The Relationship Between Parental Phubbing and Chinese Adolescents’ Mobile Phone Addiction: A Longitudinal Study

The Relationship Between Parental Phubbing and Chinese Adolescents’ Mobile Phone Addiction: A Longitudinal Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Relationship Between Parental Phubbing and Chinese Adolescents’ Mobile Phone Addiction: A Longitudinal Study Shutao Ma, Shuai Chen, Xiaoyan Bi, Hongbo Cui, Wei Zhang This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6684101/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Adolescence is a period of high incidence of mobile phone addiction (MPA), which can lead to negative effects on adolescents’ physical and mental health. Previous studies have revealed that parental phubbing is the core factor triggering adolescents’ MPA, however, longitudinal investigations into the impact of parental phubbing on MPA are lacking, as are studies exploring protective elements that could mitigate this relationship. Anchored in Davis’ cognitive-behavioral model and ecological systems theory, this longitudinal research examined how core self-evaluation mediates the association between parental phubbing and MPA, and how peer relationships might moderate the impact of this connection. 807 Chinese adolescents (47.6% female, mean age of 12.04 years at the first assessment) participated in a three-wave study over twelve months. The results suggest that parental phubbing significantly predicts higher levels of adolescent MPA one year later, with this effect being strongly mediated by core self-evaluation. Peer relationships play a moderating role in both the direct effect (parental phubbing to MPA) and the first half of the mediation effect (parental phubbing to core self-evaluation). Specifically, compared to adolescents with good peer relationships, the impact of parental phubbing on MPA is more pronounced among those experiencing poor peer relationships. Meanwhile, adolescents with good peer relationships exhibit a relatively weaker adverse effect of parental phubbing on their core self-evaluation, compared to those with poor peer relationships. This study reveals the moderated mediation mechanisms underlying the effect of parental phubbing on adolescent MPA and provides detailed insights into the circumstances in which parental phubbing correlates with MPA. These results provide guidance for specific prevention and intervention approaches aimed at tackling adolescent MPA within the Chinese cultural framework. Chinese adolescent parental phubbing mobile phone addiction core self-evaluation peer relationships Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction Adolescents’ increasing preoccupation with their mobile devices has drawn significant attention from a variety of societal sectors. Driven by their strong inquisitiveness and thirst for novelty, teenagers are more likely to embrace novel items in their surroundings, often displaying heightened emotional and behavioral challenges and thus rendering them more vulnerable to mobile phone addiction (MPA; Hong et al., 2019 ). According to data collected in December 2023, 99.8% of Internet users in China utilize their mobile phones to access the web; among these users, individuals aged 10 to 19 years old make up 15.7% of the total user base (China Internet Network Information Center, 2024). MPA is characterized by excessive and uncontrollable usage of mobile devices, leading to compulsive desires and reliance on mobile devices that disrupt behavioral balance and significantly impact an individual’s daily functioning (Lin & Liu, 2020 ). This pathological form of mobile phone usage is distinct from the regular amount of time spent on mobile phone usage or mere reliance on mobile phones for daily activities (Hong et al., 2012 ). Among Chinese adolescents, MPA is frequently reported to be correlated with anxiety, depression, stress, impulsivity, and sleep quality (Li et al., 2020 ). Thus, investigating the determining factors and underlying dynamics at play in adolescent MPA is of great importance, both in its practical relevance and its potential contribute towards the development of successful mitigation and intervention strategies regarding MPA. 1.1. Parental Phubbing in Relation to MPA Previous research has emphasized the pivotal roles of both contextual factors and personal attributes in shaping MPA (Chiu, 2014 ). Among these, the family unit, as a fundamental and intimate social structure, plays a crucial role in shaping the development of individuals. Indeed, Liu et al. ( 2020 ) have already demonstrated that there is an association between familial aspects and MPA. Stage-environment fit theory suggests that a balanced, supportive, and nurturing family environment is crucial for fulfilling adolescents’ psychological necessities – including competence, affiliation, and autonomy – which thereby fosters their overall well-being; conversely, an adverse family setting can obstruct the satisfaction of these needs, potentially leading to negative behaviors (Gutman & Eccles, 2007 ). Parental phubbing denotes the parental act of disregarding their interpersonal interactions with their children in favor of focusing on their mobile devices (Roberts & David, 2017 ; Wang et al., 2020 ). Persistent parental phubbing, which results in children feeling neglected and unable to alter the situation, will often push these children towards using their smartphones more as a means of escapism, thereby escalating their likelihood of MPA (Xie et al., 2019 ). Furthermore, the intergenerational transmission effect suggests that parents’ psychological traits and behaviors are transmitted to their offspring, thereby shaping their children’s unique developmental trajectories (Nower et al., 2022 ). As parents are usually the most consistently present socializing agents in a child’s life, frequent demonstrations of parental phubbing during daily interactions will provide the younger generation with detrimental behavioral models. Prolonged exposure to such a family environment, with ongoing examples of unhealthy parental behaviors, might render adolescents more susceptible to adopting similar negative behaviors, such as MPA (Niu et al., 2020 ). While prior investigations have examined the association between parental phubbing and MPA, the fundamental processes involved are still not fully understood. Given that adolescence is a crucial developmental phase with long-lasting impacts throughout one’s adult life (Liu et al., 2020 ; Nower et al., 2022 ), a cross-sectional study is not adequate for the investigation of the evolving impacts of parental phubbing on MPA over a period of time. Furthermore, due to imbalances between physical and mental development during this stage of life, adolescents are prone to intricate contradictions between maturity and semi-maturity, leading to dynamic changes in their psychology and behavior (Hong et al., 2019 ). To address these gaps, the objective of the current study was to explore the longitudinal effects of parental phubbing on MPA over a one-year period to provide insight into the evolving dynamics of the relationship and identify potential intervention points. 1.2. The Mediating Role of Core Self-Evaluation Core self-evaluation is one’s fundamental evaluation of their own value and abilities, which include aspects such as self-esteem, general self-efficacy, neurotic tendency, and control perception (Judge et al., 1998 ). Researchers have noted a strong association between core self-evaluation and pivotal life events, and how it can be shaped or transformed by environmental influences and the assimilation of external information (Judge, 2009 ). As an aspect of self-concept, core self-evaluation is susceptible to the perceptions of one’s significant others, which are particularly influential during adolescence when self-concept development is still maturing (Koumoundourou et al., 2011 ). Parents hold a crucial role here, and their negative actions can instill feelings of rejection or neglect in adolescents (Xie & Xie, 2020 ), damaging their self-worth and diminishing their level of core self-evaluation (Wang & Qiao, 2022 ). Meanwhile, a low level of core self-evaluation increases one’s vulnerability to MPA (Zhou et al., 2022 ). Research indicates that individuals exhibiting a reduced level of core self-evaluation tend to employ evasion coping mechanisms more frequently (Hsiao et al., 2016 ), with mobile phone usage serving as one such strategy (Enez Darcin et al., 2016 ). Other studies have demonstrated that all four aspects of core self-evaluation negatively forecast mobile phone addiction (Kim and Koh, 2018 ; Park et al., 2013 ; Park and Lee, 2014; Roberts et al., 2015 ). According to Davis’ cognitive-behavioral model, Internet addiction is influenced by distal factors, such as life events, which lead individuals to develop corresponding maladaptive cognitions, namely proximal factors (i.e., core self-evaluation), which subsequently manifest in the behavioral symptom of Internet addiction (Davis, 2011). MPA and Internet addiction both fall under the category of behavioral addictions, exhibiting similarities in their specific attributes, characteristics, and nosological features (Hadlington, 2015 ), suggesting that they may also share similar addiction mechanisms. Thus, this study hypothesized that adolescents’ core self-evaluation mediates the connection between parental phubbing and MPA, indicating that increased exposure to parental phubbing may decrease adolescents’ level of core self-evaluation, thereby enhancing their likelihood of developing MPA. 1.3. Peer Relationships as a Moderator The influence of parental phubbing on adolescent MPA may be mediated by core self-evaluation, yet not every individual affected by parental phubbing will exhibit low core self-evaluation or MPA. Ecological systems theory indicates that family and peer influences are interdependent, both acting as micro-systems in shaping adolescents’ development as they interact to exert systemic effects (Bronfenbrenner, 1979 ). As individuals age, the influence of peer relationships on adolescents in particular becomes progressively more dominant in comparison with that of the family environment (Oberle et al., 2018 ). Peer relationships refer to interactions among equals or those at similar stages of development (Sun et al., 2020 ). Previous study has suggested that strong friendships among peers can greatly reduce the likelihood of adolescents engaging in MPA (Gao et al., 2022 ), while another has found that those experiencing peer aggression or poor relationships are more prone to MPA (Chen et al., 2021 ). The risk-buffering model posits that positive factors in the environment can mitigate the adverse effects of risk factors (Hollister-Wagner et al., 2001). As a positive aspect of one’s living environment, good peer relationships can serve as a protective factor when individuals experience negative events, and buffer the influence of a negative family environment on adolescent problem behavior (Woods et al., 2009 ). This means that, while parental phubbing can exert negative influences on individuals’ behavior which may lead to an increase in MPA, if individuals affected by parental phubbing behavior can establish high-quality peer relationships, they can obtain additional social support, which will help alleviate the stress experience brought about by these risk factors and reduce the occurrence of MPA. Conversely, if individuals affected by parental phubbing behavior have low-quality peer relationships, this may exacerbate the harm caused by existing risk factors, making them more prone to developing MPA (Gao et al., 2022 ). Therefore, this study hypothesized that peer relationships may moderate the impact of parental phubbing on MPA. Peer relationships are also closely associated with one’s core self-evaluation, as peer relationships can help regulate the impact of familial risk factors on one’s internalization problems (Wang et al., 2021 ). Adolescents who experience a negative family environment can, however, have additional positive experiences through high-quality peer relationships, which will help increase their self-esteem. If they have low-quality peer relationships, the resulting negative experiences will lead to a lower level of self-esteem (Huang et al., 2022 ). Sociometer theory posits that self-esteem acts as a social thermometer, indicating the extent to which an individual is accepted and valued by others (Leary & Baumeister, 2000). Adolescents develop higher self-esteem when they experience care and affection, whereas they experience lower self-esteem when they encounter rejection and neglect. Adolescents who have experienced parental phubbing behavior can still receive positive experiences and develop higher self-esteem if they have high-quality peer relationships; however, if they have low-quality peer relationships, they are likely to encounter additional negative experiences, leading to even lower self-esteem. Considering that both self-esteem and core self-evaluation are intrapersonal attributes, and that a strong association exists between the two (Judge et al., 1998 ), it is plausible to suggest that peer relationships can significantly influence the connection between parental phubbing and core self-evaluation. Therefore, this study proposes the hypothesis that peer relationships may moderate the impact of parental phubbing on core self-evaluation. 1.4. The Present Study It is imperative to understand the potential mechanism driving the association between parental phubbing and MPA among Chinese adolescents. To this end, the current study aimed to reveal the explanatory mechanism in the association between parental phubbing and MPA among Chinese adolescents using a one-year longitudinal design, and testing the mediating effect of core self-evaluation and the moderating effect of peer relationships. Based on the cognitive-behavioral model and ecological systems theory, we proposed the following hypotheses: (1) Parental phubbing is positively associated with adolescent MPA one year later (Hypothesis 1); (2) Greater parental phubbing is associated with a decrease in core self-evaluation, which in turn is associated with a higher level of MPA (Hypothesis 2); (3) Peer relationships mitigate the direct effects of parental phubbing on MPA (Hypothesis 3a), as well as the first part of the mediating process, that is, the effects of parental phubbing on core self-evaluation (Hypothesis 3b). The proposed conceptual framework is illustrated in Fig. 1 . INSERT FIG. 1 HERE 2. Methods 2.1. Participants Participants were recruited from three nine-year compulsory education schools in Guangdong Province, a southern province of China, using a simple random sampling method covering grades 5 to 7 (ages 10 to 14). Data were collected three times, at six-month intervals. At Time 1 (T1, the first semester of 2022), 876 adolescents participated in the assessment; at Time 2 (T2, the second semester of 2022), 832 students completed the measurements; and at Time 3 (T3, the first semester of 2023), 807 adolescents completed the follow-up measurements. In total, 807 adolescents aged 10 to 14 years old participated in all three assessments (M = 12.04 years, SD = 0.44) at T1, and was the sample was equivalent enough in terms of gender to be considered balanced (423 boys and 384 girls). Notably, the rate of sample loss was modest at 5.1% between the first and second time points, and 3.0% between the second and third time points. Analysis of attrition data revealed no statistically significant disparities in study-related variables or demographic characteristics between those who completed all three assessments and those who participated in only one or two assessments, as evidenced by both chi-square tests and t -tests. 2.2. Procedure This research received ethical approval from the institutional research ethics committee associated with the author responsible for correspondence. Prior to data collection, the adolescents, their legal guardians, and their educators were provided with all relevant information regarding the study and its procedures, after which all involved gave their informed consent to take part in the study. The participants were allowed to complete each evaluation at their own pace, and all were informed that they had the option to withdraw at any stage without penalty. Confidentiality of the information collected was guaranteed, with assurance that the data would be handled with strict confidentiality and accessed solely by the research team. The process of gathering data was carried out by assistants (students majoring in psychology) who had received training in a setting similar to the participants' classrooms. 2.3. Measures 2.3.1. Parental Phubbing The Parental Phubbing Scale, derived from the Partner Phubbing Scale (Roberts & David, 2016 ) and modified by Wang et al. ( 2020 ), was utilized to evaluate the adolescent students’ perception of their parents’ phubbing behavior. This scale consists of nine items, comprising statements such as, “During dinner with my parents, they are engrossed in their mobile phones,” and “When we go out together, my parents use their mobile phones.” Respondents rate each item using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“Never”) to 5 (“All the time”). Afterwards, all item scores were averaged to obtain a total score, with a higher score reflecting a more significant level of experiencing parental phubbing. The modified scale has been validated for use in young people in a Chinese context (Liu et al., 2021 ), and was shown to have robust reliability (Cronbach’s α = .91 at T1) in the current study. 2.3.2. Core Self-Evaluation Core self-evaluation was assessed using the Core Self-Evaluation Scale, as developed by Judge et al. ( 2003 ) and later adapted into Chinese by Jian et al. (2012). This scale comprises 10 statements, such as, “I am confident I get the success I deserve in life,” and “I am capable of coping with most of my problems.” Respondents indicate their agreement with each statement using a five-point scale ranging from 1 (“Strongly Disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly Agree”). The Chinese version of the scale has been shown to have robust psychometric properties, and has been validated for use within a Chinese cultural context (Ding et al., 2022 ). In the current study, the Cronbach’s αs were .89 and .88 for T1 and T2, respectively. 2.3.3. MPA MPA was measured using the Mobile Phone Addiction Index, as described by Leung ( 2008 ). The scale encompasses 17 items, presented as statements such as, “Your phone usage exceeds your initial intentions,” and “You sacrifice sleep due to extensive phone engagement.” Respondents evaluate the degree to which they relate with each statement using a five-point scale ranging from 1 (“Never) to 5 (“Always”). A mean score with a higher value indicates a higher degree of MPA. The scale has been validated for its effectiveness and dependability among Chinese adolescents (Chen et al., 2021 ). In the current study, the Cronbach’s αs coefficients were .89 at T1 and .90 at T3. 2.3.4. Peer Relationships Participants’ peer relationships were assessed using the Peer Relationship subscale of the Self Description Questionnaire (Marsh et al., 1984 ). The measure has been shown to have robust validity and reliability when used in adolescent populations in China (Bai et al., 2021 ). The scale comprises 18 items, such as, “I receive considerable attention from the opposite gender,” and “I can readily form friendships with individuals of the same gender.” Respondents rate each item using a six-point scale ranging from 1 (“Disagree completely”) to 6 (“Agree completely”). A higher score indicates a higher level of peer relationships. In the current study, the Cronbach’s α was .86 at T1. 2.4. Covariates Considering the findings of previous relevant research, which has indicated that gender, age, and family socioeconomic status (SES) are correlated with the key variables being examined in the present study (Chen et al., 2021 ), we incorporated these demographic variables as controls in our statistical analyses. Gender was treated as a dichotomous variable, with males coded as 1 and females as 0. Age was treated as a continuous variable, measured in terms of the adolescent participants’ age in the first semester of 2022. Following a commonly used method in the relevant literature, SES was calculated as the average of the participant’s standardized scores across four indicators: family per capita monthly income, geographical area, and the educational level of each parent. This approach yielded a continuous composite measure of SES, with higher scores indicating higher SES. Family per capita monthly income was assessed using a 10-category item, where 1 indicated less than or equal to 1,000 RMB and 10 indicated more than or equal to 9,001 RMB. The adolescent participants were asked to report on the type of geographical area they resided in using a five-point scale reflecting its level of development, ranging from 1 (rural) to 5 (metropolis). The educational level of each parent was measured using an eight-category variable, with 1 representing no formal education and 8 representing a doctoral degree. 2.5. Statistical Analysis The data was analyzed in several steps. First, descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations were conducted for the study variables using SPSS 24.0. Second, we assessed whether common method bias was a salient concern, given the use of self-report measures. Third, the hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling (SEM) in Mplus 8.3 (Muthén & Muthén, 2012). To examine hypotheses 1 and 2, a mediation model was used to examine the mediating effects of T2 core self-evaluation in the association between T1 parental phubbing and T3 MPA. To examine hypotheses 3a and 3b, a moderated mediation model was used by adding the moderator (i.e., peer relationships) into the aforementioned mediation model. Specifically, we tested whether T1 peer relationships moderated the association between T1 parental phubbing and T3 MPA, and whether T1 peer relationships moderated the association between T1 parental phubbing and T2 core self-evaluation. If an interaction effect was detected, a simple slopes analysis (i.e., 1 SD above and below the mean of the moderator) was performed. Missing data were managed using Full Information Maximum Likelihood Estimation (Acock, 2005 ), and pathway significance was evaluated using a bootstrapping procedure (with 5,000 samples) along with 95% confidence intervals (CI). A non-inclusion of zero within the 95% CI signaled a significant path coefficient. Following the guidelines proposed by Hoyle (2012), a model was deemed acceptable if the χ 2 / df was below 5.00, the CFI and TLI values surpassed 0.90, and the RMSEA remained under 0.08. 3. Results 3.1. Common Method Bias Considering that the survey responses were provided solely by adolescents, exploratory and confirmatory strategies were adopted to evaluate the presence of common method bias in the data. Harman's one-factor test was employed first, after which all questionnaire item responses were consolidated, and a principal component factor analysis was carried out using SPSS 24.0, as suggested by Podsakoff et al. ( 2003 ). The outcome of these tests revealed seven factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1, without applying rotation. The initial factor accounted for 17.79% of the variance. As the benchmark for significant common method bias is typically below 40%, these results indicated that common method bias was not a substantial concern in this study. 3.2. Descriptive Statistics Table 1 presents the mean values and standard deviations across all variables, as well as their mutual correlations. Parental phubbing at T1 was positively correlated with MPA at T3, suggesting that parental phubbing might indeed serve as a predictive risk factor for adolescent MPA development. Conversely, parental phubbing at T1 was found to have a negative association with core self-evaluation assessed at T2, suggesting that heightened parental phubbing correlates with reduced fundamental core self-evaluation in adolescents. Moreover, a negative relationship was found between core self-evaluation at T2 and MPA at T3, revealing that higher core self-evaluation tends to protect adolescents against MPA. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of the Main Variables. Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Gender 1.00 2. Age -0.06 1.00 3. SES -0.04 0.01 1.00 4. T1 PP 0.01 0.03 -0.04 1.00 5. T1 CSE 0.04 0.02 -0.02 -0.46*** 1.00 6. T2 CSE 0.01 -0.02 0.29*** -0.33*** 0.33** 1.00 7. T1 MPA -0.02 -0.03 -0.06* 0.64*** -0.28*** -0.42*** 1.00 8. T3 MPA -0.03 0.01 -0.09* 0.48*** -0.25*** -0.38*** 0.39*** 1.00 9. T1 PR 0.02 -0.01 0.35*** -0.12** 0.22*** 0.30*** -0.15** -0.13** 1.00 Mean - 12.04 3.58 3.56 3.60 3.61 3.63 3.71 3.84 SD - 0.44 1.35 0.95 0.93 0.81 0.87 0.81 1.02 INSERT Table 1 HERE 3.3. Testing the Mediation Model A positive association was found between parental phubbing at T1 and MPA at T3 ( β = 0.45, p < .001), accounting for gender, age, SES, and MPA at T1. The mediation model depicted in Fig. 2 demonstrated a suitable fit to the data, with indices as follows: χ 2 / df = 2.61, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, SRMR = 0.02, and RMSEA = 0.03. Meanwhile, a negative association was revealed between parental phubbing at T1 and core self-evaluation at T2 ( β = -0.41, p < .001), accounting for gender, age, SES, and core self-evaluation at T1. Additionally, core self-evaluation at T2 displayed a negative connection with MPA at T3 ( β = -0.37, p < .001), accounting for gender, age, SES, and MPA at T1. The direct influence of parental phubbing at T1 on MPA at T3 was statistically insignificant. Bootstrap analysis confirmed that core self-evaluation at T2 fully mediated the association between parental phubbing at T1 and MPA at T3 (indirect effect = 0.15, 95% CI = [0.02, 0.03]). INSERT FIG. 2 HERE 3.4. Testing the Moderated Mediation Model Figure 3 presents the moderated mediation model demonstrating an excellent fit to the data: χ 2 / df = 1.48, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, SRMR = 0.03, and RMSEA = 0.02. After controlling for gender, age, SES, and core self-evaluation at T1, peer relationships at T1 significantly moderated the connection between parental phubbing at T1 and core self-evaluation at T2 ( β = -0.14, p < .001, 95% CI = [-0.15, -0.07]). Furthermore, after controlling for gender, age, SES, and MPA at T1, peer relationships at T1 significantly moderated the association between parental phubbing at T1 and MPA at T3 ( β = 0.23, p < .001, 95% CI = [0.15, 0.26]). To delve deeper into the moderating dynamics, a simple slopes analysis was performed. As shown in Fig. 4 , the adverse relationship between parental phubbing at T1 and core self-evaluation at T2 was less pronounced for adolescents with robust peer relationships (one standard deviation above average; β = -0.17, p .001, 95% CI = [-0.63, -0.49]). Similarly, as shown in Fig. 5 , the positive association between parental phubbing at T1 and MPA at T3 was more subdued for adolescents with strong peer relationships (one standard deviation above mean; β = 0.21, p .001, 95% CI = [0.50, 0.64]). INSERT FIG. 3 HERE INSERT FIG. 4 HERE INSERT FIG. 5 HERE 4. Discussion This study looked at the relationship between parental phubbing and MPA from two aspects: environmental factors (i.e., parental phubbing, peer relationships) and individual factors (i.e., core self-evaluation). Guided by the cognitive-behavioral model and ecological systems theory, this study adopted a one-year longitudinal design to investigate the potential cause-and-effect connection between parental phubbing and MPA. Core self-evaluation was found to fully mediate the longitudinal association between parental phubbing and adolescent MPA. In addition, peer relationships were found to play a positive moderating role. Specifically, adolescents with higher peer relationships were less affected by parental phubbing and showed a higher level of core self-evaluation and a lower risk of MPA. 4.1. Parental Phubbing and MPA The findings of this study reveal that parental phubbing was significantly associated with higher levels of MPA among adolescents 12 months later, which aligns with and extends the results of previous cross-sectional studies (Xie et al., 2019 ; Niu et al., 2020 ). One plausible explanation for this association is that parental phubbing disrupts effective communication within the family, creating a void in the fulfillment of adolescents’ psychological needs such as competence, affiliation, and autonomy (Gutman & Eccles, 2007 ). When these needs are not met in their immediate environment, adolescents may turn to the Internet, particularly through their mobile phones, as a source of comfort and validation. This aligns with stage-environment fit theory, which emphasizes the importance of a supportive family environment in meeting adolescents’ psychological necessities for healthy development. Furthermore, the intergenerational transmission effect provides another lens through which to understand this relationship. Adolescents often unconsciously imitate their parents’ behaviors and attitudes, and this includes the parents’ mobile phone use (Nower et al., 2022 ). When parents prioritize their devices over interactions with their children, they set a precedent that may encourage similar behaviors in adolescents. The results of this one-year longitudinal study contribute to the existing literature by demonstrating the relative stability of the relationship between parental phubbing and adolescent MPA over time, and suggest that the influence of parental phubbing is not only immediate but also has lasting effects, underscoring the need for interventions that target both parents and adolescents. 4.2. The Mediating Role of Core Self-Evaluation The results of this study also confirm the mediating role of core self-evaluation on the link between parental phubbing and adolescent MPA. Specifically, adolescents with a weaker level of core self-evaluation are more susceptible to developing MPA when subjected to elevated levels of parental phubbing. This finding supports Hypothesis 2 and further substantiates Davis’ cognitive-behavioral model. When parents exhibit adverse parenting behaviors, adolescents tend to develop more negative cognitive patterns, potentially leading them to perceive themselves more negatively (e.g., “It’s all my fault,” or “I’m not good enough”; Zhang et al., 2021 ). Such dysfunctional thinking leads to a disinclination to engage in effortful pursuits in reality, prompting the adoption of evasive coping mechanisms (Gong et al., 2023 ). Mobile phones, with their instant feedback and tolerance for setbacks (Li et al., 2022 ), emerge as a readily-available and appealing escape route, especially for those with a low level of self-worth, which increases their likelihood of MPA. Based on this theory, parental phubbing behavior, as a stressful life event occurring in the family environment, may constitute an important distal factor in the model, while core self-evaluation, as a crucial cognitive factor for individuals, may serve as a key proximal factor. That is, parental phubbing behavior may lead adolescents to develop maladaptive cognitions, such as low core self-evaluation, which in turn may result in the behavioral symptom of MPA. Understanding this, therefore, the results of this study can be used to develop strategies for the prevention and intervention of adolescent MPA. Fostering adolescents’ core self-evaluation through interventions such as schema or narrative therapies can help reduce the negative effects of challenging family environments on the adolescents’ psychological maturation, ultimately decreasing their likelihood of MPA (Langroudi et al., 2011 ; Horrell et al., 2014 ). 4.3. The Moderating Role of Peer Relationships This study also revealed that peer relationships have a moderating impact on the relationship between parental phubbing and MPA. More precisely, peer relationships moderate both the direct impact of parental phubbing on MPA (Hypothesis 3a) and the initial half of the mediating effect of parental phubbing on core self-evaluation (Hypothesis 3b). Peer relationships were shown to act as a moderator in the relationship between parental phubbing and MPA, in that in adolescents who had good peer relationships, the predictive strength of parental phubbing on MPA was notably diminished. This could be due to several reasons. First, peer relationships, as a crucial provider of social assistance for adolescents, can compensate for a lack of family support, thus mitigating the harmful effects of a negative family environment on adolescent MPA (Huang et al., 2022 ). Second, good peer relationships help to improve an adolescent’s sense of group acceptance and belonging (Wang et al., 2017 ), thereby minimizing their likelihood of developing MPA. Conversely, adolescents with poor peer relationships are more prone to feelings of loneliness and helplessness (Duman & Ozkara, 2021 ). When adolescents who experience parental phubbing simultaneously have unhealthy peer relationships, the dual pressures from both family and society can leave their needs significantly unmet in the real-world environment (Costa et al., 2016 ). This, in turn, drives these individuals to engage further in avoidance behaviors, turning to the Internet as a source of solace and validation, and consequently increasing their risk of MPA. This study also found that peer relationships moderated the impact of parental phubbing on adolescents' core self-evaluation. Specifically, poor peer relationships exacerbated the effect of parental phubbing on individuals' core self-evaluations, whereas this negative predictive effect was less pronounced among adolescents with good peer relationships. Individuals with higher-quality peer relationships are more likely to believe that their relationship with their peers is close and unbreakable, and that they can turn to their peers for support, thus compensating for a lack of security and belonging that may be caused by parental phubbing in their home environment. As these individuals believe that they occupy an irreplaceable position in their hearts of friends, this thereby contributes to them having a higher level of core self-evaluation (Huang et al., 2022 ). In contrast, adolescents with low-quality peer relationships feel that their relationships with their peers are vague, which then aggravates the sense of helplessness and loneliness caused by their experience of parental phubbing, leading them to believe that they are worthless in the eyes of their friends and family, thus causing them to be more likely to lower their evaluation of themselves (Wang et al., 2021 ). These results provide further support for the ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979 ), in that the development of one’s emotions, cognition, behavior, and other aspects will be influenced by the interaction of the behaviors of important others in one’s individual micro-system. Parents and peers fulfill significant functions in an adolescent’s micro-system, and parental phubbing and the quality of one’s peer relationships become effective evaluative indicators of parents and peers, both of which interact and jointly affect an individual’s cognition (i.e., core self-evaluation) and behaviors (MPA). To address adolescents’ cognitive (core self-evaluation) and behavioral (MPA) issues, interventions should target both the familial and social environments. At the family level, parents should be encouraged to reduce their phubbing behavior and engage in more face-to-face interactions with their children, fostering a more supportive and connected family atmosphere. At the social level, schools and communities should promote healthy peer relationships through team-building activities and social skills training, providing adolescents with a sense of belonging and group acceptance. Only through the concerted efforts focused on both the family and social microsystems can the physical and mental health of adolescents be effectively improved. 4.4. Limitations and Future Directions First, relying solely on self-reported measures for all variables in the current study could potentially have led to the introduction of bias, necessitating future studies to draw upon diverse methodologies (e.g., objective mobile device usage data) and collecting data from a wider diversity of informants (e.g., peers, educators, and guardians) to enhance the reliability of the research outcomes. Second, distinct but unique impacts from specifically fathers or mothers on adolescents’ social adjustment should be explored further, with a focus on seeking out the potential differing influences of each relationship. Third, the exclusivity of the current study sample to adolescents from mainland China does restrict the broader applicability of the results. Given that perceived parental phubbing may impact mental health and behavior differently in collectivist societies such as China as compared to in individualistic Western societies (Wang et al., 2020 ), broader, large-scale population studies are warranted to strengthen the generalizability of the findings. Finally, the six-month gap between the three follow-up data points may not have adequately captured the stability or shifts within the relationships between the key variables. Therefore, future studies should utilize a longitudinal approach over a further-extended period to better monitor developmental shifts over time. 4.5. Contributions and Practical Implications This study is the first to reveal how parental phubbing influences MPA among Chinese adolescents one year later through core self-evaluation, and further elucidates the moderating role of peer relationships in this mediation process. First, the results of the longitudinal mediation analysis align with Davis’ cognitive-behavioral model, indicating that parental phubbing, as a distal factor, not only has a direct effect on MPA but also induces MPA in adolescents by affecting a proximal factor, namely maladaptive cognition embodied in core self-evaluation. This study provides empirical evidence for Davis’ cognitive-behavioral model specifically in the field of MPA. Second, the results of the moderated mediation model test confirm the mainstream viewpoint of ecological systems theory, which is that both the family environment (i.e., parental phubbing) and the social environment (i.e., peer relationships) can independently influence adolescent development, and that furthermore, these two environments are interdependent and jointly exert additional influence, thereby affecting adolescents’ cognition (i.e., core self-evaluation) and behavior (i.e., MPA). This study also provides guidance for alleviating the adverse effects of parental phubbing on adolescent MPA from the perspectives of core self-evaluation and peer relationships, with the aim of reducing the probability of MPA among adolescents. 5. Conclusion This study provides longitudinal evidence of how parental phubbing affects subsequent MPA in Chinese adolescents. It reveals that core self-evaluation serves as a complete mediator in the temporal link between parental phubbing and MPA. Furthermore, peer relationships emerge as a critical moderator mitigating the detrimental influence of parental phubbing on both adolescents’ self-perception (i.e., core self-evaluation) and behaviors (i.e., MPA), thereby functioning as a protective buffer. Declarations Author contributions SM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SC&XB: Writing – review & editing, Writing – review & editing. HC: Writing – review & editing. WZ: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Founding ： The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This study was supported by Guangdong Primary and Secondary School Moral Education Project (2021ZXDY008) and Guangzhou Primary and Secondary Vocational Schools Mental Health Education Project (Gzxy_zd_03). Data availability The data produced during this study are presently not accessible to the public. However, interested parties can potentially access the data by making a reasonable request to the author. Ethics approval and consent to participate The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by The Research Ethics Committee of Education Science, South China Normal University. The subjects of this study were minors under the age of 16, and informed consent was obtained from all participants and their guardians before the start of the project.. We confirm that all the experiment is in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations such as the laws of the People’s Republic of China on the protection of minors Consent for publication Not applicable. 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Children and Youth Services Review , 121 , 105873. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Data.xlsx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 28 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 27 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 25 Jun, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 24 Jun, 2025 Editor invited by journal 03 Jun, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 31 May, 2025 First submitted to journal 31 May, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6684101","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":476156374,"identity":"6bfd08e1-3dd5-4166-a502-11f06dc352c3","order_by":0,"name":"Shutao Ma","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAw0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACfvbmgw8//LCR42dvIFKLZM+xZGPJnjQgPkCkFoMbOWoSPGyHEzfcSCBWy5kzDBISPIeNJWc+3niDocYmmrDDjvceMCiwSJfjl04rtmA4lpbbQEgL35lzCQkSPNbGkrNzzCQYGw4T1sJwI8fgAA8bc+KGm2eI1CJwI8ewgYfNGeh9HiK1gAKZGRLIQL8kEOMXYFQe/wmJysMbb3yosSHCL0jAQCKBFOUQLaTqGAWjYBSMgpEBAIPVQzZl99iZAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"South China Normal University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shutao","middleName":"","lastName":"Ma","suffix":""},{"id":476156375,"identity":"b440ddf5-b555-4faf-9826-f7a43b266569","order_by":1,"name":"Shuai Chen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"South China Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shuai","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""},{"id":476156377,"identity":"3cc4b716-2c20-4a07-a02f-b6336fe1ee09","order_by":2,"name":"Xiaoyan Bi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Guangzhou University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xiaoyan","middleName":"","lastName":"Bi","suffix":""},{"id":476156379,"identity":"a58f7340-8aac-4dbf-a065-6c89f5424f04","order_by":3,"name":"Hongbo Cui","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Guangzhou University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hongbo","middleName":"","lastName":"Cui","suffix":""},{"id":476156381,"identity":"71b4688f-ed89-4e91-a796-a96d400f2559","order_by":4,"name":"Wei Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"South China Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wei","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-17 02:53:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6684101/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6684101/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":85572531,"identity":"f707c2bf-0136-44de-a1d4-1dcb4134edb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 16:50:35","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":32696,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual Model.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6684101/v1/5d7c99a68682055ae7915701.png"},{"id":85572870,"identity":"31f6a099-7294-4cd0-84e3-20c6d6bb9832","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 16:58:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56695,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eModel of the mediating role of core self-evaluation at Time 2 (T2) between parental phubbing at Time 1 (T1) and MPA at Time 3 (T3). Path coefficients are standardized regression coefficients. Dotted lines indicate non significant relationships. The model also includes age, gender, and socioeconomic status as controlled variables which are not shown for clarity of presentation. *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6684101/v1/f956e98b765d77b67b85cd5c.png"},{"id":85572536,"identity":"f704218a-20ba-4213-9aaf-636e30c0ee64","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 16:50:35","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":95468,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe moderated mediation model involving peer relationships at Time 1 (T1) and core self-evaluation at Time 2 (T2) in the association between parental phubbbing at T1 and MPA at Time 3 (T3). Path coefficients are standardized regression coefficients. The dotted lines indicate non significant relations. The model also includes age, gender, and socioeconomic status as controlled variables which are not shown for clarity of presentation. ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01, *** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .001.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6684101/v1/d4cf82c2a8bd4cdae05c6101.png"},{"id":85572535,"identity":"75cde073-e9c5-4af5-8468-f10d8e8c107f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 16:50:35","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":46410,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe relationship between parental phubbing at Time 1 and core self-evaluation (CSE) at Time 2 moderated by peer relationships at Time 1. PP = parental phubbing, PR = peer relationships\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6684101/v1/3dba5a0a709e2412ab2d4620.png"},{"id":85572533,"identity":"fd77e270-6a7f-41a8-99de-3ea3895322e8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 16:50:35","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":48573,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe relationship between parental phubbing at Time 1 and MPA at Time 3 moderated by peer relationships at Time 1. PP = parental phubbing, PR = peer relationships.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6684101/v1/70f6687d900c5b2f3551356e.png"},{"id":85573365,"identity":"d02a46e6-2870-4886-9fec-d768976169dd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 17:14:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1121708,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6684101/v1/bf1ccf8c-dc94-40ba-92e9-53ea5d68e643.pdf"},{"id":85572543,"identity":"e3d6e497-2ea6-4bbc-8153-f1f5f81fea7f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 16:50:35","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":428003,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Data.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6684101/v1/600505ee450928d1bc76f51a.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Relationship Between Parental Phubbing and Chinese Adolescents’ Mobile Phone Addiction: A Longitudinal Study","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAdolescents\u0026rsquo; increasing preoccupation with their mobile devices has drawn significant attention from a variety of societal sectors. Driven by their strong inquisitiveness and thirst for novelty, teenagers are more likely to embrace novel items in their surroundings, often displaying heightened emotional and behavioral challenges and thus rendering them more vulnerable to mobile phone addiction (MPA; Hong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). According to data collected in December 2023, 99.8% of Internet users in China utilize their mobile phones to access the web; among these users, individuals aged 10 to 19 years old make up 15.7% of the total user base (China Internet Network Information Center, 2024). MPA is characterized by excessive and uncontrollable usage of mobile devices, leading to compulsive desires and reliance on mobile devices that disrupt behavioral balance and significantly impact an individual\u0026rsquo;s daily functioning (Lin \u0026amp; Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This pathological form of mobile phone usage is distinct from the regular amount of time spent on mobile phone usage or mere reliance on mobile phones for daily activities (Hong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Among Chinese adolescents, MPA is frequently reported to be correlated with anxiety, depression, stress, impulsivity, and sleep quality (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, investigating the determining factors and underlying dynamics at play in adolescent MPA is of great importance, both in its practical relevance and its potential contribute towards the development of successful mitigation and intervention strategies regarding MPA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1. Parental Phubbing in Relation to MPA\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious research has emphasized the pivotal roles of both contextual factors and personal attributes in shaping MPA (Chiu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Among these, the family unit, as a fundamental and intimate social structure, plays a crucial role in shaping the development of individuals. Indeed, Liu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) have already demonstrated that there is an association between familial aspects and MPA. Stage-environment fit theory suggests that a balanced, supportive, and nurturing family environment is crucial for fulfilling adolescents\u0026rsquo; psychological necessities \u0026ndash; including competence, affiliation, and autonomy \u0026ndash; which thereby fosters their overall well-being; conversely, an adverse family setting can obstruct the satisfaction of these needs, potentially leading to negative behaviors (Gutman \u0026amp; Eccles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Parental phubbing denotes the parental act of disregarding their interpersonal interactions with their children in favor of focusing on their mobile devices (Roberts \u0026amp; David, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Persistent parental phubbing, which results in children feeling neglected and unable to alter the situation, will often push these children towards using their smartphones more as a means of escapism, thereby escalating their likelihood of MPA (Xie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the intergenerational transmission effect suggests that parents\u0026rsquo; psychological traits and behaviors are transmitted to their offspring, thereby shaping their children\u0026rsquo;s unique developmental trajectories (Nower et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). As parents are usually the most consistently present socializing agents in a child\u0026rsquo;s life, frequent demonstrations of parental phubbing during daily interactions will provide the younger generation with detrimental behavioral models. Prolonged exposure to such a family environment, with ongoing examples of unhealthy parental behaviors, might render adolescents more susceptible to adopting similar negative behaviors, such as MPA (Niu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). While prior investigations have examined the association between parental phubbing and MPA, the fundamental processes involved are still not fully understood. Given that adolescence is a crucial developmental phase with long-lasting impacts throughout one\u0026rsquo;s adult life (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Nower et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), a cross-sectional study is not adequate for the investigation of the evolving impacts of parental phubbing on MPA over a period of time. Furthermore, due to imbalances between physical and mental development during this stage of life, adolescents are prone to intricate contradictions between maturity and semi-maturity, leading to dynamic changes in their psychology and behavior (Hong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). To address these gaps, the objective of the current study was to explore the longitudinal effects of parental phubbing on MPA over a one-year period to provide insight into the evolving dynamics of the relationship and identify potential intervention points.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2. The Mediating Role of Core Self-Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore self-evaluation is one\u0026rsquo;s fundamental evaluation of their own value and abilities, which include aspects such as self-esteem, general self-efficacy, neurotic tendency, and control perception (Judge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Researchers have noted a strong association between core self-evaluation and pivotal life events, and how it can be shaped or transformed by environmental influences and the assimilation of external information (Judge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). As an aspect of self-concept, core self-evaluation is susceptible to the perceptions of one\u0026rsquo;s significant others, which are particularly influential during adolescence when self-concept development is still maturing (Koumoundourou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Parents hold a crucial role here, and their negative actions can instill feelings of rejection or neglect in adolescents (Xie \u0026amp; Xie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), damaging their self-worth and diminishing their level of core self-evaluation (Wang \u0026amp; Qiao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, a low level of core self-evaluation increases one\u0026rsquo;s vulnerability to MPA (Zhou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Research indicates that individuals exhibiting a reduced level of core self-evaluation tend to employ evasion coping mechanisms more frequently (Hsiao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), with mobile phone usage serving as one such strategy (Enez Darcin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Other studies have demonstrated that all four aspects of core self-evaluation negatively forecast mobile phone addiction (Kim and Koh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Park et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Park and Lee, 2014; Roberts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). According to Davis\u0026rsquo; cognitive-behavioral model, Internet addiction is influenced by distal factors, such as life events, which lead individuals to develop corresponding maladaptive cognitions, namely proximal factors (i.e., core self-evaluation), which subsequently manifest in the behavioral symptom of Internet addiction (Davis, 2011). MPA and Internet addiction both fall under the category of behavioral addictions, exhibiting similarities in their specific attributes, characteristics, and nosological features (Hadlington, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that they may also share similar addiction mechanisms. Thus, this study hypothesized that adolescents\u0026rsquo; core self-evaluation mediates the connection between parental phubbing and MPA, indicating that increased exposure to parental phubbing may decrease adolescents\u0026rsquo; level of core self-evaluation, thereby enhancing their likelihood of developing MPA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.3. Peer Relationships as a Moderator\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe influence of parental phubbing on adolescent MPA may be mediated by core self-evaluation, yet not every individual affected by parental phubbing will exhibit low core self-evaluation or MPA. Ecological systems theory indicates that family and peer influences are interdependent, both acting as micro-systems in shaping adolescents\u0026rsquo; development as they interact to exert systemic effects (Bronfenbrenner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e). As individuals age, the influence of peer relationships on adolescents in particular becomes progressively more dominant in comparison with that of the family environment (Oberle et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Peer relationships refer to interactions among equals or those at similar stages of development (Sun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Previous study has suggested that strong friendships among peers can greatly reduce the likelihood of adolescents engaging in MPA (Gao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), while another has found that those experiencing peer aggression or poor relationships are more prone to MPA (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The risk-buffering model posits that positive factors in the environment can mitigate the adverse effects of risk factors (Hollister-Wagner et al., 2001). As a positive aspect of one\u0026rsquo;s living environment, good peer relationships can serve as a protective factor when individuals experience negative events, and buffer the influence of a negative family environment on adolescent problem behavior (Woods et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). This means that, while parental phubbing can exert negative influences on individuals\u0026rsquo; behavior which may lead to an increase in MPA, if individuals affected by parental phubbing behavior can establish high-quality peer relationships, they can obtain additional social support, which will help alleviate the stress experience brought about by these risk factors and reduce the occurrence of MPA. Conversely, if individuals affected by parental phubbing behavior have low-quality peer relationships, this may exacerbate the harm caused by existing risk factors, making them more prone to developing MPA (Gao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, this study hypothesized that peer relationships may moderate the impact of parental phubbing on MPA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeer relationships are also closely associated with one\u0026rsquo;s core self-evaluation, as peer relationships can help regulate the impact of familial risk factors on one\u0026rsquo;s internalization problems (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Adolescents who experience a negative family environment can, however, have additional positive experiences through high-quality peer relationships, which will help increase their self-esteem. If they have low-quality peer relationships, the resulting negative experiences will lead to a lower level of self-esteem (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Sociometer theory posits that self-esteem acts as a social thermometer, indicating the extent to which an individual is accepted and valued by others (Leary \u0026amp; Baumeister, 2000). Adolescents develop higher self-esteem when they experience care and affection, whereas they experience lower self-esteem when they encounter rejection and neglect. Adolescents who have experienced parental phubbing behavior can still receive positive experiences and develop higher self-esteem if they have high-quality peer relationships; however, if they have low-quality peer relationships, they are likely to encounter additional negative experiences, leading to even lower self-esteem. Considering that both self-esteem and core self-evaluation are intrapersonal attributes, and that a strong association exists between the two (Judge et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e), it is plausible to suggest that peer relationships can significantly influence the connection between parental phubbing and core self-evaluation. Therefore, this study proposes the hypothesis that peer relationships may moderate the impact of parental phubbing on core self-evaluation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.4. The Present Study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is imperative to understand the potential mechanism driving the association between parental phubbing and MPA among Chinese adolescents. To this end, the current study aimed to reveal the explanatory mechanism in the association between parental phubbing and MPA among Chinese adolescents using a one-year longitudinal design, and testing the mediating effect of core self-evaluation and the moderating effect of peer relationships. Based on the cognitive-behavioral model and ecological systems theory, we proposed the following hypotheses: (1) Parental phubbing is positively associated with adolescent MPA one year later (Hypothesis 1); (2) Greater parental phubbing is associated with a decrease in core self-evaluation, which in turn is associated with a higher level of MPA (Hypothesis 2); (3) Peer relationships mitigate the direct effects of parental phubbing on MPA (Hypothesis 3a), as well as the first part of the mediating process, that is, the effects of parental phubbing on core self-evaluation (Hypothesis 3b). The proposed conceptual framework is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINSERT FIG. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e HERE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were recruited from three nine-year compulsory education schools in Guangdong Province, a southern province of China, using a simple random sampling method covering grades 5 to 7 (ages 10 to 14). Data were collected three times, at six-month intervals. At Time 1 (T1, the first semester of 2022), 876 adolescents participated in the assessment; at Time 2 (T2, the second semester of 2022), 832 students completed the measurements; and at Time 3 (T3, the first semester of 2023), 807 adolescents completed the follow-up measurements. In total, 807 adolescents aged 10 to 14 years old participated in all three assessments (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.04 years, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.44) at T1, and was the sample was equivalent enough in terms of gender to be considered balanced (423 boys and 384 girls). Notably, the rate of sample loss was modest at 5.1% between the first and second time points, and 3.0% between the second and third time points. Analysis of attrition data revealed no statistically significant disparities in study-related variables or demographic characteristics between those who completed all three assessments and those who participated in only one or two assessments, as evidenced by both chi-square tests and \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-tests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research received ethical approval from the institutional research ethics committee associated with the author responsible for correspondence. Prior to data collection, the adolescents, their legal guardians, and their educators were provided with all relevant information regarding the study and its procedures, after which all involved gave their informed consent to take part in the study. The participants were allowed to complete each evaluation at their own pace, and all were informed that they had the option to withdraw at any stage without penalty. Confidentiality of the information collected was guaranteed, with assurance that the data would be handled with strict confidentiality and accessed solely by the research team. The process of gathering data was carried out by assistants (students majoring in psychology) who had received training in a setting similar to the participants' classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. Parental Phubbing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Parental Phubbing Scale, derived from the Partner Phubbing Scale (Roberts \u0026amp; David, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and modified by Wang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), was utilized to evaluate the adolescent students\u0026rsquo; perception of their parents\u0026rsquo; phubbing behavior. This scale consists of nine items, comprising statements such as, \u0026ldquo;During dinner with my parents, they are engrossed in their mobile phones,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;When we go out together, my parents use their mobile phones.\u0026rdquo; Respondents rate each item using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (\u0026ldquo;Never\u0026rdquo;) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;All the time\u0026rdquo;). Afterwards, all item scores were averaged to obtain a total score, with a higher score reflecting a more significant level of experiencing parental phubbing. The modified scale has been validated for use in young people in a Chinese context (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and was shown to have robust reliability (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.91 at T1) in the current study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Core Self-Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore self-evaluation was assessed using the Core Self-Evaluation Scale, as developed by Judge et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) and later adapted into Chinese by Jian et al. (2012). This scale comprises 10 statements, such as, \u0026ldquo;I am confident I get the success I deserve in life,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;I am capable of coping with most of my problems.\u0026rdquo; Respondents indicate their agreement with each statement using a five-point scale ranging from 1 (\u0026ldquo;Strongly Disagree\u0026rdquo;) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;Strongly Agree\u0026rdquo;). The Chinese version of the scale has been shown to have robust psychometric properties, and has been validated for use within a Chinese cultural context (Ding et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In the current study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s αs were .89 and .88 for T1 and T2, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.3. MPA\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMPA was measured using the Mobile Phone Addiction Index, as described by Leung (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). The scale encompasses 17 items, presented as statements such as, \u0026ldquo;Your phone usage exceeds your initial intentions,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;You sacrifice sleep due to extensive phone engagement.\u0026rdquo; Respondents evaluate the degree to which they relate with each statement using a five-point scale ranging from 1 (\u0026ldquo;Never) to 5 (\u0026ldquo;Always\u0026rdquo;). A mean score with a higher value indicates a higher degree of MPA. The scale has been validated for its effectiveness and dependability among Chinese adolescents (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In the current study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s αs coefficients were .89 at T1 and .90 at T3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.4. Peer Relationships\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u0026rsquo; peer relationships were assessed using the Peer Relationship subscale of the Self Description Questionnaire (Marsh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). The measure has been shown to have robust validity and reliability when used in adolescent populations in China (Bai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The scale comprises 18 items, such as, \u0026ldquo;I receive considerable attention from the opposite gender,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;I can readily form friendships with individuals of the same gender.\u0026rdquo; Respondents rate each item using a six-point scale ranging from 1 (\u0026ldquo;Disagree completely\u0026rdquo;) to 6 (\u0026ldquo;Agree completely\u0026rdquo;). A higher score indicates a higher level of peer relationships. In the current study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α was .86 at T1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Covariates\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsidering the findings of previous relevant research, which has indicated that gender, age, and family socioeconomic status (SES) are correlated with the key variables being examined in the present study (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), we incorporated these demographic variables as controls in our statistical analyses. Gender was treated as a dichotomous variable, with males coded as 1 and females as 0. Age was treated as a continuous variable, measured in terms of the adolescent participants\u0026rsquo; age in the first semester of 2022. Following a commonly used method in the relevant literature, SES was calculated as the average of the participant\u0026rsquo;s standardized scores across four indicators: family per capita monthly income, geographical area, and the educational level of each parent. This approach yielded a continuous composite measure of SES, with higher scores indicating higher SES. Family per capita monthly income was assessed using a 10-category item, where 1 indicated less than or equal to 1,000 RMB and 10 indicated more than or equal to 9,001 RMB. The adolescent participants were asked to report on the type of geographical area they resided in using a five-point scale reflecting its level of development, ranging from 1 (rural) to 5 (metropolis). The educational level of each parent was measured using an eight-category variable, with 1 representing no formal education and 8 representing a doctoral degree.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data was analyzed in several steps. First, descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations were conducted for the study variables using SPSS 24.0. Second, we assessed whether common method bias was a salient concern, given the use of self-report measures. Third, the hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling (SEM) in Mplus 8.3 (Muth\u0026eacute;n \u0026amp; Muth\u0026eacute;n, 2012). To examine hypotheses 1 and 2, a mediation model was used to examine the mediating effects of T2 core self-evaluation in the association between T1 parental phubbing and T3 MPA. To examine hypotheses 3a and 3b, a moderated mediation model was used by adding the moderator (i.e., peer relationships) into the aforementioned mediation model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecifically, we tested whether T1 peer relationships moderated the association between T1 parental phubbing and T3 MPA, and whether T1 peer relationships moderated the association between T1 parental phubbing and T2 core self-evaluation. If an interaction effect was detected, a simple slopes analysis (i.e., 1 SD above and below the mean of the moderator) was performed. Missing data were managed using Full Information Maximum Likelihood Estimation (Acock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), and pathway significance was evaluated using a bootstrapping procedure (with 5,000 samples) along with 95% confidence intervals (CI). A non-inclusion of zero within the 95% CI signaled a significant path coefficient. Following the guidelines proposed by Hoyle (2012), a model was deemed acceptable if the χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/\u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e was below 5.00, the CFI and TLI values surpassed 0.90, and the RMSEA remained under 0.08.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Common Method Bias\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsidering that the survey responses were provided solely by adolescents, exploratory and confirmatory strategies were adopted to evaluate the presence of common method bias in the data. Harman's one-factor test was employed first, after which all questionnaire item responses were consolidated, and a principal component factor analysis was carried out using SPSS 24.0, as suggested by Podsakoff et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The outcome of these tests revealed seven factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1, without applying rotation. The initial factor accounted for 17.79% of the variance. As the benchmark for significant common method bias is typically below 40%, these results indicated that common method bias was not a substantial concern in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Descriptive Statistics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the mean values and standard deviations across all variables, as well as their mutual correlations. Parental phubbing at T1 was positively correlated with MPA at T3, suggesting that parental phubbing might indeed serve as a predictive risk factor for adolescent MPA development. Conversely, parental phubbing at T1 was found to have a negative association with core self-evaluation assessed at T2, suggesting that heightened parental phubbing correlates with reduced fundamental core self-evaluation in adolescents. Moreover, a negative relationship was found between core self-evaluation at T2 and MPA at T3, revealing that higher core self-evaluation tends to protect adolescents against MPA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Correlations of the Main Variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Age\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. SES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. T1 PP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. T1 CSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.46***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. T2 CSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.33***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7. T1 MPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.06*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.28***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.42***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8. T3 MPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.25***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.38***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9. T1 PR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.15**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.13**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINSERT Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e HERE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Testing the Mediation Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA positive association was found between parental phubbing at T1 and MPA at T3 (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.45, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), accounting for gender, age, SES, and MPA at T1. The mediation model depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e demonstrated a suitable fit to the data, with indices as follows: χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/\u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.61, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.98, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.97, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02, and RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03. Meanwhile, a negative association was revealed between parental phubbing at T1 and core self-evaluation at T2 (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.41, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), accounting for gender, age, SES, and core self-evaluation at T1. Additionally, core self-evaluation at T2 displayed a negative connection with MPA at T3 (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.37, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), accounting for gender, age, SES, and MPA at T1. The direct influence of parental phubbing at T1 on MPA at T3 was statistically insignificant. Bootstrap analysis confirmed that core self-evaluation at T2 fully mediated the association between parental phubbing at T1 and MPA at T3 (indirect effect\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.15, 95% CI = [0.02, 0.03]).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINSERT FIG. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e HERE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Testing the Moderated Mediation Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the moderated mediation model demonstrating an excellent fit to the data: χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/\u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.48, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.99, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.99, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03, and RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02. After controlling for gender, age, SES, and core self-evaluation at T1, peer relationships at T1 significantly moderated the connection between parental phubbing at T1 and core self-evaluation at T2 (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.14, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI = [-0.15, -0.07]). Furthermore, after controlling for gender, age, SES, and MPA at T1, peer relationships at T1 significantly moderated the association between parental phubbing at T1 and MPA at T3 (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI = [0.15, 0.26]).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo delve deeper into the moderating dynamics, a simple slopes analysis was performed. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the adverse relationship between parental phubbing at T1 and core self-evaluation at T2 was less pronounced for adolescents with robust peer relationships (one standard deviation above average; \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.17, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI = [-0.23, -0.11]) as compared to individuals who had poor peer relationships (one standard deviation below average; \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.57, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI = [-0.63, -0.49]). Similarly, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, the positive association between parental phubbing at T1 and MPA at T3 was more subdued for adolescents with strong peer relationships (one standard deviation above mean; \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI = [0.14, 0.28]) compared to adolescents with poor peer relationships (one standard deviation below mean; \u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.56, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.001, 95% CI = [0.50, 0.64]).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINSERT FIG. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e HERE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINSERT FIG. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e HERE\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eINSERT FIG. \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e HERE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study looked at the relationship between parental phubbing and MPA from two aspects: environmental factors (i.e., parental phubbing, peer relationships) and individual factors (i.e., core self-evaluation). Guided by the cognitive-behavioral model and ecological systems theory, this study adopted a one-year longitudinal design to investigate the potential cause-and-effect connection between parental phubbing and MPA. Core self-evaluation was found to fully mediate the longitudinal association between parental phubbing and adolescent MPA. In addition, peer relationships were found to play a positive moderating role. Specifically, adolescents with higher peer relationships were less affected by parental phubbing and showed a higher level of core self-evaluation and a lower risk of MPA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. Parental Phubbing and MPA\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study reveal that parental phubbing was significantly associated with higher levels of MPA among adolescents 12 months later, which aligns with and extends the results of previous cross-sectional studies (Xie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Niu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). One plausible explanation for this association is that parental phubbing disrupts effective communication within the family, creating a void in the fulfillment of adolescents\u0026rsquo; psychological needs such as competence, affiliation, and autonomy (Gutman \u0026amp; Eccles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). When these needs are not met in their immediate environment, adolescents may turn to the Internet, particularly through their mobile phones, as a source of comfort and validation. This aligns with stage-environment fit theory, which emphasizes the importance of a supportive family environment in meeting adolescents\u0026rsquo; psychological necessities for healthy development. Furthermore, the intergenerational transmission effect provides another lens through which to understand this relationship. Adolescents often unconsciously imitate their parents\u0026rsquo; behaviors and attitudes, and this includes the parents\u0026rsquo; mobile phone use (Nower et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). When parents prioritize their devices over interactions with their children, they set a precedent that may encourage similar behaviors in adolescents. The results of this one-year longitudinal study contribute to the existing literature by demonstrating the relative stability of the relationship between parental phubbing and adolescent MPA over time, and suggest that the influence of parental phubbing is not only immediate but also has lasting effects, underscoring the need for interventions that target both parents and adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. The Mediating Role of Core Self-Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study also confirm the mediating role of core self-evaluation on the link between parental phubbing and adolescent MPA. Specifically, adolescents with a weaker level of core self-evaluation are more susceptible to developing MPA when subjected to elevated levels of parental phubbing. This finding supports Hypothesis 2 and further substantiates Davis\u0026rsquo; cognitive-behavioral model. When parents exhibit adverse parenting behaviors, adolescents tend to develop more negative cognitive patterns, potentially leading them to perceive themselves more negatively (e.g., \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s all my fault,\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;m not good enough\u0026rdquo;; Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Such dysfunctional thinking leads to a disinclination to engage in effortful pursuits in reality, prompting the adoption of evasive coping mechanisms (Gong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Mobile phones, with their instant feedback and tolerance for setbacks (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), emerge as a readily-available and appealing escape route, especially for those with a low level of self-worth, which increases their likelihood of MPA. Based on this theory, parental phubbing behavior, as a stressful life event occurring in the family environment, may constitute an important distal factor in the model, while core self-evaluation, as a crucial cognitive factor for individuals, may serve as a key proximal factor. That is, parental phubbing behavior may lead adolescents to develop maladaptive cognitions, such as low core self-evaluation, which in turn may result in the behavioral symptom of MPA. Understanding this, therefore, the results of this study can be used to develop strategies for the prevention and intervention of adolescent MPA. Fostering adolescents\u0026rsquo; core self-evaluation through interventions such as schema or narrative therapies can help reduce the negative effects of challenging family environments on the adolescents\u0026rsquo; psychological maturation, ultimately decreasing their likelihood of MPA (Langroudi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Horrell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3. The Moderating Role of Peer Relationships\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also revealed that peer relationships have a moderating impact on the relationship between parental phubbing and MPA. More precisely, peer relationships moderate both the direct impact of parental phubbing on MPA (Hypothesis 3a) and the initial half of the mediating effect of parental phubbing on core self-evaluation (Hypothesis 3b). Peer relationships were shown to act as a moderator in the relationship between parental phubbing and MPA, in that in adolescents who had good peer relationships, the predictive strength of parental phubbing on MPA was notably diminished. This could be due to several reasons. First, peer relationships, as a crucial provider of social assistance for adolescents, can compensate for a lack of family support, thus mitigating the harmful effects of a negative family environment on adolescent MPA (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Second, good peer relationships help to improve an adolescent\u0026rsquo;s sense of group acceptance and belonging (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), thereby minimizing their likelihood of developing MPA. Conversely, adolescents with poor peer relationships are more prone to feelings of loneliness and helplessness (Duman \u0026amp; Ozkara, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). When adolescents who experience parental phubbing simultaneously have unhealthy peer relationships, the dual pressures from both family and society can leave their needs significantly unmet in the real-world environment (Costa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This, in turn, drives these individuals to engage further in avoidance behaviors, turning to the Internet as a source of solace and validation, and consequently increasing their risk of MPA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also found that peer relationships moderated the impact of parental phubbing on adolescents' core self-evaluation. Specifically, poor peer relationships exacerbated the effect of parental phubbing on individuals' core self-evaluations, whereas this negative predictive effect was less pronounced among adolescents with good peer relationships. Individuals with higher-quality peer relationships are more likely to believe that their relationship with their peers is close and unbreakable, and that they can turn to their peers for support, thus compensating for a lack of security and belonging that may be caused by parental phubbing in their home environment. As these individuals believe that they occupy an irreplaceable position in their hearts of friends, this thereby contributes to them having a higher level of core self-evaluation (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, adolescents with low-quality peer relationships feel that their relationships with their peers are vague, which then aggravates the sense of helplessness and loneliness caused by their experience of parental phubbing, leading them to believe that they are worthless in the eyes of their friends and family, thus causing them to be more likely to lower their evaluation of themselves (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These results provide further support for the ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1979\u003c/span\u003e), in that the development of one\u0026rsquo;s emotions, cognition, behavior, and other aspects will be influenced by the interaction of the behaviors of important others in one\u0026rsquo;s individual micro-system. Parents and peers fulfill significant functions in an adolescent\u0026rsquo;s micro-system, and parental phubbing and the quality of one\u0026rsquo;s peer relationships become effective evaluative indicators of parents and peers, both of which interact and jointly affect an individual\u0026rsquo;s cognition (i.e., core self-evaluation) and behaviors (MPA). To address adolescents\u0026rsquo; cognitive (core self-evaluation) and behavioral (MPA) issues, interventions should target both the familial and social environments. At the family level, parents should be encouraged to reduce their phubbing behavior and engage in more face-to-face interactions with their children, fostering a more supportive and connected family atmosphere. At the social level, schools and communities should promote healthy peer relationships through team-building activities and social skills training, providing adolescents with a sense of belonging and group acceptance. Only through the concerted efforts focused on both the family and social microsystems can the physical and mental health of adolescents be effectively improved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4. Limitations and Future Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, relying solely on self-reported measures for all variables in the current study could potentially have led to the introduction of bias, necessitating future studies to draw upon diverse methodologies (e.g., objective mobile device usage data) and collecting data from a wider diversity of informants (e.g., peers, educators, and guardians) to enhance the reliability of the research outcomes. Second, distinct but unique impacts from specifically fathers or mothers on adolescents\u0026rsquo; social adjustment should be explored further, with a focus on seeking out the potential differing influences of each relationship. Third, the exclusivity of the current study sample to adolescents from mainland China does restrict the broader applicability of the results. Given that perceived parental phubbing may impact mental health and behavior differently in collectivist societies such as China as compared to in individualistic Western societies (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), broader, large-scale population studies are warranted to strengthen the generalizability of the findings. Finally, the six-month gap between the three follow-up data points may not have adequately captured the stability or shifts within the relationships between the key variables. Therefore, future studies should utilize a longitudinal approach over a further-extended period to better monitor developmental shifts over time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5. Contributions and Practical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is the first to reveal how parental phubbing influences MPA among Chinese adolescents one year later through core self-evaluation, and further elucidates the moderating role of peer relationships in this mediation process. First, the results of the longitudinal mediation analysis align with Davis\u0026rsquo; cognitive-behavioral model, indicating that parental phubbing, as a distal factor, not only has a direct effect on MPA but also induces MPA in adolescents by affecting a proximal factor, namely maladaptive cognition embodied in core self-evaluation. This study provides empirical evidence for Davis\u0026rsquo; cognitive-behavioral model specifically in the field of MPA. Second, the results of the moderated mediation model test confirm the mainstream viewpoint of ecological systems theory, which is that both the family environment (i.e., parental phubbing) and the social environment (i.e., peer relationships) can independently influence adolescent development, and that furthermore, these two environments are interdependent and jointly exert additional influence, thereby affecting adolescents\u0026rsquo; cognition (i.e., core self-evaluation) and behavior (i.e., MPA). This study also provides guidance for alleviating the adverse effects of parental phubbing on adolescent MPA from the perspectives of core self-evaluation and peer relationships, with the aim of reducing the probability of MPA among adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides longitudinal evidence of how parental phubbing affects subsequent MPA in Chinese adolescents. It reveals that core self-evaluation serves as a complete mediator in the temporal link between parental phubbing and MPA. Furthermore, peer relationships emerge as a critical moderator mitigating the detrimental influence of parental phubbing on both adolescents\u0026rsquo; self-perception (i.e., core self-evaluation) and behaviors (i.e., MPA), thereby functioning as a protective buffer.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. SC\u0026amp;XB: Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. HC: Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. WZ: Writing \u0026ndash; original draft, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFounding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e：\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This study was supported by Guangdong Primary and Secondary School Moral Education Project (2021ZXDY008) and Guangzhou Primary and Secondary Vocational Schools Mental Health Education Project (Gzxy_zd_03).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data produced during this study are presently not accessible to the public. However, interested parties can potentially access the data by making a reasonable request to the author.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by The Research Ethics Committee of Education Science, South China Normal University. The subjects of this study were minors under the age of 16, and informed consent was obtained from all participants and their guardians before the start of the project.. We confirm that all the experiment is in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations such as the laws of the People\u0026rsquo;s Republic of China on the protection of minors\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAcock, A. C. (2005). Working With Missing Values. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Marriage and Family\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e67\u003c/em\u003e(4),\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e1012-1028.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Harvard University Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBai, X., Jiang, L., Zhang, Q., Wu, T., Wang, S., Zeng, X., et al. (2021). 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Why parental phubbing is at risk for adolescent mobile phone addiction: A serial mediating model. \u003cem\u003eChildren and Youth Services Review\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e121\u003c/em\u003e, 105873.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Chinese adolescent, parental phubbing, mobile phone addiction, core self-evaluation, peer relationships","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6684101/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6684101/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAdolescence is a period of high incidence of mobile phone addiction (MPA), which can lead to negative effects on adolescents\u0026rsquo; physical and mental health. Previous studies have revealed that parental phubbing is the core factor triggering adolescents\u0026rsquo; MPA, however, longitudinal investigations into the impact of parental phubbing on MPA are lacking, as are studies exploring protective elements that could mitigate this relationship. Anchored in Davis\u0026rsquo; cognitive-behavioral model and ecological systems theory, this longitudinal research examined how core self-evaluation mediates the association between parental phubbing and MPA, and how peer relationships might moderate the impact of this connection. 807 Chinese adolescents (47.6% female, mean age of 12.04 years at the first assessment) participated in a three-wave study over twelve months. The results suggest that parental phubbing significantly predicts higher levels of adolescent MPA one year later, with this effect being strongly mediated by core self-evaluation. Peer relationships play a moderating role in both the direct effect (parental phubbing to MPA) and the first half of the mediation effect (parental phubbing to core self-evaluation). Specifically, compared to adolescents with good peer relationships, the impact of parental phubbing on MPA is more pronounced among those experiencing poor peer relationships. Meanwhile, adolescents with good peer relationships exhibit a relatively weaker adverse effect of parental phubbing on their core self-evaluation, compared to those with poor peer relationships. This study reveals the moderated mediation mechanisms underlying the effect of parental phubbing on adolescent MPA and provides detailed insights into the circumstances in which parental phubbing correlates with MPA. These results provide guidance for specific prevention and intervention approaches aimed at tackling adolescent MPA within the Chinese cultural framework.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Relationship Between Parental Phubbing and Chinese Adolescents’ Mobile Phone Addiction: A Longitudinal Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-27 16:50:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6684101/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-28T20:35:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"259536621076010849386585216525294348496","date":"2025-11-28T02:50:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-25T04:15:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-24T16:52:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-03T07:35:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-01T03:37:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2025-06-01T03:34:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"14b920d1-727c-40d9-b0d8-2ff314450262","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-27T16:50:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-27 16:50:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6684101","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6684101","identity":"rs-6684101","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}