approved for ethical conduct of research with human subjects by Santa Clara University\u0026apos;s Institutional Review Board.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors affirm that individual shown in Figure 1a has \u0026nbsp;provided informed consent for publication of the images. \u0026nbsp;This indiviudal is a collaobrating reseracher and not an enrolled subject in the study.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement - Code availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study will be made available in the Harvard Dataverse repository (https://dataverse.harvard.edu/) upon publication.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoth authors contributed to the study conception and design. C.B. led all field research and data collection. Data analyses were performed together. The first draft and all subsequent versions of the manuscript were written by and commented on by all authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNicaragua partners: Ra\u0026uacute;l Diaz, Maria Eugenia Flores Gomez, Miseal Rivas, Katherine Mart\u0026iacute;nez, Helen Hernandez, Salatiel Valdivia, Merling Prez, Justo Pastor, Maritza Zeledon, Norman Alfaro, and numerous other cooperative leaders, promotores and farmers including Maximino Guiterrez, Javier Perez. SCU undergraduate research assistants: Christopher Esparza, Wanyu (Mary) Xiang, Ave Gaucher Brooke Rose, Antonio Amore Rojas, Emma McCurry, Erika Martinez, Gabriella Ballardo, Skyler Kriese, Paula Felix, Xiomara Quinonez, and Kylie Griggs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAltieri, M. A., Nicholls, C. I., Henao, A., \u0026amp; Lana, M. A. (2015). Agroecology and the design of climate change-resilient farming systems. Agronomy for sustainable development, 35(3), 869-890. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-015-0285-2\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAltieri, M. A. (2018). Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture. Boca Raton: CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429495465\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAnderson, C. R., Bruil, J., Chappell, M. J., Kiss, C., \u0026amp; Pimbert, M. P. (2019). 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Main challenges and key features of indicator-based agroecological assessment frameworks in the context of international cooperation. Ecology and Society 25(3):25. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-11774-250325\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWood, A., Queiroz, C., Deutsch, L., Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Mon, B., Jonell, M., Pereira, L., ... \u0026amp; Wass\u0026eacute;nius, E. (2023). Reframing the local\u0026ndash;global food systems debate through a resilience lens. Nature Food, 4(1), 22-29.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWorld Bank (2021) Climate knowledge portol: Available at: https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/nicaragua/climate-data-historical Accessed July 30, 2024.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYoung, S. L., Frongillo, E. A., Jamaluddine, Z., Melgar-Qui\u0026ntilde;onez, H., P\u0026eacute;rez-Escamilla, R., Ringler, C., \u0026amp; Rosinger, A. Y. (2021). Perspective: the importance of water security for ensuring food security, good nutrition, and well-being. Advances in nutrition, 12(4), 1058-1073. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmab003\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYoung, S. L., Bethancourt, H. J., Ritter, Z. R., \u0026amp; Frongillo, E. A. (2021). The Individual Water Insecurity Experiences (IWISE) Scale: reliability, equivalence and validity of an individual-level measure of water security. BMJ Global Health, 6(10), e006460. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006460\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1: Stratified study populations and randomized sample of small-scale farmer households, with affiliations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegion / Municipality\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.4688%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoffee or Cacao Co-op: Population\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.625%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoffee or Cacao Co-op: Sample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUNAG-PCaC: Population\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.4062%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUNAG-PCaC: Sample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnaffiliated/ other: Sample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLas Segovias\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.4688%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.625%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.4062%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Telpaneca\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.4688%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.625%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.4062%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; San Lucas\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.4688%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.625%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.4062%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Pueblo Nuevo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.4688%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.625%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.4062%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Las Sabanas\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.4688%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.625%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.4062%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Jalapa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.4688%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.625%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.4062%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWaslala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.4688%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e255\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15.625%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.4062%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 20%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal sample\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.4688%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 15.625%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e271\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.4062%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 16.25%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes: Farmers in Las Segovias are affiliated with coffee exporting cooperatives or unaffiliated coffee growers. Farmers in Waslala are affiliated with a cacao exporting cooperative.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: 2022 surveys and cooperative registries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2: Description of agroecological strategies, practices, and principles\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAgroecology Strategies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAgroecology Practices\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAgroecology Principles\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCROP DIVERSITY\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of crops cultivated; crop rotation (Y/N); is a fallow included (Y/N); temporal diversity\u0026ndash; is there cover cropping (Y/N)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBiodiversity\u003c/strong\u003e. Maintain and enhance the diversity of species, functional diversity, and genetic resources and thereby maintain overall agroecosystem biodiversity in time and space.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"21\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"21\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"31\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"21\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNON-CROP DIVERSITY\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHedgerows (Y/N); estimated productive farm area covered by natural or diverse vegetation (e.g., natural grasses, grasslands, regeneration areas, wildflower strips, stone barriers, living fences, windbreaks, natural ponds or wetlands, etc.)(scored 0-4, 0% =1, 4 \u0026gt;25%); forests or forest fragments (Y/N); other forms of non-crop diversity (e.g., number of tree species trees\u0026gt;=5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBiodiversity.\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eECOLOGICAL NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eManure application on different crops (Y/N); green manure application (Y/N); inoculant application (Y/N); residue incorporation (Y/N); Presence of nutrient mobilizing plants (mostly legumes) (Y/N)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSoil health\u003c/strong\u003e. Secure and enhance soil health \u0026nbsp;functioning for improved plant growth, particularly by managing organic matter and enhancing soil biological activity.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eORGANIC MANAGEMENT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrganic certification (Y/N)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSynergy\u003c/strong\u003e - Enhance positive ecological interaction, synergy, integration and complementarity amongst the elements of agroecosystems (animals, crops, trees, soil, and water); also Soil health.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eANIMAL INTEGRATION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of livestock species included in holdings; number of fowl species; presence of beekeeping (Y/N), total animal spp.; total animal products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnimal health.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eEnsure animal health and welfare. Note: While we measured the presence and type of livestock and fowl on the farm, we did not ask specific questions about practices to ensure animal health.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEstimated productive farm area covered by natural or diverse vegetation (0-4, repeat of non-crop diversity question); bunds (Y/N), contour planting (Y/N); other soil and water conservation practices (Y/N)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSoil health.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eINPUT REDUCTION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePesticides (Y/N); synthetic fertilizer (Y/N)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI\u003cstrong\u003enput reduction.\u003c/strong\u003e Reduce or eliminate dependency on purchased inputs and increase self-sufficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePARTICIPATION\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCooperative membership (Y/N) - farmer org; degree of active participation in Cooperative - farmer org; other local organization memberships (e.g., church, drinking water or watershed committees, social groups, political parties, unions, social movements)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipation\u003c/strong\u003e. Encourage social organization and greater participation in decision-making by food producers and consumers to support decentralized governance and local adaptive management of agricultural and food systems.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCO-CREATION OF KNOWLEDGE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarmer-to-farmer exchanges impacted diversification practices on the farm (Y/N); reports technical assistance impacted farming (Y/N); reports active participation in training programs (Y/N); education secondary or higher (Y/N)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCo-creation of knowledge.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eEnhance co-creation and horizontal sharing of knowledge, including local and scientific innovation, primarily through farmer-to-farmer exchange.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSOCIAL VALUES AND DIETS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDegree of perceived autonomy in production decisions (0-4); Degree of perceived autonomy in marketing decisions (0-4); Reported availability of culturally relevant foods in the community (0-4); Use of food sharing practices for food security\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSocial values and diets.\u003c/strong\u003e Build food systems based on the culture, identity, tradition, social, and gender equity of local communities that provide healthy, diversified, seasonally and culturally appropriate diets. We also included sovereignty questions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eECONOMIC DIVERSITY\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 312px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount income sources; income source diversity index value; fraction of product value from top product.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEconomic diversification.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDiversify on-farm incomes by ensuring that small-scale farmers have greater financial independence and value-addition opportunities while enabling them to respond to consumer demand. We included on and off-farm and income.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd height=\"20\" style=\"width: 0px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSources:\u003c/strong\u003e Wezel et al., 2020 p40; FAO, 2019; HLPE, 2019 : Our analysis here focused on strategies related to 9 of the 13 HLPE Agroecology Principles.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3: Summary statistics and regional comparisons of key variables\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003enobs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003esd\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emedian\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emax possible\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emean: Segov.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emean: Waslala\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emedian Segov.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003emedianWaslala\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDiff Was. - Seg.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDemographics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge of respondent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e422\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale respondent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e415\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducation of respondent secondary or higher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of persons in HH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e422\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLivelihoods, income, and wealth\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarm size (ha)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e415\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCash income from top 5 sources preceding year (C\u0026oacute;rdobas)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97270\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e127876\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97188\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97482\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67938\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSells cacao\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSells coffee\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWage or salary worker\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAgricultural diversity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduct value diversity index, Gini-Simpson (0-100)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of crops (distinct plant products)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of distinct livestock / fowl species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercent of product value from top product\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of key crop rotation practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of key non-crop diversity practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIncome source and livelihood diversity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIncome source diversity index, Gini-Simpson (0-100)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercent of income from top source\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of distinct income sources, farm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e426\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of distinct income sources, nonfarm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e426\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSoil health and input management\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHas certified organic production\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of ecological nutrient practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of soil and water conservation practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReports application of chemical pesticide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReports application of chemical fertilizer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipation, knowledge sharing, social values\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAffiliated with farmer organization\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eActive in farmer organization\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReports technical assistance or training\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of social values practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndex of agroecological strategies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndex of agroecological strategies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubsistence / self-sufficiency\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrows half or more of food on own farm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercent of HH food grown on farm (estimated from quartiles)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrows surplus of both beans and corn relative to reported HH need\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e422\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e++\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercent of total farm production value from cacao or coffee\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercent of cash income from sale of cacao or coffee\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFood and water insecurity and hazard impact\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood lean months\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood insecurity coping score (0-100)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDietary diversity index (7-day), Gini-Simpson (0-100)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater lean months\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater IWISE coping score (0-100)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e428\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePerceived specific hazard severity index (0-100)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of distinct sources of support for specific hazards\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 245px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of resilience practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 47px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes: Reported sample sizes vary due to some variables\u0026apos; missing values (non-responses). Last column: Sign and significance of difference in sample means, Waslala - Segovias: \u0026nbsp;-, + \u0026nbsp;p \u0026lt; 0.05; \u0026nbsp; --, ++ \u0026nbsp; p \u0026lt; 0.01. Source: 2022 household survey.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4: Regressions: Dietary diversity, food insecurity, hazard impact, and income\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDietary diversity index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood lean months\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHazard impact score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLog income\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWaslala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.499\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.799***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.433*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(1.075)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.233)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.340)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.190)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge of respondent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.015*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.024)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.005)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.007)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.004)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespondent education secondary or higher\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.141**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.087\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.242\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.792)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.164)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.261)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.142)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFarm size (ha)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.038\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.035***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.047**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.044***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.046)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.010)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.014)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.010)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLog of cash income from top five sources last year\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.328\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.243***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.334)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.071)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.124)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of distinct crops (plant products)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.429***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.078***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.099)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.022)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.036)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.015)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of water lean months\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.317***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.137**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.096\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.212)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.042)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.053)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.042)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHas surplus in both beans and corn relative to HH need\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.356\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.446**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.266\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.076\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.828)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.170)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.276)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.128)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of key crop rotation practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.286*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.349*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.605)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.118)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.173)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.091)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of key non-crop diversity practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.673\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.157*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.410***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.422)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.080)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.122)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.073)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of ecological nutrient practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.095*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.085\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.180\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.426)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.090)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.124)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.061)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of distinct animal species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.980***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.248)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.049)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.071)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.045)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of soil and water conservation practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.007***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.059\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.095\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.448)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.103)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.134)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.068)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReports application of chemical fertilizer or pesticide\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.964*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.336*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.220\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.791)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.158)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.217)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.112)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eActive in farmer organization\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.984***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.306\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.983***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.686)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.163)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.238)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.126)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReports technical assistance or training\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.235\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.410**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.744)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.139)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.215)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.116)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCount of social values practices\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.348\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.329*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.390)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.083)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.131)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.065)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndex of income source diversity (0-100)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.040*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.016)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.003)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.005)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.003)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNum.Obs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e392\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e392\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e392\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e392\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 342px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR2 Adj.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.424\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.188\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.652\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.226\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes: Ordinary least squares. Standard errors in parentheses. * p \u0026lt; 0.05, ** p \u0026lt; 0.01, *** p \u0026lt; 0.001. Dietary diversity index is Gini-Simpson (Berry) index based on 7-day food group recall (0-100); food lean months is number of lean months in preceding year (max 12); hazard impact score is perceived severity of impact of 5 recent hazards, with range of 0-10 (10 most severe across all five hazards); income is total cash income from top five sources, logged to mitigate skewness in the dependent variable. Source: Household surveys 2022.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Agroecology, climate change, Hurricanes Eta and Iota, food sovereignty, water security, Nicaragua","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4903058/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4903058/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDiversified farming is one of several agroecological strategies for reducing smallholders\u0026rsquo; risk and building resilience to climate change and other hazards. Accumulating evidence shows that farmers can use agroecology to improve household food security and influence food system transformations. However, additional research is needed to identify which agroecological strategies are used by whom and the degree to which diversification, household characteristics, context, or other strategies contribute to farmer well-being. In 2022, we conducted a livelihood, agriculture, and food security survey with 429 smallholders sampled randomly from farmers affiliated with cooperatives selling coffee or cacao in northern Nicaragua. We focus on farmer strategies and practices associated with 9 key agroecology principles and their relation to food security, water security, and dietary diversity. Next, we integrated statistical analysis into our participatory mixed methods approach using partner feedback and 13 farmer interviews to inform and interpret regression models. Cacao farmers in the wetter growing zone reported more crop diversity, organic production, and less seasonal hunger than coffee growers. Food and input price inflation was a more pressing concern than impacts from hurricanes Eta and Iota for all producers. Our multivariate analysis suggested that location was less important than surplus subsistence (corn and bean) production, water security, farm size, and income, all correlated significantly with improved seasonal hunger. Production diversity and farmers\u0026rsquo; formal education correlated with household dietary diversity. This is among the first studies comparing coffee and cacao producers and assessing their agroecological strategies in relation to food security, water security, nutrition, and vulnerability. Findings are relevant for many of the 15\u0026nbsp;million smallholder coffee and cacao growers seeking more sustainable livelihoods and for potentially modifying the useful multidimensional agroecological indicators frameworks, like the UN FAO\u0026rsquo;s Tool for Agroecological Performance Assessment, to include measures of farmers\u0026rsquo; water and food security.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Diversified farming and agroecology: Assessing cacao and coffee smallholders’ food security, dietary diversity, and vulnerability to hurricanes and other hazards in Central America","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-02-04 04:41:58","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4903058/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f28345f7-6c5e-4e26-8689-a4160d30c63a","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 4th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-03-31T12:37:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-02-04 04:41:58","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4903058","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4903058","identity":"rs-4903058","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}