Gender-Differentiated Labor and Adaptation Effects of Climate Change in Rural Areas: A Systematic Literature Review

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While focusing on the effect of climate shocks on rural areas in general and the farming sector in particular, the study is organised around three main themes: (i) agricultural labor market vulnerability, (ii) gender-specific effects, and (iii) adaptation mechanisms. Evidence suggests that women face unique challenges in disaster recovery due to their role as caregivers, unequal access to resources, labor market discrimination and cultural restrictions. The response of household labor supply to climatic stress is different in the short-run and the long-run. While the long-term strategy is contingent on their ability to diversify into non-farm livelihood alternatives and migration to distant places, rural households cope with climate shocks in the short run by relying on affirmative government actions, remittance income and participating in agricultural wage labor. Climate Change Rural Labor Market Women Adaptation Strategy Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Rise in the frequency of extreme weather events such as drought, flood and heat wave in the last decade has disrupted human, agricultural and ecological systems. According to the first tranche of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Sixth Assessment Report (2021), the global surface temperature has been 1.09°C higher between 2011 and 2020 than between 1850 and 1900. Such increase in global temperature is expected to continue; crossing 1.5°C above the pre-industrial level by 2040, and 2°C by the middle of the century under the business-as-usual scenario (IPCC, 2021). Global warming will have an adverse impact on the functioning of the labor market, livelihoods, job opportunities and living conditions of people. Severe adverse effects of climate shocks are expected in economic sectors that rely heavily on climate-sensitive resources as well as in areas prone to extreme weather events. Thus, fluctuating temperature and rainfall patterns are bound to have an impact on agriculture, which is dependent on land and weather. Further, rising sea levels due to global warming may displace certain communities completely and cause agricultural land to become salinized (Maitre et al ., 2018). In developing countries, the agricultural sector is critical for job creation. According to FAO (2021), the agricultural sector employed a quarter of world's workforce, only next to the services sector in 2019, with around 200 million people employed in two major countries, viz., China and India. In Africa, 225 million people are engaged in agriculture accounting for half of the total workforce. Notwithstanding the fact that women account for 37 per cent of agricultural workers globally, in many African countries the majority of the workers in agricultural sector are women (FAO, 2021). According to International Labour Organization (ILO), women are more likely than men to be involved in agriculture in certain Asian and African countries. In 2019, more women than men worked in agriculture in Pakistan (65%), Bangladesh (58%), India (55%) and Vietnam (38%) from Asian countries, and Malawi (82%), Uganda (77%), Ethiopia (75%), Tanzania (67%), Kenya (59%) and Zambia (55%) from African countries (ILOSTAT Database, 2021). Extreme weather events, increased frequency of droughts and floods, variability in rainfall patterns and degradation of marginal lands are likely to have an impact on the agricultural sector and its workers. Given that agriculture is notorious for job insecurity, low pay, poor working condition as well as rising poverty, climate change challenges will put an enormous strain on workers who are already under stress (Olsen & International Labor Office, 2009). Climate shocks and extreme weather conditions, however, impact men and women differently. Vulnerabilities to climate change vary across gender due to differences in socially constructed roles and responsibilities of men and women. Women face inequity in general, earning less in the process and having lesser access to several factors including information and extension services, control over resources, off-farm activities, credit facilities and decision-making power. Since agriculture is an important economic sector for female employment, the adverse effect of climate change on agriculture further accentuates the vulnerability of women. Women farmers are more susceptible to natural disasters than their men counterpart as the latter can find work outside of the community. Women are more likely than men to lose their jobs following a disaster and they are slower to re-enter the labor market as their domestic burden increases. Women’s assets are also less protected than men’s due to their lack of access to bank accounts (Erman et al ., 2021). Arceo-Gómez et al . (2020) find that due to ingrained gender roles within family, women are the driving force behind the decrease in employment probability and increase in domestic work in rural Mexico. Even though a decrease in female labor supply raises female labor’s relative wages in sectors with high exposure to heat, closing the wage gap across gender is difficult. Overall economic impact of climate change remains negative when considering the damages to labor availability and sectoral productivity observed in South Africa (Shayegh & Dasgupta, 2022). A household’s ability to cope and recover depends on factors such as the availability of adaptation mechanisms that can help withstand income shocks and the options to protect or diversify livelihood. Access to finance, government assistance, migration and the ability to switch income sources are some examples of adaptation mechanisms. It is worth mentioning that there could be a gender divide in adaptation mechanisms. Women face more obstacles than men in coping strategy because of limited access to education, information and land ownership (Erman et al ., 2021). In Bangladesh, for example, men choose migration as a coping strategy, leaving behind women who remain in these vulnerable areas to face the harsh reality of economic hardship, food shortages, health risks and social insecurity (Ferdous & Mallick, 2019). Ayeb-Karlsson (2020) characterises women under such vulnerable condition as a ‘trapped population’ since they do not have the same ability to migrate as men. In view of the above, it is critical to assess the impact of climate change on women's labor supply, their ability to adapt to climate change and maintain their livelihood. The objective of the present study is to review the existing literature in order to identify recurring themes related to climate change and gender-diverse labor markets. The primary issue addressed by the study is the relationship between climate change and female labor force participation in rural areas in general and farming sector in particular. Role of women in society is no longer limited to being home makers; they are active income earners. Such societal transitions have made the responsibilities of women more complex and difficult to sustain amid natural disasters. The study adopts the methodology of Systematic Literature Review (SLR). In the process, it examines extensive, but selective, literature from various databases. The SLR method considers a formulated question and applies systematic and explicit methods to identify, select and critically appraise relevant studies, and to collect and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review (Moher et al ., 2009). In recent years, SLR methodology has been employed in the areas of agriculture and environment, including climate change as SLR is considered to be rigorous, robust and organized in its assessment of published science and knowledge. SLR helps identify the gaps and form a conclusion based on existing literature on the topic under study (Akinyi et al ., 2021). The paper is organized into four sections including the present one. Section 2 outlines the methodology adopted in the study while Section 3 presents the results and its discussion. Section 4 concludes the paper. Methodology The present study focuses on the analysis of the impact of climate variability on labor market, especially in rural areas. For this purpose, it undertakes SLR of existing studies. It utilizes the method of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) which uses the definition of Cochrane Collaboration. The PRISMA method consists of four phases, viz., (i) identification, (ii) screening, (iii) Inclusion, and (iv) qualification for conducting the transparent reporting of meta-analyses and systematic reviews (Le et al ., 2019; Moher et al ., 2009; Idris et al ., 2022). 2.1 Identification The search for relevant studies was carried out through three databases, viz., Google Scholar, Springer, and JSTOR. Three keywords, viz., climate variability, gender (female, sex) and labor market were considered using appropriate Boolean operators (AND, OR) between them such as “climate variability” AND “gender” AND “labor market”. Publications in English language and published during 2013 to 2022 were considered. From the initial search in all three databases, we could retrieve a total of 3514 articles. Database-specific retrieval is as follows: 3360 articles from Google Scholar, 132 articles from Springer and 22 articles from JSTOR (Fig. 1). 2.2 Screening The identified literature was first screened by selecting the peer-reviewed journal articles. These articles from Q1 journals referred to the top 25 per cent of journals based on SCImago journal rank (See Fig. 2 for the impact factor of the journals considered and the number of articles taken from these journals). The final selection of the articles was based on three keywords, viz., climate variability, labor and gender. After the exclusion of grey literature (working papers, published thesis, conference papers, project reports) we were left with 252 papers. On further screening, 192 papers were excluded because of irrelevance to the present study after looking into their abstracts, which left us with 60 articles for review. 2.3 Eligibility and Inclusion Following the final selection of 60 articles, each article was reviewed and summarised in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet with the main elements such as title, journal, year (publication), country/region, study theme, data source, methods, variables, research questions, theoretical framework, findings and conclusion as suggested by Bishu & Alkadry (2017). During this process, 16 articles were eliminated as they deviated from the desired theme, i.e., they did not contain the labor market aspect and instead focused on issues such as health, politics and economic growth. With the help of cross-referencing of papers, however, 16 non-identified relevant articles were included. 2.4 Thematic Classification Following the screening and final selection of articles, the selected articles were extracted to answer the SLR research questions. We used thematic method, as described by Williams et al . (2018) for organizing the articles into themes and categories such as geographical location of the study, primary focus of the study, nature of the exposed hazard, methods used in assessment and indications of adaptation measures. These categories facilitated the development of the themes and also in explaining their relationship. The composition of the papers was found to be quite varied in terms of the name and type of the journal, publication year, study location and study theme. Regional distribution of the studies considered is as follows: 24 studies are carried out in Africa (Ghana, Uganda, Ethiopia, Mauritania, Kenya, Malawi) followed by 21 studies in Asian countries (Bangladesh, Indonesia, Vietnam, India, Pakistan, Thailand, China), 10 in America (Brazil, Mexico Ecuador) and 1 in north-western Europe (Netherland) whereas 4 studies have worldwide coverage (middle-income countries). Results And Discussion In many ways, climate change has emerged as a serious threat to the present generation. The impact of climate variation on employment and labor market is massive, particularly in developing countries. Both men and women are affected by climatic variation, but somewhat differently. The findings are organized into three themes: agricultural labor market vulnerability, gender-specific effects and adaptation strategy (see Supplementary File). 3.1 Agricultural Labor Market Vulnerability There are 11 articles that show the influence of climate variation on the agricultural labor market. The majority of the studies are based on African and Asian countries. Climate change appears to be threatening agricultural livelihoods, particularly in Africa and Asia. Although climate shocks affect all sectors of the economy directly or indirectly, agriculture is the most sensitive one. Despite the growing threat of climate change and unpredictability, agriculture continues to be the principal source of local income and employment for majority of the rural inhabitants in developing countries. Shocks caused by irregular climate variation (droughts and floods) destroy crops, decrease supply and raise prices, affecting the livelihoods of the rural poor, particularly dry land farming households. Floods and harsh weather events affect agricultural and food-producing activities adversely. As a result, climate change and its associated risks are expected to have a significant negative impact on the country’s economy, notably agriculture, food security and joblessness. As pointed out earlier, agriculture is one of the critical sectors for employing the rural labor force; and job opportunities are heavily influenced by weather-related shocks. A bad weather event has an adverse impact on agricultural employment in the rural economy (Chowdhury et al ., 2022; Issahaku & Abdul-Rahaman, 2019; Samuel et al ., 2021). Climate change may have significant and far-reaching economic consequences for the rural labor market in less developed countries (Branco & Féres, 2021; Chowdhury et al ., 2022; Jessoe et al ., 2018; Neog, 2022; Samuel et al ., 2021). Among the studies considered, only one (Desbureaux & Rodella, 2019) pertained to the effect of climate variation on the urban labor market in a developed country. During a drought, there is a decrease in the farmer's employment days compared to a typical year, while the time allotted for non-agricultural activities rises relative to agricultural activities (Branco & Féres, 2021; Samuel et al ., 2021). This indicates a systematic shift in labor supply from agricultural sector to non-agricultural sector during drought years with no overall influence on total hours worked. Cities are also vulnerable to drought as they witness a decline in labor income and the number of working hours of informal workers (Desbureaux & Rodella, 2019). According to Jessoe et al . (2018) and Neog (2022) extreme weather reduces a person’s likelihood of working locally. Climate shocks typically reallocate labor to locations outside of one’s village through commuting and migration as sweltering heat has a detrimental impact on local earning potential via the agricultural productivity channel. The implications are exacerbated for female agricultural workers because of their substantial reliance on climate-sensitive agriculture and inability to shift to non-agricultural sector. This reinforces the earlier stated view that natural disasters have a gender-differentiated impact on employment (Chowdhury et al ., 2022). The effects of climatic stress on household labor supply are different in the short-run and the long-run. In Kenya, for instance, rural households can cope with heat waves in the short run by relying on remittance income and participating in small agricultural wage labor, while off-farm work is used as a long-term strategy to deal with the effects of expected weather conditions on farming activities (Mathenge & Tschirley, 2015). Call et al . (2019), however, portray a viewpoint contrary to the above in their study based on Uganda. Their findings reveal that when short-term temperature anomalies occur, smallholders invest more in agriculture and participate in part-time off-farm activities but heat stress has no impact on household-level diversification in the long run. As a result, long-term strategy is subject to people’s affordability to diversify into non-farm livelihood alternatives. Besides that, engagement in off-farm labor enhances the intensity of the adoption of sustainable land management methods while lowering average susceptibility to poverty (Issahaku & Abdul-Rahaman, 2019). Labour is more likely to migrate in response to climate shock due to push and pull factors (Kleemans & Magruder, 2018). Lack of employment possibilities at the point of origin may encourage labour to relocate whereas increased demand for workers in the locality may encourage migrants to stay. Nonetheless, Kleemans & Magruder (2018) find that immigration has an effect on income and employment in Indonesia's two-sector labour market. The formal sector, where wages are subject to binding, results in a lack of employment, while the big and competitive informal sector tends to depress worker earnings. One percentage point increase in the share of migrants reduces the native workers' average hourly income by 0.97 per cent in the informal sector and their employment rate in the formal sector by 0.24 per cent. The negative consequences, however, are not evenly distributed across the population; it is more prominent among low-skilled locals. Despite the heterogeneity in views, studies suggest that affirmative government actions can have a favourable impact on assisting households in adapting to rising climate risks. Policies such as the expansion of irrigation projects can reduce the influence of climate shock on the incentive for family members to migrate or diversify their occupational portfolio (Kirchberger, 2017). 3.2 Gender-Specific Effects We considered 9 studies that distinguish the effects of climate variability between gender, with the majority of the studies concentrated in Asia and Africa. The methodology adopted by these studies is varied: while nearly half of the studies are based on panel data, the remaining ones used qualitative in-depth face-to-face interviews, focus group discussions and participatory methods. A major inference drawn from these studies is that developing countries are more affected by and/or have fewer financial means to combat climate change and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than developed countries (Mizik, 2021). Climate shocks, in general, have a negative impact on gender equality as they enhance women’s vulnerability through a loss in economic and social rights, as well as their gender roles and obligations (Abbasi et al ., 2019; Ferdous & Mallick, 2019). Eastin (2018) perceive that women’s social and economic rights are likely to be ignored in developing countries that experience more climatic temperature fluctuation and a growing incidence of climatological and hydro-meteorological natural catastrophes. These consequences tend to be stronger when the country is more reliant on agriculture and has a lower level of democracy. The occurrence of climate shocks, expected to be more frequent in future, will worsen gender disparity overtime. Flatø et al . (2017) find that there is a significant difference in vulnerability between dual-headed and single-headed households. In South Africa, female-headed households are more vulnerable than households headed by both genders (male and female). All types of female-headed households, however, are not equally vulnerable to rainfall variation; unmarried female heads are more vulnerable because they lack access to certain resources available to married women. Vulnerability assessments must account for variation across different types of female-headed households (widow, divorcee, woman with migrant husband, never-married) in order to generalize the results to other countries (Flatø et al ., 2017). The effect of rainfall shock in the rural labor market is found to widen the gender wage gap. While women are paid less than men, climate shocks that lower the wage rate of women further limit their ability to steady flow of income and consumption (Mahajan, 2017). Several factors, including education, are related to the gender gap in the formal sector employment. Feeny et al . (2021) find that early-life exposure to rainfall shocks has a detrimental influence on female schooling in Vietnam which reduces the likelihood of holding a paid employment in adulthood. According to them, droughts increase the gender gap in labor market participation – while male participation remains unchanged, there is a decrease in female participation. Evidence suggests that gender differences in work participation in rural Mexico can be attributed to gender roles within the family (Arceo-Gómez et al ., 2020). Gender dynamics in the aftermath of a natural disaster, however, may differ based on the labor market opportunities available to women and men during the hazard recovery period, as well as the gender norms that control the gender division of labor in society. If women have greater negotiating power, they may benefit from a favourable gender distribution of labor (Akter, 2021). When women have more secured property rights, they may be incentivized to invest more in climate-resilient technology, reducing their exposure to weather extremes (Asfaw & Maggio, 2018). Such opportunities, however, are not available to all women. 3.3 Adaptation Strategy Climate change is projected to be a serious threat to agriculture, labor markets and livelihoods, particularly for women. Adaptation strategy and coping mechanism have emerged as important societal response to climate change. Although most studies under review touched upon these issues, 40 articles presented in-depth analyses. Notwithstanding the fact that climate change forces people to adjust their economic activities and livelihoods, adaptation strategy could be different in the short run and the long run. Plantation of drought-tolerant crop varieties, use of indigenous knowledge, increase in irrigation intensity, migration, adjustment in the planting calendar, crop diversification, mixed farming and sustainable land management practices are among the key adaptation mechanisms used by farmers in the long-run to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change in Ghana (Antwi-Agyei & Nyantakyi-Frimpong, 2021). Short-term responses to climate variations, on the other hand, include selling of non-farm assets, supplementing agriculture with non-farm jobs, receiving government assistance, charcoal burning, selling larger animals, engaging in wage labor and reliance on social networks (Ba & Mughal, 2022; Hussain et al ., 2020). Even though households actively employ different coping strategy in the face of weather shocks, they find it difficult to fully mitigate the adverse effects. Factors such as absence of skill, lack of information on adaptation strategy and shortage of funds are seen as primary barriers to climate change adaptation (Gebrehiwot & van der Veen, 2013). According to Gao & Mills (2018), only government transfers and off-farm employment are effective in smoothing consumption against weather shocks in the case of rural Ethiopia. Households in Mauritania were able to manage their consumption by selling livestock holdings during limited and less extreme droughts (Ba & Mughal, 2022). Coping mechanism is influenced by the type and the severity of the hazard, the persons getting affected by the hazard, and the level of vulnerability and resilience of the affected persons. Given the long-term and severe consequences on economic well-being, shock intensity is at least as important as shock occurrence. 3.3.1 Diversification and Migration Two important adaptation strategy against climate variation identified in the selected studies are diversification and migration. In many countries, diversification of activities is a major adaptation strategy to climate variability as well as a coping strategy for short-run market shocks. In rural Zambia, for example, households in areas with highly variable seasonal rainfall regard crop, livestock and income diversification as ex-ante risk management strategy, and resort to income diversification in response to immediate rainfall anomalies (Arslan et al ., 2018). Crop and labor diversification protected farmers in Niger and Uganda, which are characterized by poor markets and low-quality institutions, from both climate variability and food price shocks (Antonelli et al ., 2022; Asfaw et al ., 2018). While crop diversity improves the household food portfolio by ensuring consistent calorie intake, labor diversification can be viewed as an income smoothing strategy in the event of potential climate and market adverse events. The frequency, magnitude and duration of a shock influence a household’s likelihood of diversifying its income sources. Diversification of activities accelerates when climatic shocks repeat in a long-term range (10 years) and the intensity of the shock is significant (Antonelli et al ., 2022). Farmers' perceptions differentiate between short/medium-term responses and long-term adaptive behavior to climatic challenges. Short-term perceptions of weather shocks in China lead to production management adaptations such as forage supplementation and herd destocking. Long-run perceptions of temperature and rainfall change, on the other hand, promote production adaptation strategy and the pursuit of off-farm jobs (Yang et al ., 2021). Skoufias et al . (2017) also find that intra-household occupational diversification in rural India is an adaptation strategy to hazards posed by local rainfall variability, which pushes them toward employment in the non-agricultural sector. Migration is another adaptation strategy that has sparked much concern among not only policymakers but also the general public. Human mobility is one of the several possible coping mechanisms to climate change. Since the relationship between climate shock and migration is multifaceted, it is critical to know when migration is the best option (Coniglio & Pesce, 2015). According to the studies under consideration, climate change can have significant impact on people's livelihoods, forcing them to leave the climate-affected area (Baronchelli & Ricciuti, 2022; Cattaneo & Peri, 2016; Gori Maia & Schons, 2020; Jennings & Gray, 2015; Mastrorillo et al ., 2016; Murray-Tortarolo & Salgado, 2021; Nawrotzki et al ., 2017; Sedova & Kalkuhl, 2020; Thiede & Gray, 2017). Climate-migration relationship is influenced by a variety of social, demographic, economic and environmental factors. Weather events disrupt migration process and alter rural migrants’ demographics. Weather shocks reduce rural-rural migration within the same state while increasing rural-urban migration. While migration to nearby rural areas becomes less attractive as a result of weather shocks, international migration decreases as financial constraints tighten. A series of unfavorable weather shocks (i.e., heat waves and extreme precipitation), however, facilitates both international and intrastate migration from rural areas (Nawrotzki et al ., 2015; Sedova & Kalkuhl, 2020). Henderson et al . (2017) find that in Africa, rural-urban migration leads to increases in urbanization and total urban income only in areas where cities are the manufacturing hubs. Such increases, however, depend on the nature of climatic change as well as the timing of weather events. According to some studies, abnormal increase in temperature during the rainy season reduces migration (Coniglio & Pesce, 2015; Thiede & Gray, 2017). Certain other studies show that deficit rainfall and abnormally high temperature increase out-migration the most (Baronchelli & Ricciuti, 2022; Carrico & Donato, 2019; Mastrorillo et al ., 2016). Short-term environmental disruptions can be managed through temporary migration and/or short-distance moves, but long-term environmental problems pose a threat to livelihoods and necessitate permanent and long-distance migration (Jennings & Gray, 2015). Individuals sometimes respond to climate shocks by adapting rather than migrating, which indicate that people are socially and economically bonded to their location (Koubi et al ., 2016). Certain studies attempt to portray the attributes of people migrating due to climatic variations. Compared to other migrants, climate migrants are more likely to come from the lower end of the skill distribution, have a middle income, belong to a younger generation and come from households that are highly dependent on agricultural production (Gori Maia & Schons, 2020). This implies that environmental shocks to agriculture encourage migration as a means of diversifying livelihoods to offset economic losses. Migration as an adaptation strategy to environmental change, however, is not a universal response. Further, there is no uniform pattern to the way households react in the wake of climate shocks. Keeping in view the high cost of migration, all sections of society may not be in a position to migrate; only people with high level of education and from middle-income countries are likely to consider migration as a coping strategy (Kubik & Maurel, 2016). Due to such constraints poor countries are worse off and may become even poorer as a result of climate change (Baronchelli & Ricciuti, 2022; Carrico & Donato, 2019; Cattaneo & Peri, 2016; Drabo & Mbaye, 2015; Hirvonen, 2016; Murray-Tortarolo & Salgado, 2021; Nawrotzki et al ., 2017). Rural workers are more likely to migrate temporarily, to cope with climatic shocks over time, because households eventually succeed in navigating and implementing local adaptation strategy, reducing their use of migration (Nawrotzki & DeWaard, 2016). In Ghana, although majority of the respondents named climate-related events as the most significant stressor, socio-demographic factors are better predictors of migration intentions (Abu et al ., 2014).Amin et al . (2021), by using Indonesian data, find that people who live in disaster-prone areas are bound by place attachment, family ties, social ties and occupational ties. Such migration-hold factors also generate immobility by resisting the forces of migration-push factors. Lack of job opportunities in potential destinations could also explain the lack of migratory response to climate change in rural areas. Such factors have a tendency to weaken the climate-migration link (Chen & Mueller, 2019; Gray & Bilsborrow, 2013; Mueller et al ., 2020; Nawrotzki & DeWaard, 2016). 3.3.2 Gender-Differentiation in Adaptation Strategy The adaptation and coping strategy for males and females may not be equal. In African countries, women are observed to be a disadvantageous position in the decision-making process for adaptation to climate shocks. While the adaptability status of women cannot be assessed without considering the larger socioeconomic and political context, her adaptation strategy is found to be dependent on her marital status. Land and other assets needed for adaptation are also distributed unequally between communities and individuals, with diverse cultural and socioeconomic factors restricting stable land tenure. Households where women are major land managers, and they have a motivation to engage in climate-resilient technologies, are impacted by women’s land tenure instability associated with societal norms (Ahmed et al ., 2016; van Aelst & Holvoet, 2016). Women’s access to adaptation strategy is more dependent on their marital status in the case of Tanzania (van Aelst & Holvoet, 2016). Women face various challenges and possibilities according marital status (married, single, divorced or widowed) in their efforts to adapt to climate change. Widows and female divorcees have less flexibility in land ownership and cultivation because of customs and complex legal system. Due to lower adaptive capacity in agricultural water management, women are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change. While men continue to be the primary decision-makers and continue to migrate for work on a seasonal or permanent basis in Benin (Africa), women are more likely to stay and cultivate crops for household subsistence, bearing the brunt of the effects of climate change (Dah-gbeto & Villamor, 2016). Women’s adaptability to migration is likewise limited. The effect of climate change on migration is different across gender, particularly in areas where there is substantial reduction over time in rainfall (Weinreb et al ., 2020).On the basis of data fromBourasso (Africa), Vinke et al . (2022) find that women are especially vulnerable to climate variation and more restricted than men in terms of migration decisions. As men migrate, there is higher labor burden on women left behind. During cyclones in Bangladesh, for instance, unmarried women do not have the same migratory opportunities as married women because age and marital status could influence a person's immobility within the gendered power structure. Thus, immobility is heavily gendered in this sense. The fallout of such social constraints is an increase in the workload and vulnerability of women as men migrate while women stay back at home to continue farming operations (Ayeb-Karlsson, 2020; Dah-gbeto & Villamor, 2016). Arslan et al . (2018) find that female-headed households in Zambia are less likely to diversify their livestock but more likely to diversify their crops and income. It means that women are unable to take benefit from livestock diversification opportunities, may be due to gender bias in social roles in livestock care. Diversification strategy could be biased against women. Higher risk aversion of women may push them to maintain more diverse crop and income portfolios while withdrawing from certain activities. It suggests that policy-makers should promote the policy of crop-livestock integration which takes these constraints into account. Conclusion On the basis of a systematic literature review of sixty recent publications on climate change and gender-differentiated labour market, it is observed that climate change could have significant and far-reaching economic consequences for the rural labor market in developing countries. Climate shocks, however, influence men and women differently largely due to their socially constructed roles and responsibilities. Evidence suggests that women face unique challenges in disaster recovery due to their role as caregivers, unequal access to resources, labor market discrimination and cultural restrictions. While focusing on the effect of climate shocks on rural areas in general and the farming sector in particular, we considered three major issues: (i) agricultural labor market vulnerability, (ii) gender-specific effects, and (iii) adaptation mechanisms. Extreme weather events such as droughts and floods destroy crops, decrease supply and raise prices. In the process, such events affect the livelihoods of the rural poor, particularly dry land farming households. Climate variation has a tendency to influence the rural labor market such that the wage gap across gender widens. There is a decrease in the women’s work participation due to climate change – women withdraw from the labour force at a far greater pace than men in the eventuality of a natural disaster. Apart from work participation, the widening gap is observed in wage rate. Women are paid less than men; thereby restricting women’s ability to steady the flow of income and consumption. The coping strategy for climatic stress is different in the long run is different from that in the short run. The short term strategy include selling of non-farm assets, supplementing agriculture with non-farm jobs, receiving government assistance, charcoal burning, selling larger animals, engaging in wage labor and reliance on social networks. The long-term strategy depends upon on their ability to diversify into non-farm livelihood alternatives, migration to distant places, plantation of drought-tolerant crop varieties and motivation to engage in climate-resilient technology. Households find it difficult to fully mitigate the adverse effects of climate change and smoothen their income and consumption in any case. The review, however, suffers from certain limitations. First, it includes only peer-reviewed journal articles and excludes all grey literature. Second, the articles were retrieved from three major databases (Google Scholar, Springer, and JSTOR). Third, the study excludes other areas affected by climate change such as women’s health and education. Inclusion of more articles and additional areas of study may bring in further insight to the effect of climate shocks. Declarations Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests. Author Contribution The study's conception and design were contributed to by all authors. The provided notion was conceived by all of the authors. Vaishali Jain conducted the literature search and evaluated the material to verify that no relevant research was overlooked. Vaishali Jain wrote the initial draft of the text. Nidhi Tewathia and Kaustuva Barik reviewed the work attentively and commented on all versions. The final manuscript was reviewed and approved by all authors. Data Availability All materials are provided in the supplementary file. References Abbasi, S. 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(2021) Livestock farmers’ perception and adaptation to climate change: panel evidence from pastoral areas in China. Climatic Change , 164 (1–2), 21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-02992-7 Supplementary Files Supplementaryfile.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-2304249","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":156702118,"identity":"8651824b-99bd-4f59-a673-f1eafd04731a","order_by":0,"name":"Vaishali Jain","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgbGBiAlwWDAwNxw8OMfG5BY4wEitTA2HJZsSAOL4dUCByAtDLwNh8EcvFqY2w+3PeapsbA3Zz/YeEByx3m7te2HgbbU2ETjdFhPYrsxzzGJxJ09iQ0HCs/cTt52BshgOJaW24DTL4ltkjPYJBIMDgBVSrDdTjYDMYD+wq2l/yFQyz8Je4PzDxsO8LCdSzYDMfBqmZHYJvGxTYJxww2g4bxtB+zMbhCyZcZDoJY+icQNNx42HJY4k5xgBmQcSMDjF8P+9GcSCd/qgA5LPvzxQ4Wdvdn59IcPPtTY4NaCLpEIFkjAoRwE5NEF7PEoHgWjYBSMghEKAOukbUvUDsYDAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4067-378X","institution":"Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Social Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vaishali","middleName":"","lastName":"Jain","suffix":""},{"id":156702119,"identity":"bb3e1349-3444-4493-abb6-1b70318e340a","order_by":1,"name":"Nidhi Tewathia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Social Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nidhi","middleName":"","lastName":"Tewathia","suffix":""},{"id":156702120,"identity":"2d2f02b0-afe0-4648-87f4-83307be67218","order_by":2,"name":"Kaustuva Barik","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Social Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kaustuva","middleName":"","lastName":"Barik","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-11-23 08:37:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2304249/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2304249/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":29980065,"identity":"50c7f186-89c4-4895-8af6-4ad69adbafdf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-12-06 19:49:43","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31267,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSummary of PRISMA for Literature Selection\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2304249/v1/e3e633e963c0941b3e11a3fa.png"},{"id":29980066,"identity":"a6b75ccd-a620-48ba-9610-d202d0385a31","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-12-06 19:49:43","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22151,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSelected Journals\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2304249/v1/8de851cb23e1b9a74a52c7b7.png"},{"id":33784728,"identity":"e7befb2d-6398-41a3-9ca5-6cd960950e41","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-03-04 16:36:02","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":289379,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2304249/v1/862516b2-b866-4ee4-9ddc-961fbaaed684.pdf"},{"id":29980067,"identity":"96e2c428-ef4e-4e9c-bc94-fbe73461aefb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-12-06 19:49:43","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":84435,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementaryfile.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2304249/v1/f20b390c7f06c5d34cd42296.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Gender-Differentiated Labor and Adaptation Effects of Climate Change in Rural Areas: A Systematic Literature Review","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eRise in the frequency of extreme weather events such as drought, flood and heat wave in the last decade has disrupted human, agricultural and ecological systems. According to the first tranche of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u0026rsquo;s Sixth Assessment Report (2021), the global surface temperature has been 1.09\u0026deg;C higher between 2011 and 2020 than between 1850 and 1900. Such increase in global temperature is expected to continue; crossing 1.5\u0026deg;C above the pre-industrial level by 2040, and 2\u0026deg;C by the middle of the century under the business-as-usual scenario (IPCC, 2021). Global warming will have an adverse impact on the functioning of the labor market, livelihoods, job opportunities and living conditions of people. Severe adverse effects of climate shocks are expected in economic sectors that rely heavily on climate-sensitive resources as well as in areas prone to extreme weather events. Thus, fluctuating temperature and rainfall patterns are bound to have an impact on agriculture, which is dependent on land and weather. Further, rising sea levels due to global warming may displace certain communities completely and cause agricultural land to become salinized (Maitre \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn developing countries, the agricultural sector is critical for job creation. According to FAO (2021), the agricultural sector employed a quarter of world\u0026apos;s workforce, only next to the services sector in 2019, with around 200 million people employed in two major countries, viz., China and India. In Africa, 225 million people are engaged in agriculture accounting for half of the total workforce. Notwithstanding the fact that women account for 37 per cent of agricultural workers globally, in many African countries the majority of the workers in agricultural sector are women (FAO, 2021). According to International Labour Organization (ILO), women are more likely than men to be involved in agriculture in certain Asian and African countries. In 2019, more women than men worked in agriculture in Pakistan (65%), Bangladesh (58%), India (55%) and Vietnam (38%) from Asian countries, and Malawi (82%), Uganda (77%), Ethiopia (75%), Tanzania (67%), Kenya (59%) and Zambia (55%) from African countries (ILOSTAT Database, 2021). Extreme weather events, increased frequency of droughts and floods, variability in rainfall patterns and degradation of marginal lands are likely to have an impact on the agricultural sector and its workers. Given that agriculture is notorious for job insecurity, low pay, poor working condition as well as rising poverty, climate change challenges will put an enormous strain on workers who are already under stress (Olsen \u0026amp; International Labor Office, 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClimate shocks and extreme weather conditions, however, impact men and women differently. Vulnerabilities to climate change vary across gender due to differences in socially constructed roles and responsibilities of men and women. Women face inequity in general, earning less in the process and having lesser access to several factors including information and extension services, control over resources, off-farm activities, credit facilities and decision-making power. Since agriculture is an important economic sector for female employment, the adverse effect of climate change on agriculture further accentuates the vulnerability of women.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWomen farmers are more susceptible to natural disasters than their men counterpart as the latter can find work outside of the community. Women are more likely than men to lose their jobs following a disaster and they are slower to re-enter the labor market as their domestic burden increases. Women\u0026rsquo;s assets are also less protected than men\u0026rsquo;s due to their lack of access to bank accounts (Erman \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). Arceo-G\u0026oacute;mez \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2020) find that due to ingrained gender roles within family, women are the driving force behind the decrease in employment probability and increase in domestic work in rural Mexico. Even though a decrease in female labor supply raises female labor\u0026rsquo;s relative wages in sectors with high exposure to heat, closing the wage gap across gender is difficult. Overall economic impact of climate change remains negative when considering the damages to labor availability and sectoral productivity observed in South Africa (Shayegh \u0026amp; Dasgupta, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA household\u0026rsquo;s ability to cope and recover depends on factors such as the availability of adaptation mechanisms that can help withstand income shocks and the options to protect or diversify livelihood. Access to finance, government assistance, migration and the ability to switch income sources are some examples of adaptation mechanisms. It is worth mentioning that there could be a gender divide in adaptation mechanisms. Women face more obstacles than men in coping strategy because of limited access to education, information and land ownership (Erman \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). In Bangladesh, for example, men choose migration as a coping strategy, leaving behind women who remain in these vulnerable areas to face the harsh reality of economic hardship, food shortages, health risks and social insecurity (Ferdous \u0026amp; Mallick, 2019). Ayeb-Karlsson (2020) characterises women under such vulnerable condition as a \u0026lsquo;trapped population\u0026rsquo; since they do not have the same ability to migrate as men. In view of the above, it is critical to assess the impact of climate change on women\u0026apos;s labor supply, their ability to adapt to climate change and maintain their livelihood.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe objective of the present study is to review the existing literature in order to identify recurring themes related to climate change and gender-diverse labor markets. The primary issue addressed by the study is the relationship between climate change and female labor force participation in rural areas in general and farming sector in particular. Role of women in society is no longer limited to being home makers; they are active income earners. Such societal transitions have made the responsibilities of women more complex and difficult to sustain amid natural disasters. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study adopts the methodology of Systematic Literature Review (SLR). In the process, it examines extensive, but selective, literature from various databases. The SLR method considers a formulated question and applies systematic and explicit methods to identify, select and critically appraise relevant studies, and to collect and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review (Moher \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2009). In recent years, SLR methodology has been employed in the areas of agriculture and environment, including climate change as SLR is considered to be rigorous, robust and organized in its assessment of published science and knowledge. SLR helps identify the gaps and form a conclusion based on existing literature on the topic under study (Akinyi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe paper is organized into four sections including the present one. Section 2 outlines the methodology adopted in the study while Section 3 presents the results and its discussion. Section 4 concludes the paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study focuses on the analysis of the impact of climate variability on labor market, especially in rural areas. For this purpose, it undertakes SLR of existing studies. It utilizes the method of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) which uses the definition of Cochrane Collaboration. The PRISMA method consists of four phases, viz., (i) identification, (ii) screening, (iii) Inclusion, and (iv) qualification for conducting the transparent reporting of meta-analyses and systematic reviews (Le \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2019; Moher \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2009; Idris \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1 Identification\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe search for relevant studies was carried out through three databases, viz., Google Scholar, Springer, and JSTOR. Three keywords, viz., climate variability, gender (female, sex) and labor market were considered using appropriate Boolean operators (AND, OR) between them such as \u0026ldquo;climate variability\u0026rdquo; AND \u0026ldquo;gender\u0026rdquo; AND \u0026ldquo;labor market\u0026rdquo;. Publications in English language and published during 2013 to 2022 were considered. From the initial search in all three databases, we could retrieve a total of 3514 articles. Database-specific retrieval is as follows: 3360 articles from Google Scholar, 132 articles from Springer and 22 articles from JSTOR (Fig. 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2 Screening\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe identified literature was first screened by selecting the peer-reviewed journal articles. These articles from Q1 journals referred to the top 25 per cent of journals based on SCImago journal rank (See Fig. 2 for the impact factor of the journals considered and the number of articles taken from these journals). The final selection of the articles was based on three keywords, viz., climate variability, labor and gender. After the exclusion of grey literature (working papers, published thesis, conference papers, project reports) we were left with 252 papers. On further screening, 192 papers were excluded because of irrelevance to the present study after looking into their abstracts, which left us with 60 articles for review.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3 Eligibility and Inclusion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the final selection of 60 articles, each article was reviewed and summarised in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet with the main elements such as title, journal, year (publication), country/region, study theme, data source, methods, variables, research questions, theoretical framework, findings and conclusion as suggested by Bishu \u0026amp; Alkadry (2017). During this process, 16 articles were eliminated as they deviated from the desired theme, i.e., they did not contain the labor market aspect and instead focused on issues such as health, politics and economic growth. With the help of cross-referencing of papers, however, 16 non-identified relevant articles were included.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4 Thematic Classification\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing the screening and final selection of articles, the selected articles were extracted to answer the SLR research questions. We used thematic method, as described by Williams \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2018) for organizing the articles into themes and categories such as geographical location of the study, primary focus of the study, nature of the exposed hazard, methods used in assessment and indications of adaptation measures. These categories facilitated the development of the themes and also in explaining their relationship. The composition of the papers was found to be quite varied in terms of the name and type of the journal, publication year, study location and study theme. Regional distribution of the studies considered is as follows: 24 studies are carried out in Africa (Ghana, Uganda, Ethiopia, Mauritania, Kenya, Malawi) followed by 21 studies in Asian countries (Bangladesh, Indonesia, Vietnam, India, Pakistan, Thailand, China), 10 in America (Brazil, Mexico Ecuador) and 1 in north-western Europe (Netherland) whereas 4 studies have worldwide coverage (middle-income countries).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results And Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn many ways, climate change has emerged as a serious threat to the present generation. The impact of climate variation on employment and labor market is massive, particularly in developing countries. Both men and women are affected by climatic variation, but somewhat differently. The findings are organized into three themes: agricultural labor market vulnerability, gender-specific effects and adaptation strategy (see Supplementary File).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1 Agricultural Labor Market Vulnerability\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are 11 articles that show the influence of climate variation on the agricultural labor market. The majority of the studies are based on African and Asian countries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClimate change appears to be threatening agricultural livelihoods, particularly in Africa and Asia. Although climate shocks affect all sectors of the economy directly or indirectly, agriculture is the most sensitive one. Despite the growing threat of climate change and unpredictability, agriculture continues to be the principal source of local income and employment for majority of the rural inhabitants in developing countries. Shocks caused by irregular climate variation (droughts and floods) destroy crops, decrease supply and raise prices, affecting the livelihoods of the rural poor, particularly dry land farming households. Floods and harsh weather events affect agricultural and food-producing activities adversely. As a result, climate change and its associated risks are expected to have a significant negative impact on the country\u0026rsquo;s economy, notably agriculture, food security and joblessness. As pointed out earlier, agriculture is one of the critical sectors for employing the rural labor force; and job opportunities are heavily influenced by weather-related shocks. A bad weather event has an adverse impact on agricultural employment in the rural economy (Chowdhury \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022; Issahaku \u0026amp; Abdul-Rahaman, 2019; Samuel \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClimate change may have significant and far-reaching economic consequences for the rural labor market in less developed countries (Branco \u0026amp; F\u0026eacute;res, 2021; Chowdhury \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022; Jessoe \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018; Neog, 2022; Samuel \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). Among the studies considered, only one (Desbureaux \u0026amp; Rodella, 2019) pertained to the effect of climate variation on the urban labor market in a developed country. During a drought, there is a decrease in the farmer\u0026apos;s employment days compared to a typical year, while the time allotted for non-agricultural activities rises relative to agricultural activities (Branco \u0026amp; F\u0026eacute;res, 2021; Samuel \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). This indicates a systematic shift in labor supply from agricultural sector to non-agricultural sector during drought years with no overall influence on total hours worked. Cities are also vulnerable to drought as they witness a decline in labor income and the number of working hours of informal workers (Desbureaux \u0026amp; Rodella, 2019). According to Jessoe \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2018) and Neog (2022) extreme weather reduces a person\u0026rsquo;s likelihood of working locally. Climate shocks typically reallocate labor to locations outside of one\u0026rsquo;s village through commuting and migration as sweltering heat has a detrimental impact on local earning potential via the agricultural productivity channel. The implications are exacerbated for female agricultural workers because of their substantial reliance on climate-sensitive agriculture and inability to shift to non-agricultural sector. This reinforces the earlier stated view that natural disasters have a gender-differentiated impact on employment (Chowdhury \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effects of climatic stress on household labor supply are different in the short-run and the long-run. In Kenya, for instance, rural households can cope with heat waves in the short run by relying on remittance income and participating in small agricultural wage labor, while off-farm work is used as a long-term strategy to deal with the effects of expected weather conditions on farming activities (Mathenge \u0026amp; Tschirley, 2015). Call \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2019), however, portray a viewpoint contrary to the above in their study based on Uganda. Their findings reveal that when short-term temperature anomalies occur, smallholders invest more in agriculture and participate in part-time off-farm activities but heat stress has no impact on household-level diversification in the long run. As a result, long-term strategy is subject to people\u0026rsquo;s affordability to diversify into non-farm livelihood alternatives. Besides that, engagement in off-farm labor enhances the intensity of the adoption of sustainable land management methods while lowering average susceptibility to poverty (Issahaku \u0026amp; Abdul-Rahaman, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLabour is more likely to migrate in response to climate shock due to push and pull factors (Kleemans \u0026amp; Magruder, 2018). Lack of employment possibilities at the point of origin may encourage labour to relocate whereas increased demand for workers in the locality may encourage migrants to stay. Nonetheless, Kleemans \u0026amp; Magruder (2018) find that immigration has an effect on income and employment in Indonesia\u0026apos;s two-sector labour market. The formal sector, where wages are subject to binding, results in a lack of employment, while the big and competitive informal sector tends to depress worker earnings. One percentage point increase in the share of migrants reduces the native workers\u0026apos; average hourly income by 0.97 per cent in the informal sector and their employment rate in the formal sector by 0.24 per cent. The negative consequences, however, are not evenly distributed across the population; it is more prominent among low-skilled locals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the heterogeneity in views, studies suggest that affirmative government actions can have a favourable impact on assisting households in adapting to rising climate risks. Policies such as the expansion of irrigation projects can reduce the influence of climate shock on the incentive for family members to migrate or diversify their occupational portfolio (Kirchberger, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.2 Gender-Specific Effects\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe considered 9 studies that distinguish the effects of climate variability between gender, with the majority of the studies concentrated in Asia and Africa. The methodology adopted by these studies is varied: while nearly half of the studies are based on panel data, the remaining ones used qualitative in-depth face-to-face interviews, focus group discussions and participatory methods. A major inference drawn from these studies is that developing countries are more affected by and/or have fewer financial means to combat climate change and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than developed countries (Mizik, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClimate shocks, in general, have a negative impact on gender equality as they enhance women\u0026rsquo;s vulnerability through a loss in economic and social rights, as well as their gender roles and obligations (Abbasi\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2019; Ferdous \u0026amp; Mallick, 2019). Eastin (2018) perceive that\u0026nbsp;women\u0026rsquo;s social and economic rights are likely to be ignored in developing countries that experience more climatic temperature fluctuation and a growing incidence of climatological and hydro-meteorological natural catastrophes. These consequences tend to be stronger when the country is more reliant on agriculture and has a lower level of democracy. The occurrence of climate\u0026nbsp;shocks, expected to be more frequent in future, will worsen gender disparity overtime. Flat\u0026oslash; \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2017)\u0026nbsp;find that there is a significant difference in vulnerability between dual-headed and single-headed households. In South Africa, female-headed households are more vulnerable than households headed by both genders (male and female). All types of female-headed households, however, are not equally vulnerable to rainfall variation; unmarried female heads are more vulnerable because they lack access to certain resources available to married women. Vulnerability assessments must account for variation across different types of female-headed households (widow, divorcee, woman with migrant husband, never-married) in order to generalize the results to other countries (Flat\u0026oslash; \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effect of rainfall shock in the rural labor market is found to widen the gender wage gap. While women are paid less than men, climate shocks that lower the wage rate of women further limit their ability to steady flow of income and consumption (Mahajan, 2017). Several factors, including education, are related to the gender gap in the formal sector employment. Feeny \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2021) \u0026nbsp;find that early-life exposure to rainfall shocks has a detrimental influence on female schooling in Vietnam which reduces the likelihood of holding a paid employment in adulthood. According to them, droughts increase the gender gap in labor market participation \u0026ndash; while male participation remains unchanged, there is a decrease in female participation. Evidence suggests that gender differences in work participation in rural Mexico can be attributed to gender roles within the family (Arceo-G\u0026oacute;mez \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020). Gender dynamics in the aftermath of a natural disaster, however, may differ based on the labor market opportunities available to women and men during the hazard recovery period, as well as the gender norms that control the gender division of labor in society. If women have greater negotiating power, they may benefit from a favourable gender distribution of labor (Akter, 2021). When women have more secured property rights, they may be incentivized to invest more in climate-resilient technology, reducing their exposure to weather extremes (Asfaw \u0026amp; Maggio, 2018). Such opportunities, however, are not available to all women.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.3 Adaptation Strategy\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClimate change is projected to be a serious threat to agriculture, labor markets and livelihoods, particularly for women. Adaptation strategy and coping mechanism have emerged as important societal response to climate change. Although most studies under review touched upon these issues, 40 articles presented in-depth analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotwithstanding the fact that climate change forces people to adjust their economic activities and livelihoods, adaptation strategy could be different in the short run and the long run. Plantation of drought-tolerant crop varieties, use of indigenous knowledge, increase in irrigation intensity, migration, adjustment in the planting calendar, crop diversification, mixed farming and sustainable land management practices are among the key adaptation mechanisms used by farmers in the long-run to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change in Ghana (Antwi-Agyei \u0026amp; Nyantakyi-Frimpong, 2021). Short-term responses to climate variations, on the other hand, include selling of non-farm assets, supplementing agriculture with non-farm jobs, receiving government assistance, charcoal burning, selling larger animals, engaging in wage labor and reliance on social networks (Ba \u0026amp; Mughal, 2022; Hussain\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020). Even though households actively employ different coping strategy in the face of weather shocks, they find it difficult to fully mitigate the adverse effects. Factors such as absence of skill, lack of information on adaptation strategy and shortage of funds are seen as primary barriers to climate change adaptation (Gebrehiwot \u0026amp; van der Veen, 2013). According to Gao \u0026amp; Mills (2018), only government transfers and off-farm employment are effective in smoothing consumption against weather shocks\u0026nbsp;in the case of rural Ethiopia.\u0026nbsp;Households in Mauritania were able to manage their consumption by selling livestock holdings during limited and less extreme droughts (Ba \u0026amp; Mughal, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoping mechanism is influenced by the type and the severity of the hazard, the persons getting affected by the hazard, and the level of vulnerability and resilience of the affected persons. Given the long-term and severe consequences on economic well-being, shock intensity is at least as important as shock occurrence.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.3.1 Diversification and Migration\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTwo important adaptation strategy against climate variation identified in the selected studies are diversification and migration.\u0026nbsp;In many countries, diversification of activities is a major adaptation strategy to climate variability as well as a coping strategy for short-run market shocks. In rural Zambia, for example, households in areas with highly variable seasonal rainfall regard crop, livestock and income diversification as \u003cem\u003eex-ante\u003c/em\u003e risk management strategy, and resort to income diversification in response to immediate rainfall anomalies (Arslan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018). Crop and labor diversification protected farmers in Niger and Uganda, which are characterized by poor markets and low-quality institutions, from both climate variability and food price shocks (Antonelli \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022; Asfaw \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018). While crop diversity improves the household food portfolio by ensuring consistent calorie intake, labor diversification can be viewed as an income smoothing strategy in the event of potential climate and market adverse events. The frequency, magnitude and duration of a shock influence a household\u0026rsquo;s likelihood of diversifying its income sources. Diversification of activities accelerates when climatic shocks repeat in a long-term range (10 years) and the intensity of the shock is significant (Antonelli \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022). Farmers\u0026apos; perceptions differentiate between short/medium-term responses and long-term adaptive behavior to climatic challenges. Short-term perceptions of weather shocks in China lead to production management adaptations such as forage supplementation and herd destocking. Long-run perceptions of temperature and rainfall change, on the other hand, promote production adaptation strategy and the pursuit of off-farm jobs (Yang \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2021). Skoufias \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2017) also find that intra-household occupational diversification in rural India is an adaptation strategy to hazards posed by local rainfall variability, which pushes them toward employment in the non-agricultural sector.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMigration is another adaptation strategy that has sparked much concern among not only policymakers but also the general public. Human mobility is one of the several possible coping mechanisms to climate change. Since the relationship between climate shock and migration is multifaceted, it is critical to know when migration is the best option (Coniglio \u0026amp; Pesce, 2015). According to the studies under consideration, climate change can have significant impact on people\u0026apos;s livelihoods, forcing them to leave the climate-affected area (Baronchelli \u0026amp; Ricciuti, 2022; Cattaneo \u0026amp; Peri, 2016; Gori Maia \u0026amp; Schons, 2020; Jennings \u0026amp; Gray, 2015; Mastrorillo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016; Murray-Tortarolo \u0026amp; Salgado, 2021; Nawrotzki \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017; Sedova \u0026amp; Kalkuhl, 2020; Thiede \u0026amp; Gray, 2017). Climate-migration relationship is influenced by a variety of social, demographic, economic and environmental factors. Weather events disrupt migration process and alter rural migrants\u0026rsquo; demographics. Weather shocks reduce rural-rural migration within the same state while increasing rural-urban migration. While migration to nearby rural areas becomes less attractive as a result of weather shocks, international migration decreases as financial constraints tighten. A series of unfavorable weather shocks (i.e., heat waves and extreme precipitation), however, facilitates both international and intrastate migration from rural areas (Nawrotzki \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2015; Sedova \u0026amp; Kalkuhl, 2020). Henderson \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2017) find that in Africa, rural-urban migration leads to increases in urbanization and total urban income only in areas where cities are the manufacturing hubs. Such increases, however, depend on the nature of climatic change as well as the timing of weather events. According to some studies, abnormal increase in temperature during the rainy season reduces migration (Coniglio \u0026amp; Pesce, 2015; Thiede \u0026amp; Gray, 2017). Certain other studies show that deficit rainfall and abnormally high temperature increase out-migration the most (Baronchelli \u0026amp; Ricciuti, 2022; Carrico \u0026amp; Donato, 2019; Mastrorillo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016). Short-term environmental disruptions can be managed through temporary migration and/or short-distance moves, but long-term environmental problems pose a threat to livelihoods and necessitate permanent and long-distance migration (Jennings \u0026amp; Gray, 2015). Individuals sometimes respond to climate shocks by adapting rather than migrating, which indicate that people are socially and economically bonded to their location (Koubi \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCertain studies attempt to portray the attributes of people migrating due to climatic variations. Compared to other migrants, climate migrants are more likely to come from the lower end of the skill distribution, have a middle income, belong to a younger generation and come from households that are highly dependent on agricultural production (Gori Maia \u0026amp; Schons, 2020). This implies that environmental shocks to agriculture encourage migration as a means of diversifying livelihoods to offset economic losses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMigration as an adaptation strategy to environmental change, however, is not a universal response. Further, there is no uniform pattern to the way households react in the wake of climate shocks. Keeping in view the high cost of migration, all sections of society may not be in a position to migrate; only people with high level of education and from middle-income countries are likely to consider migration as a coping strategy (Kubik \u0026amp; Maurel, 2016). Due to such constraints poor countries are worse off and may become even poorer as a result of climate change (Baronchelli \u0026amp; Ricciuti, 2022; Carrico \u0026amp; Donato, 2019; Cattaneo \u0026amp; Peri, 2016; Drabo \u0026amp; Mbaye, 2015; Hirvonen, 2016; Murray-Tortarolo \u0026amp; Salgado, 2021; Nawrotzki \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2017).\u0026nbsp;Rural workers are more likely to migrate temporarily, to cope with climatic shocks over time, because households eventually succeed in navigating and implementing local adaptation strategy, reducing their use of migration (Nawrotzki \u0026amp; DeWaard, 2016).\u0026nbsp;In Ghana, although majority of the respondents named climate-related events as the most significant stressor, socio-demographic factors are better predictors of migration intentions (Abu \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2014).Amin \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2021), by using Indonesian data, find that people who live in disaster-prone areas are bound by place attachment, family ties, social ties and occupational ties. Such migration-hold factors also generate immobility by resisting the forces of migration-push factors. Lack of job opportunities in potential destinations could also explain the lack of migratory response to climate change in rural areas. Such factors have a tendency to weaken the climate-migration link (Chen \u0026amp; Mueller, 2019; Gray \u0026amp; Bilsborrow, 2013; Mueller \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020; Nawrotzki \u0026amp; DeWaard, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.3.2 Gender-Differentiation in Adaptation Strategy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe adaptation and coping strategy for males and females may not be equal.\u0026nbsp;In African countries, women are observed to be a disadvantageous position in the decision-making process for adaptation to climate shocks. While the adaptability status of women cannot be assessed without considering the larger socioeconomic and political context, her adaptation strategy is found to be dependent on her marital status. Land and other assets needed for adaptation are also distributed unequally between communities and individuals, with diverse cultural and socioeconomic factors restricting stable land tenure. Households where women are major land managers, and they have a motivation to engage in climate-resilient technologies, are impacted by women\u0026rsquo;s land tenure instability associated with societal norms\u0026nbsp;(Ahmed \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2016; van Aelst \u0026amp; Holvoet, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWomen\u0026rsquo;s access to adaptation strategy is more dependent on their marital status in the case of Tanzania (van Aelst \u0026amp; Holvoet, 2016). Women face various challenges and possibilities according marital status (married, single, divorced or widowed) in their efforts to adapt to climate change. Widows and female divorcees have less flexibility in land ownership and cultivation because of customs and complex legal system. Due to lower adaptive capacity in agricultural water management, women are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change. While men continue to be the primary decision-makers and continue to migrate for work on a seasonal or permanent basis in Benin (Africa), women are more likely to stay and cultivate crops for household subsistence, bearing the brunt of the effects of climate change (Dah-gbeto \u0026amp; Villamor, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWomen\u0026rsquo;s adaptability to migration is likewise limited. The effect of climate change on migration is different across gender, particularly in areas where there is substantial reduction over time in rainfall (Weinreb \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020).On the basis of data fromBourasso (Africa), Vinke \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2022) find that women are especially vulnerable to climate variation and more restricted than men in terms of migration decisions. As men migrate, there is higher labor burden on women left behind. During cyclones in Bangladesh, for instance, unmarried women do not have the same migratory opportunities as married women because age and marital status could influence a person\u0026apos;s immobility within the gendered power structure. Thus, immobility is heavily gendered in this sense. The fallout of such social constraints is an increase in the workload and vulnerability of women as men migrate while women stay back at home to continue farming operations (Ayeb-Karlsson, 2020; Dah-gbeto \u0026amp; Villamor, 2016). Arslan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. (2018) find that female-headed households in Zambia are less likely to diversify their livestock but more likely to diversify their crops and income. It means that women are unable to take benefit from livestock diversification opportunities, may be due to gender bias in social roles in livestock care.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDiversification strategy could be biased against women. Higher risk aversion of women may push them to maintain more diverse crop and income portfolios while withdrawing from certain activities. It suggests that policy-makers should promote the policy of crop-livestock integration which takes these constraints into account.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOn the basis of a systematic literature review of sixty recent publications on climate change and gender-differentiated labour market, it is observed that climate change could have significant and far-reaching economic consequences for the rural labor market in developing countries. Climate shocks, however, influence men and women differently largely due to their socially constructed roles and responsibilities. Evidence suggests that women face\u0026nbsp;unique challenges in disaster recovery due to their role as caregivers, unequal access to resources, labor market discrimination and cultural restrictions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile focusing on the effect of climate shocks on rural areas in general and the farming sector in particular, we considered three major issues: (i) agricultural labor market vulnerability, (ii) gender-specific effects, and (iii) adaptation mechanisms. Extreme weather events such as droughts and floods destroy crops, decrease supply and raise prices. In the process, such events affect the livelihoods of the rural poor, particularly dry land farming households. Climate variation has a tendency to influence\u0026nbsp;the rural labor market such that the wage gap across gender widens. There is a decrease in the women\u0026rsquo;s work participation due to climate change \u0026ndash; women withdraw from the labour force at a far greater pace than men in the eventuality of a natural disaster. Apart from work participation, the widening gap is observed in wage rate. Women are paid less than men; thereby restricting women\u0026rsquo;s ability to steady the flow of income and consumption.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe coping strategy for climatic stress is different in the long run is different from that in the short run. The short term strategy include selling of non-farm assets, supplementing agriculture with non-farm jobs, receiving government assistance, charcoal burning, selling larger animals, engaging in wage labor and reliance on social networks. The long-term strategy depends upon on their ability to diversify into non-farm livelihood alternatives, migration to distant places, plantation of drought-tolerant crop varieties and motivation to engage in climate-resilient technology. Households find it difficult to fully mitigate the adverse effects of climate change and smoothen their income and consumption in any case.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe review, however, suffers from certain limitations. First, it includes only peer-reviewed journal articles and excludes all grey literature. Second, the articles were retrieved from three major databases (Google Scholar, Springer, and JSTOR). Third, the study excludes other areas affected by climate change such as women\u0026rsquo;s health and education. Inclusion of more articles and additional areas of study may bring in further insight to the effect of climate shocks.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study\u0026apos;s conception and design were contributed to by all authors. The provided notion was conceived by all of the authors. Vaishali Jain conducted the literature search and evaluated the material to verify that no relevant research was overlooked. Vaishali Jain wrote the initial draft of the text. Nidhi Tewathia and Kaustuva Barik reviewed the work attentively and commented on all versions. The final manuscript was reviewed and approved by all authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll materials are provided in the supplementary file.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbbasi, S. S., Anwar, M. Z., Habib, N., Khan, Q., \u0026amp; Waqar, K. (2019) Identifying gender vulnerabilities in context of climate change in Indus basin. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Development\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e31\u003c/em\u003e, 34\u0026ndash;42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2018.12.005\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbu, M., Codjoe, S. N. A., \u0026amp; Sward, J. 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(2021) Livestock farmers\u0026rsquo; perception and adaptation to climate change: panel evidence from pastoral areas in China. \u003cem\u003eClimatic Change\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e164\u003c/em\u003e(1\u0026ndash;2), 21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-02992-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Climate Change, Rural Labor Market, Women, Adaptation Strategy","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2304249/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2304249/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe study systematically reviews sixty recent publications on the impact of climate change on gender-differentiated labour market by using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology. While focusing on the effect of climate shocks on rural areas in general and the farming sector in particular, the study is organised around three main themes: (i) agricultural labor market vulnerability, (ii) gender-specific effects, and (iii) adaptation mechanisms. Evidence suggests that women face unique challenges in disaster recovery due to their role as caregivers, unequal access to resources, labor market discrimination and cultural restrictions. The response of household labor supply to climatic stress is different in the short-run and the long-run. While the long-term strategy is contingent on their ability to diversify into non-farm livelihood alternatives and migration to distant places, rural households cope with climate shocks in the short run by relying on affirmative government actions, remittance income and participating in agricultural wage labor.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Gender-Differentiated Labor and Adaptation Effects of Climate Change in Rural Areas: A Systematic Literature Review","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-12-06 19:49:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2304249/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2fc33eb6-c274-40da-a93b-0264e034d262","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 6th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2023-03-04T16:35:50+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-12-06 19:49:38","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-2304249","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-2304249","identity":"rs-2304249","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"J0_U0BvcaRcwD8yVFaRlm","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}