Depositional controls on formation of Quaternary lacustrine Tufa Bent Jedidi spring systems, NE Tunisia

Depositional controls on formation of Quaternary lacustrine Tufa Bent Jedidi spring systems, NE Tunisia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Depositional controls on formation of Quaternary lacustrine Tufa Bent Jedidi spring systems, NE Tunisia Faouzia Tlili, Asma Ayari, Kamel Regaya This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2217267/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 15 Apr, 2023 Read the published version in Carbonates and Evaporites → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The carbonate Bent Jedidi unit represents middle –late Pleistocene continental carbonate deposits in Northeastern Tunisia. The unit consists of three main facies associations; asymmetrically distributed (1) calcrete-palustrine (2) lacustrine, (3) Tuffa carbonate.This study evaluates variations in petrophysical properties within a lacustrine to palustrine and tufa carbonate. The transition from alluvial environments to lake margins settings displays a shift from conglomerate and silt to lacustrine palustrine mudstones to packstones (1) The palustrine carbonates include features like pseudo-microkarst, root cavities, gypsum, nodular and mottled limestone, (2) The lacustrine deposits include charophytes gastropods and ostracods, oxidation oncoids, oncoliths and recrystallization of calcite.(3) The Tufa deposits include, algae filament, mosse Tufa and laminated structure. The evaluation of the facies associations over time demonstrates an overall fall of the relative lake level. High proportion of low energy facies associated with a deeper lacustrine environment. While at the Top predominate high energy facies associated with a shallow lacustrine environment fluctuations in lake water level enabled land plants to occupy the lake margins during periods of low levels for this reason We found chenal porosity. This study aims to identify the depositional facies and the origin and paleoenvironmental significance of lacustrine /palustrine carbonates and tufas in the Pleistocene Bent Jedidi Lake. Lacustrine Palustrine Tufa Pleistocene Tunisia Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Introduction The study of lake deposits recently has been rendered much interest around the world due to palaeoenvironmental interpretations about paleoclimate, palaeotectonic conditions and palaeodepositional systems at different scales (Abdul Aziz et al. 2003 ; Alcicek and Jiménez-Moreno 2013 ; Alonso-Zarza et al. 2009 ; Gurel and Kadir 2010 ). Microorganisms’ distribution as well as their associated sedimentary structures are used to reconstruct the past environmental and climatic conditions, and to further explore the factors that controlled their genesis mode. Carbonate formation is usually associated with climate and water table (Cecil 1990 ; Amundson et al. 2012 ).While very arid or very humid climates do not present the best conditions for carbonate deposition in a lake (Cecil 1990 ), semi-arid to sub-humid climates present the most favorable conditions for its formation (Platt and Wright 1991 ; Sanz et al. 1995 ; Gierlowski Kordesch 1998 ). In semi-arid climates, the low activity of alluvial systems combined with the carbonate hinterland and surficial plus groundwater supply is the more favourable conditions for lacustrine limestone deposition (Alonso- Zarza &Wright 2010 , John J. G. Reijmer et al. 2021 ). Palustrine limestones are a lacustrine limestone that responds to the modification of carbonate- rich muds by wetting and drying under subaerial exposure (Armenteros et al. 1997 ; 1998 ). They are common in relatively flat and low- energy lakes and thus slight variations in lake level can cause the exposure of significant lake areas (Alonso- Zarza 2003 ; Alonso- Zarza et al. 2014 ). Despite many studies focusing on ancient and recent lacustrine and palustrine deposits in the northern coast of the Mediterranean basin (Rayang and Crave at Bec Rouge 1999; and Turkemet al. 2007 ), the Tunisian paleoclimate signatures, a new approach to palaeosol development in the lacustrine margins, relationships between tufas, paleosol and lacustrine deposition. This study focuses on Pleistocene Lacustrine, palustrine and Tufa deposits outcropping in the north eastern Tunisia, in Hammam Bent Jedidi basin which are a typical example of lacustrine, palustrine and tufa deposits of Quaternary age. The aim of this study is to (a) describe the different continental carbonate sections, (b) to analyse the variations in petrophysical properties of lacustrine, palustrine and Tufa carbonate, (c) to resolve which factors (climatic and environmental) determine the petrography characteristics of these carbonate. Geographical And Geological Setting The studied sediment samples are part of the Pleistocene Bent Jedidi Basin (Johan 1965 ), which is located in the northeastern Tunisia, distant 2.4 km from Hammam Bent Jedidi (Fig. 1 ). This area is characterized by a semi-arid climate with a mean annual air temperature of about 19°C and annual precipitation of 300 to 400 mm. The northeast of Tunisia is mostly composed by mountainous landscape and marked by the NE-SW trend of folds vergence and overlaps that accompany them. The Zaghouan area is characterized by two major NE trending tectonic features: the Zaghouan and the Hammam Jedidi faults (Benchilla et al. 2003 ). The basement and surrounding mountains are composed of geological series extending from the Trias to the Quaternary (Fig. 1 ). It represents the fluorine province of Zaghouan (Floridia 1973 ). The Neogene succession is bound by siliciclastic and evaporitic formations of Triassic age and dolomites of the Jurassic. Cretaceous outcrops are widespread and are represented by indurated nodular greyish limestones and marly limestones, whereas the Tertiary is manifested by olive-green marls with ages ranging from Upper Maastrichtian to Paleocene. These marls are capped by the dark gray limestones of the Eocene, later by the sandy and then marly complex of the Oligocene. The Mio-Pliocene and the Quaternary are exposed in the area and represented by the paleosols and carbonates, The study area presents many outcrops along the basin. The deposits are divided into two parts by the Wadi El Mellah affluent allowing the release of a wide marshy area covered with the vegetation of the Juncus sp. family, fed by the thermal water of Hammam bent Jedidi (Fig. 2 ). This natural cut allowed us to better visualize the different constitutive facies of these deposits, their organization and their spatial distributions. These facies show no distinctive feature to make their correlation possible. However, from one place to another, variation was observed either in their thickness as well as in their surface state, which are the objectives of our work. Materials And Methods The study area presents many outcrops along the sides of gully that consist predominantly of one facies, grey mudstones with carbonate nodules which exceed rarely 2 m of thickness and show no distinctive feature to make their correlation possible. Nevertheless, there are two compartment of Bent Jedidi Basin showing good outcrops from which Nine sedimentary logs were described and measured in outcrops to define the main facies vertical associations as well as their spatial distribution (Fig. 2 ). However, only four sedimentary profiles (J1, J2, J3 and J4) of Quaternary carbonate (upper Pleistocene age) showing good outcrops were selected (Fig. 3 , 4 ) in order to be the best representative of the facies succession along the geological transect. the sedimentary logs (J1,and J2) were measured(Fig. 2 , 3 ) in the right compartment. Logs J3 and J4 were measured from left compartment (Fig. 2 , 3 ). In Total 90 samples were taken from different points around the basin and were collected in the field and analysed to determine the facies variations, porosity, permeability, sediment composition and gamma- ray value. The applied methodology included macroscopic description and petrographic description of samples. Some representative samples were impregnated with resin induration (araldite) to prepare thin sections and are observed under an optical microscope. Photographs were taken to investigate the different microfacies present in these carbonates. In addition to use conventional descriptive features such as grain size, grain composition and interpretation of sedimentary structure. Facies analysis Carbonate facies of the sedimentary deposits in the Bent Jedidi Basin alternate with detritic deposits extending from the upstream to the downstream of the basin. The deposits have five sedimentary facies including conglomerates, marly limestones, peloidal rooted limestones, bacterial tufa limestones, silt and marl facies. Conglomerate facies The conglomerate facies comprise beds 3 to 4 m thick and 2 to 3 m in lateral extend (Fig. 5 A). The contact of the conglomerate bodies with underlying units is erosional whereas their upper contact is planar and transitional with the overlying beds. At the outcrop scale, this unevenly hardened conglomerate extends towards the center of the basin in channels or in gentle slope of thin alluvial fans (1 to 1.5 cm thickness). In detail, the studied material contains calcareous, dolomitic pebbles and gravels. They range in shape from rounded to flattened and their size varies from 1 to 20 cm in diameter. These conglomerates are perfectly stratified (cross stratification). The disordered sediments (Fig. 5 B), which are mainly cemented by carbonates become ordered (Fig. 5 C) towards the top of the section. These detrital deposits show planar or slightly oblique stratifications, which are organized in a succession of positive sequences. Some flattened grains are inclined and oriented, indicating the direction of the generating current of these deposits. The directions of stratifications are the N80 and E-NE. In this section, there are 2 to 3 positive sequences intercalated by very fine silty deposits of reddish color and containing bioturbation (Fig. 5 D). Interpretation The lenticular geometry, the grain size well rounded sands and pebbles, positive sequences, and lateral relationships with adjacent units suggest deposition in fluvial channels. The arrangement of inclined pebbles indicates the direction of the hydraulic flow. The planar to slightly inclined strata are probably the result of clast imbrication. Indeed, there is plenty of imbricated clasts. The dominance of carbonate deposits shows that channels are located in the middle of a depositional environment dominated by carbonate sedimentation. Analogue observations were found in the Miocene of the Teruel Graben, Spain by Alonso-Zarza and Calvo. 2000 and in the late Quaternary of the Zarand Basin, Saveh, central Iran by Djamal et al. 2006 . In Bent Jedidi, rock fragments, calcareous pebbles were transported within this paleo-channel from siliciclastic and evaporite formations of Trias, dolomites of Jurassic and limestones and marly limestones of Cretaceous. The types of carbonates channel fills are similar to those found in the late quaternary of the Zarand Basin, central Iran by (Djamali et al. 2006 ). Marly limestone facies The thickness of these unit beds varies from 50 cm to 2 m (Fig. 3 B). They are generally laminated limestone beds separated by marly and silty joints of 3 to 5 cm thickness. At the margins of the basin, the limestone layers have a thickness less than that of the bottom of the basin, and they are rich in detrital elements (Fig. 4 B) compared to those of the bottom of the basin. In the bottom, limestone beds, generally thin, cover the conglomeratic levels. They are very indurated and marked by a fine porosity as the canalicul of 1 mm in diameter and several mm in length. These limestones of average hardness are porous and of beige color. Microscopic observations show facies of wackestone mudstone containing fragments of fossils and vugular porosity (Fig. 6A). Root traces and desiccation features are absent The most interesting sedimentological feature of this facies is the abundant presence of preserved and unbroken gastropod shells, charophytes (Fig. 6A) and ostracods (Fig. 6B, C, D). Only rare, dispersed grains of quartz (less than 1%) are present (Fig. 6E). Voids are fully cemented with sparitic calcite (Fig. 6E) and iron oxides (Fig. 6F). The peloidal matrix is composed of irregular forms of oncoids laminae, which are covered by calcite (Fig. 6G, H). Interpretation In this facies, the absence of any features indicative of exposure (Fig. 6) supports the view that marly limestones were deposited when the lakes were at their deepest (Armenteros 1997 ). In addition, the abundant presence of typical fresh biota (annelids (H), gastropods, ostracods shells, charophytes, larval burrows and hydrobia (E) (Fig. 6A, B, C and D) in mudstone to wackestone texture indicates a lacustrine environment of shallow freshwater with water depth less than 10 m (Sim et al. 2006 ). In the massive marly limestones facies, terrigenous materials are rare (Fig. 6E). However, some sequences with smaller thickness are quite rich in detritic elements such as quartz grains. Thus, we propose that these levels could be the margins of the lake. The scarcity of terrigenous materials might indicate that the lake would be surrounded by flats acting as filters to clastic transport (Freytet 1973 , Armenteros 1997 ). Djammali et al. ( 2006 ) suggested that the scarcity of the siliciclastic in the lacustrine facies deposited in low topographical depressions or in the interchannel environments of distal alluvial environment might reflect the flooding phases of the adjacent fluvial channels. The abundant presence of voids totally covered by sparitic calcite (Fig. 6E, G) indicate the cementation in phreatic zone and filled rarely by vadose calcite indicate the alternation of flood period and short drying period. This would suggest therefore that the hydromorphism can be extended allowing the development of iron oxides traces. The peloidal matrix is composed of irregular forms of oncoids laminae, which are covered by calcite (Fig. 6G). Indeed, Fig. 6H show irregular laminations of sparite alternating with layers of oncoids. In summary, marly limestone facies of Bent Jedidi is a lacustrine carbonate that was formed in shallow lake with long flooding events. Peloidal rooted limestones facies Description This carbonate is beige in color. It has an average thickness of 1 m and contains plant residues and traces of roots. These deposits are of medium hardness with the presence of porosity at the upper part (Fig. 3 A). Thes facies contain wackestones to packestones with nodular appearance show mottling and modification by roots (Fig. 7 A, B et C), this root traces are present by horizontal and vertical cavities (Fig. 7 B) with 2 to 3 cm diameter and 10 cm of lenght. Indeed, the alveolar structure is abundant (Fig. 7 A). These several centimeters long cavities (Fig. 7 B) are fully or partially filled with coated grains or micrite. The mottled areas can also be outlined by desiccation cracks, which are easily recognized (Fig. 7 D). The cracks are filled with both microsparitic silt and blocky sparry calcite. In this granular limestone, peloidal limestones are well distinguished, including coated grains with irregular micrite laminae (Fig. 7 C). In some horizons, voids are partly filled with gypsum (Fig. 7 D.E). The presence of bioclast is dispersed in the micrite matrix (Fig. 6F). This fauna can be broken (gastropod fragment), or unbroken, well preserved and intact (ostracods fossil). Interpretation The common presence of root traces shows an exposure required for the development of vegetation. Indeed, the abundance of the alveolar structure (Fig. 7 A) and horizontal and vertical cavities that result from secondary processes crated along the former root traces. These traces of pedogenesis are associated with palustrine facies (Freytet and Plaziat 1982 ; Liutkus and Ashley 2003 ). This facies comprises the transition from the alluvial toward the shallow-water. The marginal palustrine sediments on low angle slope in a low energy environment (Bustillo et al. 2002 ). Plants occupied the margins of the basin and after decay their root were filled with sediment. On the other hand, the presence of granular limestone (Fig. 7 C) shows the top development of palustrine facies (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982 ; Alonso Zarza et al. 1992 a ; Armenteros et al. 1997 ) and characterizes carbonate sediments in many shallow lake systems (Pla-Pueyo et al. 2009 ). An alternation of dry and wet conditions is a necessary condition for the occurrence of this texture (Wrigt, 1990b , Pierre Freytet1 & Eric P. Verrecchia 2001 ). The activity of microorganisms, such us fungi and bacteria, would be the main cause for fragmentation and the coating of grains (Alonso-Zarza et al. 1992 a ). The period of desiccation is deduced in our work by the presence of horizontal cracks (Fig. 7 D), which promotes the enlargement of the complex network of root traces and horizontal cracks which are then filled by microsparitic silt and blocky sparry calcite that’s marked by color differences ’’beige to Brown’’ suggesting the occurrence of the cement in phreatic environment. Alternation of exposure and hydromorphism are associated with palustrine limestone (Djamali et al. 2006 , Freytet and Plaziat 1982 , Freytet and Verrecchia 2001 ). The micritic fragments formed by desiccations and root activity and were transported by water motion and deposited in root cavities. In addition, the late recrystallization of the voids with gypsum (Fig. 7 D, E). This might probably result from evaporation of concentrated surface waters saturated in calcium sulphate. Indeed, carbonate palustrine features can be associated with minerals such as palygorskite and gypsum (Freytet and Verrecchia, 2001 ). Finally, the presence of gastropods (Fig. 7 F) indicates an alkaline, oxygenated, shallow, fresh water environment (Casanova 1994 ; Pedley et al. 1996 ; Wet et al. 1998 ; Andrews et al. 2004 ; Pentecost et al. 2006 ; Ashley et al. 2009 ). Data of the current study showed that the palustrine facies of Hammam Bent Jedidi occurred in a shallow water environment with the exposure of the sediment to an arid climate. Silts and Marls facies This facies association is represented by many sequences, showing the alternation of marl/tufa limestones or silt/tufa limestones. These units, described in detail below, present an average thickness of 4 m (Fig. 3 C). The marly unit shows an average thickness of 50 to 80 cm. This facies is composed of greenish to gray rooted marlstones rich in organic matter. This facies of silts is associated with lenticular tufa limestones (log J3). The sediment is grey to yellowish silt facies and shows an average thickness of 1 m. Intact and broken ostracods are abundant. Tufa limestones This facies unit shows a 1, 5 m thickness (Fig. 8 A). At the outcrop scale, the observed features show successive alternations of tufa limestone facies and fine deposits. Tufa limestone facies, which are rich in root traces (Fig. 8 B) and planes skew as defined by Brewer ( 1964 ), are hard to very hard. Based on microscopic observations, four microfacies have been described consisting of (1) porous tufa, (2) stromatolite (3) mosses tufa and (4) cyanobacterial tufa. Porous tufa is the most developed in the microfacies of the Bent Jedidi basin. It consists of thin micritic calcite septa surrounding voids (Fig. 9A).These voids can be empty or filled with detrital particles or sparry calcite, and were temporarily occupied by plant roots. Algae filaments, 150 µm long and 5 µm in diameter, are present (Fig. 9B). Some voids do not have micritic envelopes (Fig. 9C) and were probably formed through the decay of organic matter shortly after the tufa precipitation or by a burrowing organism. Laminated structure consisting of dark and light layers. Alternations are grouped in thicker laminae (400 µm thick) (Fig. 9D). Some levels are recrystallized in the form of prismatic crystals that show a phreatic zone, and the existence of horizontal voids that can be filled with micrite and detrital deposits. Mosses tufa are rounded constructions (Fig. 9E, F), sometimes elongated. These spherulites appear with dark and clear edges that allow their individualization. The edges are 5 µm long, and can be single, double or triple. There are particles trapped in the moss that is encapsulated by cyanobacteria. Vugular porosity is present. Cyanobacterial tufa. Calcified cyanobacterial filaments (Fig. 10 A, B) were found. Mudstone with laminated structure consisting of dark and light pairs varied from 2 to 2.5 mm in thickness. The existence of porosity cut by larva burrows (Fig. 10 A, B). This cyanobacterial filament is organized in fan colonies (Fig. 10 C, D) with the recrystallization of the outward cortex of cyanobacteria by the sparite cementation (Fig. 10 E). Micrite displaying a clotted texture is common in the studied tufa samples (Fig. 10 F). Microorganisms are also present in tufa: “hydrobia’’ gastropods (Fig. 10 E) as well as annelids (Fig. 10 F), which show larvae activity. Interpretation In our work, we found unconsolidated tufa or ‘’spring chalk’’, which is often formed around the base of wetland plants (Juncus) according to the classification of Pentecost ( 1988 ). The presence of bacteria, algae, mosses, insects and plants in the tufa limestone facies (Fig. 9) indicates that tufas are meteogene developed at atmospheric temperature (Pedley 2000 ) and thermogene, despite the current presence of hot spring in the studied area. In addition, the common presence of tufa-laminated structure, mosses tufa, cyanobacterial tufa facies demonstrate their deposit in shallow zone conditions receiving enough sunlight for the macrophytes’ colonization. According to Kano et al. ( 2003 ), the sedimentary growth structure of the stromatolite facies shown in (Fig. 8 D) results from seasonal changes in precipitation rate: light-colored layers forming in summer-autumn and dark colored layers in winter-spring. Hydrobia shells, shown in (Fig. 10 G) and annelids (Fig. 10 H), are well preserved, which indicates a low energy environment with an ambient temperature between 10 and 30°C (Andrews, 2006 ). In addition, the occurrences of sphéroidal forms in oncoidal tufa (Fig. 8 C) provide evidence for sluggish flow regimes and static conditions (Ordonez et Garcia 1983 ). This interpretation is proved by the presence of algal balls (Fig. 9) and calcification features which denote shallow and clear water condition with gentle waves in marginal areas favoring the formation of algal structure (Fig. 9, Fig. 10 ). The rhythmicity between marl - tufa or silt – tufa (Fig. 3 C, Fig. 4 (J3)) has a close similarity with the commonest lithofacies in fluvial-barrage tufa deposits described by Pedley ( 1990 ). This tufa can be deposited as grain supported fabrics in fluvial channels or can be accumulated around phytoherm frame works in static water bodies (Ordonez and Garcia 1983 ). This cyclic sedimentation reflects cyclic paleoenvironmental variations. The tufa barrage formation depends on the oscillating water level in the environment and might be due to climatic fluctuations. Indeed, the gastropod/ostracod laminated marl facies corresponds to sedimentation in the central and deepest parts of this lacustrine environment (Djammali et al. 2006 ). However, the presence of oxidized root channels in marl facies is evidence for the hydromorphic conditions and a characteristic feature. Bipyramidic and rounded quartz grains, clasts and bioclasts such as gastropods of freshwater, smooth ostracods (Ovocythéridae) valves remains and Radioles were recovered from washed samples. The overall characteristics of this facies associations indicate climatic instability. One explanation for that alternation (silt/ tufa or marl/ tufa) might be due to the floods, which could be consequently, the partial erosion and the formation of detrital tufa downstream followed by terrigenous input deposits. Ordonez et al., ( 2005 ) explained that Holocene tufa formation appears to have been inhibited during the cold and dry episodes, probably because of high attrition rates associated with traction-dominated clast transportation and general calcium carbonate under saturation in Guadiana tributaries system. Interpretation and discussion Environmental control of the development of Lacustrine, Palustrine and Tufa deposits A summary of the paleoenvironmental interpretation of all facies and facies associations is presented in the diagram (Fig. 11 ). The carbonate complex of Bent Jedidi basin is deposited in a distal alluvial lacustrine palustrine plain. The bio indicators associated with this facies (gastropods, ostracods, hydrobia) make sure that is shallow fresh water. The presence of palustrine facies with root channel and desiccation cracks show near surface fluctuating water table. But the dominance of evaporite deposits (gypsuim) in J1 section show a closed hydrology therefore the Bent Jedidi basin is compared to a ‘’through-flow playa’’ that is defined by Rosen ( 1994 ) and cannot be compared with Zarand basin of Djamali et al 2006 . The presence of gastropods and ostracods in palustrine facies confirm the idea of Freytet and Plaziat 1982 . In continental basins with no marine influence, lacustrine-palustrine sedimentation has been controlled by climate and tectonism (Alonso Zarza and Wright 2010 , Alonso Zarza and Calvo 2000 , Alonso Zarza et al. 2000 ). In continental basins with no marine influence, climate and tectonism are the factors controlling the calcium carbonate precipitation (Alonso Zarza and Wright 2010 ) which might be the case in our study. Climate Lacustrine facies of the Bent Jedidi Lake were formed in sub-humid climates where flood is maximal. This climate has been recorded by terrestrial gastropods, fauna and phreatic diagenesis. The palustrine facies vary according to the climate regime (Plat and Wright 1992 ). In sub-humid climates, palustrine deposits include more organic matter (Alonso-Zarza et al. 2000 ). Conversely, pseudo-microkarst is an indication of semi-arid climates. More arid climates are optimal for evaporite nodules within the palustrine carbonates (Sanz et al. 1999 ). In this work, the presence of pseudo-microkarst and evaporite (gypsum) shows that the climate of Bent Jedidi was semi-arid to arid during the palustrine deposits period. Tufa is found in different climatic regimes but is particularly favored when there is a high level of water and an average temperature (Ford 1989 ; Pentecost 1995 ; Ford and Pedley 1996 ; Pentecost and Zhang 2001 ; Alonso Zarza, 2000 ; Andrews 2006 ). The presence of cyanobacteria mosses and algae shows meteogene tufa. According to Viles and Pentecost ( 2007 ), climate is very important for the presence or absence of tufa, but it does not contribute to tufa distribution which is in fact conditioned by the geomorphological context of the valley where the tufa forms. The studied tufa in this area shows close similarities with the general barrage model described by Pedley ( 1990 ) and Ford and Pedley ( 1996 ). The granulometry (coarse silt poorly sorted) and the grain morphology (rounded to sub-angular) agree with the field observations proving that this corresponds to a fine fluvial deposit (Antoine et al. 2006 ). This unit reflects sediment by suspension in a minor bed position in conjunction with episodic floods fed by a main channel of the meander-form type (Antoine et al. 2003 ). The carbonate facies of Bent Jedidi have been shown to be characteristically cyclic in origin: sub-humid climate favours lacustrine facies; semi-arid climate favours palustrine facies and humid climate favours tufa formation. Tectonism Climate is not the sole element that controls carbonate formation. The tectonism also plays a significant role (De wet et al. 1998 ). The carbonate deposits of the Bent Jedidi Basin are interpreted as sediments deposited in a fluvial plain. This region is an active zone where the major structural belt runs NE-SW with NW-SE Crossing faults (Fig. 1 ). The presence of large masses of conglomerate (detrital rocks) in particular, proves the existence of an important tectonic phase which liberated this material. The phases of tectonic quiescence could have been followed by a wet phase (perhaps violent) which mobilised these materials, followed by a milder wet phase, which generated the fine sandy deposition and muddy detrital materials (decanting) with vegetation development. In relatively stable basins, palustrine deposits are usually recognized (Molenaar and De Freytet 1985 ; Platt 1992 ). The climate, tectonics and source rock are very important to determine the lake basin morphology and the nature of the basin infills (Alonso-Zarza 2003 ; Alonso-Zarza and Calvo 2000 ; Bohacs et al. 2000 ). In this study we found fluvial lacustrine facies that provided evidence for ‘filled basins’. Conclusion Three main carbonate terrestrial environments (lacustrine, palustrine and Tufa) can be reconstructed through the petrographic description of their sediments. Their interpretation indicates a non-stagnant, non-stratified, freshwater setting, supersaturated with respect to carbonate. Water depth and energy is different from lacustrine to palustrine and tufa facies. (1) Lacustrine facies, Marly limestone with gastropods indicate fresh water sedimentation, voids was totaly covered by calcite that prouve phreatic zone. In contrast, (2) palustrine facies limestones are dominated by root cavities, cracks, gypsum that indicate subaerial conditions and evaporation of water concentration. (3) in calcareous tufa, we found mosses, cyanobacteria, larvaes and plant that indicate low energy with maximum exchange of gases with the atmosphere. This interpretation is fundamental to paleogeographic reconstruction. The Pleistocene deposits of bent Jedidi are formed under a more active tectonic regime dominated by marked subsidence pulses. Declarations Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors' contributions: F Tlili and K Regaya: Fieldwork, analysis and interpretation of the data; F Tlili, A Ayari and K Regaya: Drafting the manuscript; and F Tlili and A Ayari: Critical revision. All authors read and approved the manuscript. Funding: Research Laboratory “Geomatics of Geosystems” LR19ES07, Faculty of Letters, Arts and Humanities of Mannouba, Mannouba University, Manouba, Tunisia. Availability of data and materials: All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files). References Abdul Aziz H, Sanz-Rubio E, Calvo J, Hilgen F.J & Krijgsman, W (2003) Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of a middle Miocene Alluvial fan to cyclic shallow lacustrine depositional system in the Calatayud Basin (NE Spain). Sedimentology 211-236. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2003.00544. Alçiçek H & Jimenez-Moreno G (2003) Late Miocène to plio pleistocene Fulvio-lacustrine system in the Karacasu basin (SW Anatolia, Turkey) : depositional, paleogeographic and paleoclimatic implications. Journal of Sedimentary Geology 291: 62-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2013.03.014 Alonso-Zarza A. M, Genise J. F & Verde M (2014) Paleoenvironments and ichnotaxonomy of insect trace fossils in continental mudflat deposits of the Miocene Calatayud–Daroca Basin, Zaragoza, Spain. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 414: 342-351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.09.012 Alonso-Zarza A. M & Wright V. P (2010) Calcretes. Developments in sedimentology, 61, 225-267 Alonso-Zarza A.M, Zhao Z, Song C.H, Zhang Li.J, Martin-Garcia A, Wang X, Zhang Y, Zhang M (2009) Mud-flat / distal fan and shallow Lake sedimentation (upper vallesian-Turolian) in the Tianshui Basin, central china : Evidence against the late Miocene Eolian loess. Journal of Sedimentary Geology 42-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.03.010 Alonso-Zarza, A. M (2003) Palaeoenvironmental significance of palustrine carbonates and calcretes in the geological record. Earth-Science Reviews 60(3-4), 261-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00106-X Alonso-Zarza A.M, Calvo J.P (2000) Palustrine sedimentation in an episodically subsiding basin: the Miocene of the northern Teruel Graben (Spain). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160: 1 –21. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00041- 9. Alonso-Zarza A.M, Calvo J.P, Garcia Del Cura M.A (1992a) Palustrine sedimentation and associated features —grainification and pseudo-microkarst—in the Middle Miocene (Intermediate Unit) of the Madrid. Basin,Spain. Sedimentary Geology 76: 43– 61. 10.1016/0037-0738(92)90138-H Amundson, Ronald, Dietrich, William, Bellugi, Dino, et al. Geomorphologic evidence for the late Pliocene onset of hyperaridity in the Atacama Desert. Bulletin, 2012, vol. 124, 7-8: 1048-1070 https://doi.org/10.1130/B304451. Andrews J.E (2006) Paleoclimatic records from stable isotopes in riverine tufas Synthesis and review. Earth-Science Reviews 75: 85–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.08.002 Andrews J. M, Gurney W. S , Heath M. R, Gallego A, O'Brien C. M, Darby C, & Tyldesley G (2006) Modelling the spatial demography of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) on the European continental shelf. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63(5): 1027-1048. https://doi.org/10.1139/f06-006 Andrews J.E, Coletta P, Pentecost A, Riding R, Dennis S, Dennis P.F & Spiro B (2004) Equilibrium and disequilibrium stable isotope effects in modern Charophyte calcites: implications for palaeoenvironmental studies. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.Palaeoecol 204:101–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00725-9 Antoine P, Limondin-Lozouet N, Auguste P, Lochtj.-L, Galheb B, Reyss J.-L, Escudé E, Carbonel P, Mercier N, Bahain J.J, Falguères & C, Voinchetp (2006 ) Le tuf de Caours (Somme, France) : mise en évidenced’une séquence eemienne et d’un site paléolithique associé. Quaternaire 17: 281-320. https://doi.org/10.4000/quaternaire.880 Antoine P, Munaut A.V, Limondin-Lozouet N, Ponel P, Dupéron J. & Dupéron M (2003) Response of the Selle River to climatic modifications during the Lateglacial and Early Holocene (Somme Basin-Northern France). Quaternary Science Reviews 22: 2061-2076. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00180-X Armenteros I, Daley B & Garcia E (1997) Lacustrine and palustrine facies in the Bembridge Limestone (Late Eocene, Hamshire Basin) of Isle of Wight, southern England. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 128: 111 – 132. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(96)00108-3 Ashley G.M, Tactikos J.C & Owen R.B (2009) Hominin use of springs and wetands: paleoclimate and archeological records from Olduvai Gorge (~1.79–1.74 Ma). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol 272: 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.10.016 Benchilla L, Guilhaumou N, Mougin P, Jaswal T, & Roure F (2003) Reconstruction of palaeo‐burial history and pore fluid pressure in foothill areas: a sensitivity test in the Hammam Zriba (Tunisia) and Koh‐i‐Maran (Pakistan) ore deposits. Geofluids 3(2): 103-123. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-8123.2003.00053.x Bohacs K.M, Carrol A.R, Neal J.E & Mankiewicz P.J (2000) Lake-basin type, source potential, and hydrocarbon character: an integrated-sequence-stratigraphic – geochemical framework. In: Gierlowski-Kordesch, E.H., Kelts, K.R. (Eds.), Lake Basins through Space and Time. AAPG Studies in Geology, Tulsa, OK 46: 3 –34. Brewer R. (1964) Fabric and mineral analysis of soils Djamali M, Soulié-Märsche I, Esu D, Gliozzi E, & Okhravi R (2006) Palaeoenvironment of a Late Quaternary lacustrine–palustrine carbonate complex: Zarand Basin, Saveh, central Iran. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 237 (2-4): 315-334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.12.001 Casanova, J (1994) Stromatolites from the East African rift: a synopsis. In: Bertrand-Sarfati J, Monty C (Eds.), Phanerozoic Stromatolites II. Kluwer Academy Pub, Dordrecht 193–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1124-9_8 Cecil, C.B (1990) Paleoclimate controls on stratigraphic repetition of chemical and siliciclastic rocks. Geology 18: 533– 536. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1990)0182.3.CO;2 De Wet C, Yocum D.A, Mora C (1998) Carbonate lakes in the South western United States Spec. Paper 203. Geological closed basins sensitive indicators of climate and tectonics an example from the Gettysburg Basin Triassic Pennsylvania USA. Role of Eustasy Climate and Tectonism in Continental Rocks. SEPM Special Publ 59: 191–209. https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.98.59.0191 Ford, T.D (1989) Tufa – the whole dam story. Cave Science 16: 39–49. https://doi.org/ 10027009449 Ford, T.D. & Pedley, H.M (1996) A review of tufa and travertine deposits of the world. Earth-Science Reviews 41: 117–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(96)00030-X Freytet P (1973) Petrography and paleo-environment of continental carbonate deposits with particular reference to the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Eocene of Languedoc (Southern France). Sedimentary Geology 10(1): 25-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(73)90009-2 Freytet P, & Verrecchia E. P (2002) Lacustrine and palustrine carbonate petrography: an overview. Journal of Paleolimnology 27(2): 221-237. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014263722766 Freytet P & Plaziat J. C (1982) Continental carbonate sedimentation and pedogenesis-Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary of southern France Gierlowski-Kordesch E.H (1998) Carbonate deposition in an ephemeral siliciclastic alluvial plain: Jurassic shuttte Meadow formation, Hartford Basin, Newark super group, USA. Journal of Paleogegraphy, paleoclimatology 40: 161-184. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00039-X Gurel A, & Kadir S (2010) Paleoenvironmental approach to the Geology, mineralogy and geochemistry of an early Miocene alluvial- Fan to cyclic shallow lacustrine depositional system in the aktoprak Basin (central Anatolia), Turkey. Clay mineral 45: 51-75. https://doi.org/10.1180/claymin.2010.045.1.51 Kano M, Tanaka S, Hasebe S, Hashimoto I & Ohno H (2003) Monitoring independent components for fault detection. AIChE Journal 49(4): 969-976. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690490414 Liutkus C. M, Ashley G. M (2003) Facies model of a semiarid freshwater wetland, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Journal of Sedimentary Research 73(5): 691-705. https://doi.org/10.1306/021303730691 Molenaar N, Defeyter A.J 1985 Carbonates Associated With Alluvial Fans: An Example From The Messinian Colombacci Formation Of The Pietrarubbia Basin, Northern Marche Italy. Sediment Geol 42: 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(85)90070-3 Ordo´N˜ Ez S, Gonza´Lez Marti´N J.A, Garci´A Del Cura M.A & Pedley H.M (2005) Temperate And Semi Arid Tufas In The Pleistocene To Recent Fluvial Barrage System In The Mediterranean Area: The Ruidera Lakes Natural Park (Central spain). Geomorphology 69: 332–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.02.002 Ordóñez S, & García del Cura M. A (1983) Recent and Tertiary fluvial carbonates in Central Spain. Modern and ancient fluvial systems 485-497. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444303773.ch39 Pedley M (2000) Ambient temperature freshwater microbial tufas. In Microbial sediments (179-186). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-04036-2_20 Pedley H.M (1990) Classification and Environmental Models Of Cool Freshwater Tufas. Sed. Geol 68: 143–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(90)90124-C Pedley M, Andrews J, Ordonez S, Garcia Del Cura M, Gonzales Martin J.A & Taylor D (1996) Does Climate Control The Morphological Fabric Of Freshwater Carbonates? A Comparative Study Of Holocene Barrage Tufas From Spain And Britain. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol 121: 239–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(95)00080-1 Pentecost A, Andrews J.E, Dennis P.F, Marca-Bell & Dennis S (2006) Charophyte Growth In Small Temperate Water Bodies: Extreme Isotopic Disequilibrium And Implications For The Palaeoecology Of Shallow Marl Lakes. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol240: 389–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.02.008 Pentecost A & Zhang Z (2001) A Review Of Chinese Travertines. Cave And Karst science 28: 15–28. Pentecost A (1995) The quaternary travertine deposits of Europe and Asia Minor. Quaternary Science Reviews 14(10): 1005-1028. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(95)00101-8 Pentecost A (1988) Observations on growth rates and calcium carbonate deposition in the green alga Gongrosira. New phytologist 110(2): 249-253. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1988.tb00259.x Platt N.H (1992) Fresh-Water Carbonates From The Lower Freshwater Molasse (Oligocene, Western Switzerland): Sedimentology And Stable Isotopes. Sediment. Geol 78: 81-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(92)90114-7 Platt N. H & Wright V. P (1992) Palustrine carbonates and the Florida Everglades; towards an exposure index for the fresh-water environment. Journal of Sedimentary Research 62(6): 1058-1071. https://doi.org/10.1306/D4267A4B-2B26-11D7-8648000102C1865D Platt N.H & Wright V.P (1991) Lacustrine Carbonates: Facies Models, Facies Distribution And Hydrocarbon Aspects. In: Anado´N,P,Cabrera,L., Kelts, K. (Eds.), Lacustrine Facies Analysis. Special Publication International Association Of Sedimentologists 13: 57– 74. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444303919.ch3 Pla-Pueyo S, Gierlowski-Kordesch E. H, Viseras C, & Soria J. M (2009) Major controls on sedimentation during the evolution of a continental basin: Pliocene–Pleistocene of the Guadix Basin (Betic Cordillera, southern Spain). Sedimentary Geology 219(1-4): 97-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.05.001 Rayang W.H, Chough S.K (1999) Alluvial To Lacustrine Systems In A Pull- Appart Margin : South Western Eumsing Basin (Cretaceous, Korea. Sedimentology 127: 31-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(99)00018-4 Rosen M. R (1994) The importance of groundwater in playas: a review of playa classifications and the sedimentology and hydrology of playas. https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE289-p1 Sanz E, Hoyos M, Calvo J.P & Rouchy J.M (1999) Nodular Anhydrite Growth Controlled By Pedogenic Structures In Evaporite Lake Formations. Sedimentary Geology 125: 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(98)00150-X Sanz M.E, Alonso-Zarza A.M & Calvo J.P (1995) Carbonate Pond Deposits Related To Semi Arid Alluvial Systems: Examples From The Tertiary Madrid Basin, Spain. Sedimentology 42: 437– 452. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1995.tb00383.x Sim L.L, Chambers J.M. & Davis J.A (2006) Ecological Regime Shifts In Salinised Wetland Systems. I. Salinity Thresholds For The Loss Of Submerged Macrophytes. Hydrobiologia 573: 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-006-0267-0 Turkem I, Aksoy E & Tasgin C.K (2007) Alluvial And Lacustrine Facies In An Extensional Basin : The Miocene Of Malatya Basin, Eastern Turkey. Journal Of Asian Earth Sciences 30: 181-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.08.006 Viles H. A & Pentecost A. (2007) Tufa and travertine. Geochemical sediments and landscapes 173-199. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470712917.ch6 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 15 Apr, 2023 Read the published version in Carbonates and Evaporites → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revision 18 Dec, 2022 Reviews received at journal 17 Dec, 2022 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 Dec, 2022 Reviews received at journal 19 Nov, 2022 Reviewers agreed at journal 13 Nov, 2022 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 Nov, 2022 Reviewers invited by journal 05 Nov, 2022 Editor assigned by journal 05 Nov, 2022 Submission checks completed at journal 04 Nov, 2022 First submitted to journal 29 Oct, 2022 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-2217267","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":149648917,"identity":"4a9c5338-1523-43cd-a919-b5e2b4a0e278","order_by":0,"name":"Faouzia Tlili","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABEElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC9gYQacDAwMfM3HAgocJGjh8kkFDAwI9LC88BiBYJNmbGhgMPzqQZS4IMSTBgANO4tTAAtTAwNjA+bDucuAFqCG4t7IePSf4osKtjY2dsPJDYlmZsfH514ocHQHvNcejh4UlLk5AwSIY4LOGcjZzZjbebJYAOk5A5gF2LPUOOmYSBATNUS1masdmNsxtAWuokcDmM/40ZUEE9VAvb4cTNM85u/gGyBacWCaAtBwwOQ7WAvM/fu00Cv5ZnyZYNBscl28BagIEscYN3m0WCgQRuLfzJB2/++FPNz89/+PDHH6Co7D+7+SaQgVMLFiCRACaJ18DAwH+AFNWjYBSMglEwAgAA5B5YcNRZxlgAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Carthage","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Faouzia","middleName":"","lastName":"Tlili","suffix":""},{"id":149648918,"identity":"82f0004d-ccab-4d44-908c-bea9b28280d9","order_by":1,"name":"Asma Ayari","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Carthage","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Asma","middleName":"","lastName":"Ayari","suffix":""},{"id":149648919,"identity":"2b9d24ac-8abe-4342-813d-29711562a53f","order_by":2,"name":"Kamel Regaya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Carthage","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kamel","middleName":"","lastName":"Regaya","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-10-29 22:29:03","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2217267/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2217267/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-023-00870-0","type":"published","date":"2023-04-15T20:27:31+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":28873063,"identity":"c0fb9505-a1cc-4d15-af63-8980d0ae680a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:47:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":11162772,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeological map of Bent Jedidi Basin (1- Jebel Hammam; 2- Jebel Azreg; 3- Hammem Jedidi fault)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/9107c03c8ebd630d940049d6.jpg"},{"id":28872821,"identity":"1293a6f2-791f-410a-b4cf-01ede9c85770","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":20413160,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeographical distribution of Bent Jedidi carbonates\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/9fd6ab8feb29acd5effd05ea.jpg"},{"id":28872820,"identity":"64217d3a-7567-4a5b-8774-c1a7425e6ee3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3313006,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOutcrop overviews of completed successions shown in Figure 2 (A) lower part with conglomerates (C), a exposed middle part with oxidation (Ox) and marl (M), and capped by massive limestone (L) and porous limestone (Pl); (B) alternation of alluvial channels filled with conglomerates (C) and marl (M) capped by limestone (L) and porous limestone (PL); (C) alternation of sequences silt (S)- tufa (T) , Marl (M)- tufa (T) capped by massive limestone (L);(D) massive limestone (L) intercalated by Silt (S).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/79fa29be851c10196fde29b9.jpg"},{"id":28872817,"identity":"1ac63095-49fa-47db-aa02-4e99c1af036f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":317690,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSedimentary logs : A) Dominant palustrine facies that contain gypsum and microkarsts ; B) Dominant lacustrine facies that contain gastropods and ostracods; C) Dominant tufa facies that contain algae cyanobacteria and hydrobia\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/bbac58659ba90ddc89742e47.jpg"},{"id":28872822,"identity":"b9153dba-91b3-4cbf-9037-21e1917ba86e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17650472,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConglomerate facies: A) Conglomeratic mass; B) heterometric materials; C) finer deposits; D) Paleosol\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/6e8f8fe25d7ce840c5e71de9.jpg"},{"id":28872826,"identity":"544a1fa8-29e2-4792-b6fd-801ff1ce344d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39520578,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLacustrine limestone microfacies:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(A) \u0026nbsp;Marly limestone with vug porosity and Gastropods: G: Gastropods; (B) Ostracods in marly limestone: O:ostrocods; (C) Fossil fragments in micritic matrix (LN) : V :Voids; (D) Fossil fragments in micritic matrix (LPA);\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(E ) Marly limestone with grains of quartz: C: Calcite ; Q: Quartz; (F) Oxidation: V: Voids, Ox: Oxidation; (G ) Oncoids ; (H) Recrystallization of calcite : O:Oncoliths\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/4cbfd55ee25fdb84ebcd4261.jpg"},{"id":28872823,"identity":"e372942f-bac0-4126-a63a-16685d5efd4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":32100376,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePalustrine limestone microfacies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(A)Alveolar structure (A); (B) Root cavities: Q: Quartz, R c: Root cavities; (C )Peloidal limestone: Peloidal grain; (D) Desiccation cracks: C:Cracks; (E)Gypsum (G); (F)Gastropods (G)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/14c7639a208eb1d9db1723ff.jpg"},{"id":28872818,"identity":"f05465bd-4d7b-41a8-bc26-50f18a7d077f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1747149,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ecalcareous Tufa facies (A) Tufa facies (T); (B) Root traces (Rt); (C) Skew (S), (D) detail of Skew (S).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/55c0a1444babd412b43d8801.jpg"},{"id":28872824,"identity":"564c34ae-cc1a-45b2-84dd-649b24bcfa6e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34759290,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTufa micro facies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA) Porous tufa with micritic calcite septa (S), (B) Algae filament (Voids), (C) Voids without micritic envelopes, (D) Stromatolite with laminated structure, (E) Moss tufa; (F) Moss tufa with irregular porosity\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/0e5d9fdbc08a9a7f60855ac9.jpg"},{"id":28872825,"identity":"fa747a3a-9da9-420e-b1fe-9255c8cffec9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:21","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43071432,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCyanobacterial tufa: (A) Calcified cyanobacterial filament (LN), (B) Calcified cyanobacterial filament (LPA), (C) Colony of cyanobacteria, (D) Termination of cyanobacteria filament, ( E) Sparite cementation,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(F) Clotted micrite, (G) Gastropods (Hydrobia), (H) Annelids\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/0a90ae9bbe643e18bd992026.jpg"},{"id":28872816,"identity":"89e99b29-252f-42b9-acae-f7f5104fc074","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-11-09 20:39:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47788,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSimplified model for the lateral succession of the Lacustrine, Palustrine and Tufa facies. J1 (Section 1), J2 (section 2), J3 (section 3) et \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;J4 (section 4)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/6e1531c1d612449d82f62c0c.jpg"},{"id":44725326,"identity":"65f721a2-1256-4545-9421-a6406530ad14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2023-10-16 20:40:25","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3473051,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-2217267/v1/1861a374-c654-4dd2-afc3-7e0ebe256784.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Depositional controls on formation of Quaternary lacustrine Tufa Bent Jedidi spring systems, NE Tunisia","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study of lake deposits recently has been rendered much interest around the world due to palaeoenvironmental interpretations about paleoclimate, palaeotectonic conditions and palaeodepositional systems at different scales (Abdul Aziz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Alcicek and Jim\u0026eacute;nez-Moreno \u003cb\u003e2013\u003c/b\u003e; Alonso-Zarza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e ; Gurel and Kadir \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Microorganisms\u0026rsquo; distribution as well as their associated sedimentary structures are used to reconstruct the past environmental and climatic conditions, and to further explore the factors that controlled their genesis mode.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbonate formation is usually associated with climate and water table (Cecil \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Amundson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).While very arid or very humid climates do not present the best conditions for carbonate deposition in a lake (Cecil \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e), semi-arid to sub-humid climates present the most favorable conditions for its formation (Platt and Wright \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Sanz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Gierlowski Kordesch \u003cb\u003e1998\u003c/b\u003e). In semi-arid climates, the low activity of alluvial systems combined with the carbonate hinterland and surficial plus groundwater supply is the more favourable conditions for lacustrine limestone deposition (Alonso- Zarza \u0026amp;Wright \u003cb\u003e2010\u003c/b\u003e, John J. G. Reijmer et al. \u003cb\u003e2021\u003c/b\u003e). Palustrine limestones are a lacustrine limestone that responds to the modification of carbonate- rich muds by wetting and drying under subaerial exposure (Armenteros et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cb\u003e1998\u003c/b\u003e). They are common in relatively flat and low- energy lakes and thus slight variations in lake level can cause the exposure of significant lake areas (Alonso- Zarza \u003cb\u003e2003\u003c/b\u003e; Alonso- Zarza et al. \u003cb\u003e2014\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite many studies focusing on ancient and recent lacustrine and palustrine deposits in the northern coast of the Mediterranean basin (Rayang and Crave at Bec Rouge 1999; and Turkemet al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), the Tunisian paleoclimate signatures, a new approach to palaeosol development in the lacustrine margins, relationships between tufas, paleosol and lacustrine deposition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on Pleistocene Lacustrine, palustrine and Tufa deposits outcropping in the north eastern Tunisia, in Hammam Bent Jedidi basin which are a typical example of lacustrine, palustrine and tufa deposits of Quaternary age.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to (a) describe the different continental carbonate sections, (b) to analyse the variations in petrophysical properties of lacustrine, palustrine and Tufa carbonate, (c) to resolve which factors (climatic and environmental) determine the petrography characteristics of these carbonate.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Geographical And Geological Setting","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe studied sediment samples are part of the Pleistocene Bent Jedidi Basin (Johan \u003cstrong\u003e1965\u003c/strong\u003e), which is located in the northeastern Tunisia, distant 2.4 km from Hammam Bent Jedidi (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis area is characterized by a semi-arid climate with a mean annual air temperature of about 19\u0026deg;C and annual precipitation of 300 to 400 mm.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe northeast of Tunisia is mostly composed by mountainous landscape and marked by the NE-SW trend of folds vergence and overlaps that accompany them.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Zaghouan area is characterized by two major NE trending tectonic features: the Zaghouan and the Hammam Jedidi faults (Benchilla et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe basement and surrounding mountains are composed of geological series extending from the Trias to the Quaternary (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). It represents the fluorine province of Zaghouan (Floridia \u003cstrong\u003e1973\u003c/strong\u003e). The Neogene succession is bound by siliciclastic and evaporitic formations of Triassic age and dolomites of the Jurassic.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCretaceous outcrops are widespread and are represented by indurated nodular greyish limestones and marly limestones, whereas the Tertiary is manifested by olive-green marls with ages ranging from Upper Maastrichtian to Paleocene. These marls are capped by the dark gray limestones of the Eocene, later by the sandy and then marly complex of the Oligocene. The Mio-Pliocene and the Quaternary are exposed in the area and represented by the paleosols and carbonates, The study area presents many outcrops along the basin. The deposits are divided into two parts by the Wadi El Mellah affluent allowing the release of a wide marshy area covered with the vegetation of the Juncus sp. family, fed by the thermal water of Hammam bent Jedidi (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This natural cut allowed us to better visualize the different constitutive facies of these deposits, their organization and their spatial distributions. These facies show no distinctive feature to make their correlation possible. However, from one place to another, variation was observed either in their thickness as well as in their surface state, which are the objectives of our work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Materials And Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study area presents many outcrops along the sides of gully that consist predominantly of one facies, grey mudstones with carbonate nodules which exceed rarely 2 m of thickness and show no distinctive feature to make their correlation possible. Nevertheless, there are two compartment of Bent Jedidi Basin showing good outcrops from which Nine sedimentary logs were described and measured in outcrops to define the main facies vertical associations as well as their spatial distribution (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). However, only four sedimentary profiles (J1, J2, J3 and J4) of Quaternary carbonate (upper Pleistocene age) showing good outcrops were selected (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) in order to be the best representative of the facies succession along the geological transect.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ethe sedimentary logs (J1,and J2) were measured(Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) in the right compartment. Logs J3 and J4 were measured from left compartment (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Total 90 samples were taken from different points around the basin and were collected in the field and analysed to determine the facies variations, porosity, permeability, sediment composition and gamma- ray value. The applied methodology included macroscopic description and petrographic description of samples. Some representative samples were impregnated with resin induration (araldite) to prepare thin sections and are observed under an optical microscope. Photographs were taken to investigate the different microfacies present in these carbonates. In addition to use conventional descriptive features such as grain size, grain composition and interpretation of sedimentary structure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eFacies analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarbonate facies of the sedimentary deposits in the Bent Jedidi Basin alternate with detritic deposits extending from the upstream to the downstream of the basin. The deposits have five sedimentary facies including conglomerates, marly limestones, peloidal rooted limestones, bacterial tufa limestones, silt and marl facies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec5\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eConglomerate facies\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe conglomerate facies comprise beds 3 to 4 m thick and 2 to 3 m in lateral extend (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA). The contact of the conglomerate bodies with underlying units is erosional whereas their upper contact is planar and transitional with the overlying beds. At the outcrop scale, this unevenly hardened conglomerate extends towards the center of the basin in channels or in gentle slope of thin alluvial fans (1 to 1.5 cm thickness). In detail, the studied material contains calcareous, dolomitic pebbles and gravels. They range in shape from rounded to flattened and their size varies from 1 to 20 cm in diameter. These conglomerates are perfectly stratified (cross stratification). The disordered sediments (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eB), which are mainly cemented by carbonates become ordered (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC) towards the top of the section. These detrital deposits show planar or slightly oblique stratifications, which are organized in a succession of positive sequences. Some flattened grains are inclined and oriented, indicating the direction of the generating current of these deposits. The directions of stratifications are the N80 and E-NE. In this section, there are 2 to 3 positive sequences intercalated by very fine silty deposits of reddish color and containing bioturbation (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eD).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec6\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eInterpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe lenticular geometry, the grain size well rounded sands and pebbles, positive sequences, and lateral relationships with adjacent units suggest deposition in fluvial channels. The arrangement of inclined pebbles indicates the direction of the hydraulic flow. The planar to slightly inclined strata are probably the result of clast imbrication. Indeed, there is plenty of imbricated clasts. The dominance of carbonate deposits shows that channels are located in the middle of a depositional environment dominated by carbonate sedimentation. Analogue observations were found in the Miocene of the Teruel Graben, Spain by Alonso-Zarza and Calvo. \u003cstrong\u003e2000\u003c/strong\u003e and in the late Quaternary of the Zarand Basin, Saveh, central Iran by Djamal et al. \u003cstrong\u003e2006\u003c/strong\u003e. In Bent Jedidi, rock fragments, calcareous pebbles were transported within this paleo-channel from siliciclastic and evaporite formations of Trias, dolomites of Jurassic and limestones and marly limestones of Cretaceous.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe types of carbonates channel fills are similar to those found in the late quaternary of the Zarand Basin, central Iran by (Djamali et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec7\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eMarly limestone facies\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe thickness of these unit beds varies from 50 cm to 2 m (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eB). They are generally laminated limestone beds separated by marly and silty joints of 3 to 5 cm thickness.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt the margins of the basin, the limestone layers have a thickness less than that of the bottom of the basin, and they are rich in detrital elements (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eB) compared to those of the bottom of the basin. In the bottom, limestone beds, generally thin, cover the conglomeratic levels. They are very indurated and marked by a fine porosity as the canalicul of 1 mm in diameter and several mm in length. These limestones of average hardness are porous and of beige color.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMicroscopic observations show facies of wackestone mudstone containing fragments of fossils and vugular porosity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6A). Root traces and desiccation features are absent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe most interesting sedimentological feature of this facies is the abundant presence of preserved and unbroken gastropod shells, charophytes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6A) and ostracods (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6B, C, D). Only rare, dispersed grains of quartz (less than 1%) are present (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6E). Voids are fully cemented with sparitic calcite (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6E) and iron oxides (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6F). The peloidal matrix is composed of irregular forms of oncoids laminae, which are covered by calcite (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6G, H).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec8\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eInterpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this facies, the absence of any features indicative of exposure (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6) supports the view that marly limestones were deposited when the lakes were at their deepest (Armenteros \u003cstrong\u003e1997\u003c/strong\u003e). In addition, the abundant presence of typical fresh biota (annelids (H), gastropods, ostracods shells, charophytes, larval burrows and hydrobia (E) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6A, B, C and D) in mudstone to wackestone texture indicates a lacustrine environment of shallow freshwater with water depth less than 10 m (Sim et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the massive marly limestones facies, terrigenous materials are rare (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6E). However, some sequences with smaller thickness are quite rich in detritic elements such as quartz grains. Thus, we propose that these levels could be the margins of the lake. The scarcity of terrigenous materials might indicate that the lake would be surrounded by flats acting as filters to clastic transport (Freytet \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1973\u003c/span\u003e, Armenteros \u003cstrong\u003e1997\u003c/strong\u003e). Djammali et al. (\u003cstrong\u003e2006\u003c/strong\u003e) suggested that the scarcity of the siliciclastic in the lacustrine facies deposited in low topographical depressions or in the interchannel environments of distal alluvial environment might reflect the flooding phases of the adjacent fluvial channels.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe abundant presence of voids totally covered by sparitic calcite (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6E, G) indicate the cementation in phreatic zone and filled rarely by vadose calcite indicate the alternation of flood period and short drying period. This would suggest therefore that the hydromorphism can be extended allowing the development of iron oxides traces.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe peloidal matrix is composed of irregular forms of oncoids laminae, which are covered by calcite (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6G). Indeed, Fig.\u0026nbsp;6H show irregular laminations of sparite alternating with layers of oncoids.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn summary, marly limestone facies of Bent Jedidi is a lacustrine carbonate that was formed in shallow lake with long flooding events.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec9\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePeloidal rooted limestones facies\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Section3\" id=\"Sec10\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eDescription\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis carbonate is beige in color. It has an average thickness of 1 m and contains plant residues and traces of roots. These deposits are of medium hardness with the presence of porosity at the upper part (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThes facies contain wackestones to packestones with nodular appearance show mottling and modification by roots (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eA, B et C), this root traces are present by horizontal and vertical cavities (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eB) with 2 to 3 cm diameter and 10 cm of lenght. Indeed, the alveolar structure is abundant (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eA). These several centimeters long cavities (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eB) are fully or partially filled with coated grains or micrite. The mottled areas can also be outlined by desiccation cracks, which are easily recognized (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eD). The cracks are filled with both microsparitic silt and blocky sparry calcite.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this granular limestone, peloidal limestones are well distinguished, including coated grains with irregular micrite laminae (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eC). In some horizons, voids are partly filled with gypsum (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eD.E). The presence of bioclast is dispersed in the micrite matrix (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6F). This fauna can be broken (gastropod fragment), or unbroken, well preserved and intact (ostracods fossil).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec11\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eInterpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe common presence of root traces shows an exposure required for the development of vegetation. Indeed, the abundance of the alveolar structure (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eA) and horizontal and vertical cavities that result from secondary processes crated along the former root traces. These traces of pedogenesis are associated with palustrine facies (Freytet and Plaziat \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Liutkus and Ashley \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). This facies comprises the transition from the alluvial toward the shallow-water. The marginal palustrine sediments on low angle slope in a low energy environment (Bustillo et al. \u003cstrong\u003e2002\u003c/strong\u003e). Plants occupied the margins of the basin and after decay their root were filled with sediment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, the presence of granular limestone (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eC) shows the top development of palustrine facies (Freytet and Plaziat, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Alonso Zarza et al. \u003cstrong\u003e1992 a\u003c/strong\u003e; Armenteros et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) and characterizes carbonate sediments in many shallow lake systems (Pla-Pueyo et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). An alternation of dry and wet conditions is a necessary condition for the occurrence of this texture (Wrigt, \u003cstrong\u003e1990b\u003c/strong\u003e, Pierre Freytet1 \u0026amp; Eric P. Verrecchia \u003cstrong\u003e2001\u003c/strong\u003e). The activity of microorganisms, such us fungi and bacteria, would be the main cause for fragmentation and the coating of grains (Alonso-Zarza et al. \u003cstrong\u003e1992 a\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe period of desiccation is deduced in our work by the presence of horizontal cracks (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eD), which promotes the enlargement of the complex network of root traces and horizontal cracks which are then filled by microsparitic silt and blocky sparry calcite that\u0026rsquo;s marked by color differences \u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;beige to Brown\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo; suggesting the occurrence of the cement in phreatic environment. Alternation of exposure and hydromorphism are associated with palustrine limestone (Djamali et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, Freytet and Plaziat \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e, Freytet and Verrecchia \u003cstrong\u003e2001\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe micritic fragments formed by desiccations and root activity and were transported by water motion and deposited in root cavities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the late recrystallization of the voids with gypsum (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eD, E). This might probably result from evaporation of concentrated surface waters saturated in calcium sulphate. Indeed, carbonate palustrine features can be associated with minerals such as palygorskite and gypsum (Freytet and Verrecchia, \u003cstrong\u003e2001\u003c/strong\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFinally, the presence of gastropods (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eF) indicates an alkaline, oxygenated, shallow, fresh water environment (Casanova \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Pedley et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Wet et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Andrews et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Pentecost et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Ashley et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eData of the current study showed that the palustrine facies of Hammam Bent Jedidi occurred in a shallow water environment with the exposure of the sediment to an arid climate.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec12\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eSilts and Marls facies\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis facies association is represented by many sequences, showing the alternation of marl/tufa limestones or silt/tufa limestones. These units, described in detail below, present an average thickness of 4 m (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eC).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe marly unit shows an average thickness of 50 to 80 cm. This facies is composed of greenish to gray rooted marlstones rich in organic matter. This facies of silts is associated with lenticular tufa limestones (log J3). The sediment is grey to yellowish silt facies and shows an average thickness of 1 m. Intact and broken ostracods are abundant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec13\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTufa limestones\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis facies unit shows a 1, 5 m thickness (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eA). At the outcrop scale, the observed features show successive alternations of tufa limestone facies and fine deposits. Tufa limestone facies, which are rich in root traces (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eB) and planes skew as defined by Brewer (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1964\u003c/span\u003e), are hard to very hard.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBased on microscopic observations, four microfacies have been described consisting of (1) porous tufa, (2) stromatolite (3) mosses tufa and (4) cyanobacterial tufa.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePorous tufa is the most developed in the microfacies of the Bent Jedidi basin. It consists of thin micritic calcite septa surrounding voids (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9A).These voids can be empty or filled with detrital particles or sparry calcite, and were temporarily occupied by plant roots. Algae filaments, 150 \u0026micro;m long and 5 \u0026micro;m in diameter, are present (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9B). Some voids do not have micritic envelopes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9C) and were probably formed through the decay of organic matter shortly after the tufa precipitation or by a burrowing organism.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLaminated structure consisting of dark and light layers. Alternations are grouped in thicker laminae (400 \u0026micro;m thick) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9D). Some levels are recrystallized in the form of prismatic crystals that show a phreatic zone, and the existence of horizontal voids that can be filled with micrite and detrital deposits.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMosses tufa are rounded constructions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9E, F), sometimes elongated. These spherulites appear with dark and clear edges that allow their individualization. The edges are 5 \u0026micro;m long, and can be single, double or triple. There are particles trapped in the moss that is encapsulated by cyanobacteria. Vugular porosity is present.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCyanobacterial tufa. Calcified cyanobacterial filaments (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eA, B) were found. Mudstone with laminated structure consisting of dark and light pairs varied from 2 to 2.5 mm in thickness. The existence of porosity cut by larva burrows (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eA, B). This cyanobacterial filament is organized in fan colonies (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eC, D) with the recrystallization of the outward cortex of cyanobacteria by the sparite cementation (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eE). Micrite displaying a clotted texture is common in the studied tufa samples (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eF). Microorganisms are also present in tufa: \u0026ldquo;hydrobia\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo; gastropods (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eE) as well as annelids (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eF), which show larvae activity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec14\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eInterpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn our work, we found unconsolidated tufa or \u0026lsquo;\u0026rsquo;spring chalk\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo;, which is often formed around the base of wetland plants (Juncus) according to the classification of Pentecost (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe presence of bacteria, algae, mosses, insects and plants in the tufa limestone facies (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9) indicates that tufas are meteogene developed at atmospheric temperature (Pedley \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) and thermogene, despite the current presence of hot spring in the studied area. In addition, the common presence of tufa-laminated structure, mosses tufa, cyanobacterial tufa facies demonstrate their deposit in shallow zone conditions receiving enough sunlight for the macrophytes\u0026rsquo; colonization. According to Kano et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), the sedimentary growth structure of the stromatolite facies shown in (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eD) results from seasonal changes in precipitation rate: light-colored layers forming in summer-autumn and dark colored layers in winter-spring.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHydrobia shells, shown in (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eG) and annelids (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eH), are well preserved, which indicates a low energy environment with an ambient temperature between 10 and 30\u0026deg;C (Andrews, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, the occurrences of sph\u0026eacute;roidal forms in oncoidal tufa (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eC) provide evidence for sluggish flow regimes and static conditions (Ordonez et Garcia \u003cstrong\u003e1983\u003c/strong\u003e). This interpretation is proved by the presence of algal balls (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9) and calcification features which denote shallow and clear water condition with gentle waves in marginal areas favoring the formation of algal structure (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe rhythmicity between marl - tufa or silt \u0026ndash; tufa (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eC, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e (J3)) has a close similarity with the commonest lithofacies in fluvial-barrage tufa deposits described by Pedley (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). This tufa can be deposited as grain supported fabrics in fluvial channels or can be accumulated around phytoherm frame works in static water bodies (Ordonez and Garcia \u003cstrong\u003e1983\u003c/strong\u003e). This cyclic sedimentation reflects cyclic paleoenvironmental variations. The tufa barrage formation depends on the oscillating water level in the environment and might be due to climatic fluctuations. Indeed, the gastropod/ostracod laminated marl facies corresponds to sedimentation in the central and deepest parts of this lacustrine environment (Djammali et al. \u003cstrong\u003e2006\u003c/strong\u003e). However, the presence of oxidized root channels in marl facies is evidence for the hydromorphic conditions and a characteristic feature. Bipyramidic and rounded quartz grains, clasts and bioclasts such as gastropods of freshwater, smooth ostracods (Ovocyth\u0026eacute;ridae) valves remains and Radioles were recovered from washed samples. The overall characteristics of this facies associations indicate climatic instability.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOne explanation for that alternation (silt/ tufa or marl/ tufa) might be due to the floods, which could be consequently, the partial erosion and the formation of detrital tufa downstream followed by terrigenous input deposits. Ordonez et al., (\u003cstrong\u003e2005\u003c/strong\u003e) explained that Holocene tufa formation appears to have been inhibited during the cold and dry episodes, probably because of high attrition rates associated with traction-dominated clast transportation and general calcium carbonate under saturation in Guadiana tributaries system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec15\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eInterpretation and discussion\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Section3\" id=\"Sec16\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eEnvironmental control of the development of Lacustrine, Palustrine and Tufa deposits\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA summary of the paleoenvironmental interpretation of all facies and facies associations is presented in the diagram (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe carbonate complex of Bent Jedidi basin is deposited in a distal alluvial lacustrine palustrine plain. The bio indicators associated with this facies (gastropods, ostracods, hydrobia) make sure that is shallow fresh water. The presence of palustrine facies with root channel and desiccation cracks show near surface fluctuating water table. But the dominance of evaporite deposits (gypsuim) in J1 section show a closed hydrology therefore the Bent Jedidi basin is compared to a \u0026lsquo;\u0026rsquo;through-flow playa\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo; that is defined by Rosen (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) and cannot be compared with Zarand basin of Djamali et al \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe presence of gastropods and ostracods in palustrine facies confirm the idea of Freytet and Plaziat \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e. In continental basins with no marine influence, lacustrine-palustrine sedimentation has been controlled by climate and tectonism (Alonso Zarza and Wright \u003cstrong\u003e2010\u003c/strong\u003e, Alonso Zarza and Calvo \u003cstrong\u003e2000\u003c/strong\u003e, Alonso Zarza et al. \u003cstrong\u003e2000\u003c/strong\u003e). In continental basins with no marine influence, climate and tectonism are the factors controlling the calcium carbonate precipitation (Alonso Zarza and Wright \u003cstrong\u003e2010\u003c/strong\u003e) which might be the case in our study.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec17\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eClimate\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLacustrine facies of the Bent Jedidi Lake were formed in sub-humid climates where flood is maximal. This climate has been recorded by terrestrial gastropods, fauna and phreatic diagenesis. The palustrine facies vary according to the climate regime (Plat and Wright \u003cstrong\u003e1992\u003c/strong\u003e). In sub-humid climates, palustrine deposits include more organic matter (Alonso-Zarza et al. \u003cstrong\u003e2000\u003c/strong\u003e). Conversely, pseudo-microkarst is an indication of semi-arid climates. More arid climates are optimal for evaporite nodules within the palustrine carbonates (Sanz et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). In this work, the presence of pseudo-microkarst and evaporite (gypsum) shows that the climate of Bent Jedidi was semi-arid to arid during the palustrine deposits period.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTufa is found in different climatic regimes but is particularly favored when there is a high level of water and an average temperature (Ford \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Pentecost \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Ford and Pedley \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Pentecost and Zhang \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Alonso Zarza, \u003cstrong\u003e2000\u003c/strong\u003e; Andrews \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The presence of cyanobacteria mosses and algae shows meteogene tufa. According to Viles and Pentecost (\u003cstrong\u003e2007\u003c/strong\u003e), climate is very important for the presence or absence of tufa, but it does not contribute to tufa distribution which is in fact conditioned by the geomorphological context of the valley where the tufa forms. The studied tufa in this area shows close similarities with the general barrage model described by Pedley (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e) and Ford and Pedley (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe granulometry (coarse silt poorly sorted) and the grain morphology (rounded to sub-angular) agree with the field observations proving that this corresponds to a fine fluvial deposit (Antoine et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). This unit reflects sediment by suspension in a minor bed position in conjunction with episodic floods fed by a main channel of the meander-form type (Antoine et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe carbonate facies of Bent Jedidi have been shown to be characteristically cyclic in origin: sub-humid climate favours lacustrine facies; semi-arid climate favours palustrine facies and humid climate favours tufa formation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec18\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTectonism\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClimate is not the sole element that controls carbonate formation. The tectonism also plays a significant role (De wet et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). The carbonate deposits of the Bent Jedidi Basin are interpreted as sediments deposited in a fluvial plain. This region is an active zone where the major structural belt runs NE-SW with NW-SE Crossing faults (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe presence of large masses of conglomerate (detrital rocks) in particular, proves the existence of an important tectonic phase which liberated this material. The phases of tectonic quiescence could have been followed by a wet phase (perhaps violent) which mobilised these materials, followed by a milder wet phase, which generated the fine sandy deposition and muddy detrital materials (decanting) with vegetation development. In relatively stable basins, palustrine deposits are usually recognized (Molenaar and De Freytet \u003cstrong\u003e1985\u003c/strong\u003e; Platt \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). The climate, tectonics and source rock are very important to determine the lake basin morphology and the nature of the basin infills (Alonso-Zarza \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Alonso-Zarza and Calvo \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Bohacs et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this study we found fluvial lacustrine facies that provided evidence for \u0026lsquo;filled basins\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThree main carbonate terrestrial environments (lacustrine, palustrine and Tufa) can be reconstructed through the petrographic description of their sediments. Their interpretation indicates a non-stagnant, non-stratified, freshwater setting, supersaturated with respect to carbonate. Water depth and energy is different from lacustrine to palustrine and tufa facies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(1) Lacustrine facies, Marly \u0026nbsp;limestone \u0026nbsp; with gastropods indicate fresh water\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003esedimentation, voids was totaly covered by calcite that prouve phreatic zone.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, (2) palustrine facies limestones are dominated by root cavities, cracks, gypsum that indicate subaerial conditions and evaporation of water concentration. (3)\u0026nbsp;in calcareous tufa, we found mosses, cyanobacteria, larvaes and plant that indicate low energy with maximum exchange of gases with the atmosphere.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis interpretation is fundamental to paleogeographic reconstruction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Pleistocene deposits of bent Jedidi are formed under a more active tectonic regime dominated by marked subsidence pulses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eF Tlili and K Regaya: Fieldwork, analysis and interpretation of the data; F Tlili, A Ayari and K Regaya: Drafting the manuscript; and F Tlili and A Ayari: Critical revision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors read and approved the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch Laboratory \u0026ldquo;Geomatics of Geosystems\u0026rdquo; LR19ES07, Faculty of Letters, Arts and Humanities of Mannouba, Mannouba University, Manouba, Tunisia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbdul Aziz H, Sanz-Rubio E, Calvo J, Hilgen F.J \u0026amp; Krijgsman, W (2003) Paleoenvironmental reconstruction of a middle Miocene Alluvial fan to cyclic shallow lacustrine depositional system in the Calatayud Basin (NE Spain). Sedimentology 211-236. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3091.2003.00544.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAl\u0026ccedil;i\u0026ccedil;ek H \u0026amp; Jimenez-Moreno G (2003) Late Mioc\u0026egrave;ne to plio pleistocene Fulvio-lacustrine system in the Karacasu basin (SW Anatolia, Turkey) : depositional, paleogeographic and paleoclimatic implications. Journal of Sedimentary Geology 291: 62-83. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2013.03.014\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlonso-Zarza A. M, Genise J. F \u0026amp; Verde M (2014) Paleoenvironments and ichnotaxonomy of insect trace fossils in continental mudflat deposits of the Miocene Calatayud\u0026ndash;Daroca Basin, Zaragoza, Spain. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 414: 342-351. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.09.012\u003cu\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlonso-Zarza A. M \u0026amp; Wright V. P (2010) Calcretes. Developments in sedimentology, 61, 225-267\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlonso-Zarza A.M, Zhao Z, Song C.H, Zhang Li.J, Martin-Garcia A, Wang X, Zhang Y, Zhang M (2009) Mud-flat / distal fan and shallow Lake sedimentation (upper vallesian-Turolian) in the Tianshui Basin, central china : Evidence against the late Miocene Eolian loess. Journal of Sedimentary Geology 42-51. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.03.010\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlonso-Zarza, A. M (2003) Palaeoenvironmental significance of palustrine carbonates and calcretes in the geological record. Earth-Science Reviews 60(3-4), 261-298. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00106-X\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlonso-Zarza A.M, Calvo J.P (2000) Palustrine sedimentation in an episodically subsiding basin: the Miocene of the northern Teruel Graben (Spain). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160: 1 \u0026ndash;21. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00041-\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlonso-Zarza A.M, Calvo J.P, Garcia Del Cura M.A (1992a) Palustrine sedimentation and associated features \u0026mdash;grainification and pseudo-microkarst\u0026mdash;in the Middle Miocene (Intermediate Unit) of the Madrid. Basin,Spain. Sedimentary Geology 76: 43\u0026ndash; 61. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003e10.1016/0037-0738(92)90138-H\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAmundson, Ronald, Dietrich, William, Bellugi, Dino, et al. Geomorphologic evidence for the late Pliocene onset of hyperaridity in the Atacama Desert. Bulletin, 2012, vol. 124, 7-8: 1048-1070 \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1130/B304451.\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAndrews J.E (2006) Paleoclimatic records from stable isotopes in riverine tufas Synthesis and review. Earth-Science Reviews 75: 85\u0026ndash;104. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.08.002\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAndrews J. M, Gurney W. S , Heath M. R, Gallego A, O\u0026apos;Brien C. M, Darby C, \u0026amp; Tyldesley G (2006) Modelling the spatial demography of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) on the European continental shelf. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 63(5): 1027-1048. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1139/f06-006\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAndrews J.E, Coletta P, Pentecost A, Riding R, Dennis S, Dennis P.F \u0026amp; Spiro B (2004) Equilibrium and disequilibrium stable isotope effects in modern Charophyte calcites: implications for palaeoenvironmental studies. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.Palaeoecol 204:101\u0026ndash;114. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00725-9\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAntoine P, Limondin-Lozouet N, Auguste P, Lochtj.-L, Galheb B, Reyss J.-L, Escud\u0026eacute; E, Carbonel P, Mercier N, Bahain J.J, Falgu\u0026egrave;res \u0026amp; C, Voinchetp (2006 ) Le tuf de Caours (Somme, France) : mise en \u0026eacute;videnced\u0026rsquo;une s\u0026eacute;quence eemienne et d\u0026rsquo;un site pal\u0026eacute;olithique associ\u0026eacute;. Quaternaire 17: 281-320.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.4000/quaternaire.880\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAntoine P, Munaut A.V, Limondin-Lozouet N, Ponel P, Dup\u0026eacute;ron J. \u0026amp; Dup\u0026eacute;ron M (2003) Response of the Selle River to climatic modifications during the Lateglacial and Early Holocene (Somme Basin-Northern France). Quaternary Science Reviews 22: 2061-2076. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00180-X\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eArmenteros I, Daley B \u0026amp; Garcia E (1997) Lacustrine and palustrine facies in the Bembridge Limestone (Late Eocene, Hamshire Basin) of Isle of Wight, southern England. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 128: 111 \u0026ndash; 132. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(96)00108-3\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAshley G.M, Tactikos J.C \u0026amp; Owen R.B (2009) Hominin use of springs and wetands: paleoclimate and archeological records from Olduvai Gorge (~1.79\u0026ndash;1.74 Ma). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol 272: 1\u0026ndash;16. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.10.016\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBenchilla L, Guilhaumou N, Mougin P, Jaswal T, \u0026amp; Roure F (2003) Reconstruction of palaeo‐burial history and pore fluid pressure in foothill areas: a sensitivity test in the Hammam Zriba (Tunisia) and Koh‐i‐Maran (Pakistan) ore deposits. Geofluids 3(2): 103-123. \u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-8123.2003.00053.x\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBohacs K.M, Carrol A.R, Neal J.E \u0026amp; Mankiewicz P.J (2000) Lake-basin type, source potential, and hydrocarbon character: an integrated-sequence-stratigraphic \u0026ndash; geochemical framework. In: Gierlowski-Kordesch, E.H., Kelts, K.R. (Eds.), Lake Basins through Space and Time. AAPG Studies in Geology, Tulsa, OK 46: 3 \u0026ndash;34.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBrewer R. (1964) Fabric and mineral analysis of soils\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDjamali M, Souli\u0026eacute;-M\u0026auml;rsche I, Esu D, Gliozzi E, \u0026amp; Okhravi R (2006) Palaeoenvironment of a Late Quaternary lacustrine\u0026ndash;palustrine carbonate complex: Zarand Basin, Saveh, central Iran. \u003cem\u003ePalaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e237\u003c/em\u003e(2-4): 315-334. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.12.001\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCasanova, J (1994) Stromatolites from the East African rift: a synopsis. In: Bertrand-Sarfati J, Monty C (Eds.), Phanerozoic Stromatolites II. Kluwer Academy Pub, Dordrecht 193\u0026ndash;226. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1124-9_8\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCecil, C.B (1990) Paleoclimate controls on stratigraphic repetition of chemical and siliciclastic rocks. Geology 18: 533\u0026ndash; 536. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018\u0026lt;0533:PCOSRO\u0026gt;2.3.CO;2\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDe Wet C, Yocum D.A, Mora C (1998) Carbonate lakes in the South western United States Spec. Paper 203. Geological closed basins sensitive indicators of climate and tectonics an example from the Gettysburg Basin Triassic Pennsylvania USA. Role of Eustasy Climate and Tectonism in Continental Rocks. SEPM Special Publ 59: 191\u0026ndash;209. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2110/pec.98.59.0191\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFord, T.D (1989) Tufa \u0026ndash; the whole dam story. Cave Science 16: 39\u0026ndash;49. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003e10027009449\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFord, T.D. \u0026amp; Pedley, H.M (1996) A review of tufa and travertine deposits of the world. Earth-Science Reviews 41: 117\u0026ndash;175. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(96)00030-X\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFreytet P (1973) Petrography and paleo-environment of continental carbonate deposits with particular reference to the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Eocene of Languedoc (Southern France). Sedimentary Geology 10(1): 25-60. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(73)90009-2\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFreytet P, \u0026amp; Verrecchia E. P (2002) Lacustrine and palustrine carbonate petrography: an overview. Journal of Paleolimnology 27(2): 221-237. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014263722766\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFreytet P \u0026amp; Plaziat J. C (1982) Continental carbonate sedimentation and pedogenesis-Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary of southern France\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGierlowski-Kordesch E.H (1998) Carbonate deposition in an ephemeral siliciclastic alluvial plain: Jurassic shuttte Meadow formation, Hartford Basin, Newark super group, USA. Journal of Paleogegraphy, paleoclimatology 40: 161-184. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00039-X\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGurel A, \u0026amp; Kadir S (2010) Paleoenvironmental approach to the Geology, mineralogy and geochemistry of an early Miocene alluvial- Fan to cyclic shallow lacustrine depositional system in the aktoprak Basin (central Anatolia), Turkey. Clay mineral 45: 51-75. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1180/claymin.2010.045.1.51\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKano M, Tanaka S, Hasebe S, Hashimoto I \u0026amp; Ohno H (2003) Monitoring independent components for fault detection. AIChE Journal 49(4): 969-976. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690490414\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLiutkus C. M, Ashley G. M (2003) Facies model of a semiarid freshwater wetland, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Journal of Sedimentary Research 73(5): 691-705. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1306/021303730691\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMolenaar N, Defeyter A.J 1985 Carbonates Associated With Alluvial Fans: An Example From The Messinian Colombacci Formation Of The Pietrarubbia Basin, Northern Marche Italy. Sediment Geol 42: 1-23. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(85)90070-3\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOrdo\u0026acute;N\u0026tilde; Ez S, Gonza\u0026acute;Lez Marti\u0026acute;N J.A, Garci\u0026acute;A Del Cura M.A \u0026amp; Pedley H.M (2005) Temperate And Semi Arid Tufas In The Pleistocene To Recent Fluvial Barrage System In The Mediterranean Area: The Ruidera Lakes Natural Park (Central spain). Geomorphology 69: 332\u0026ndash;350.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003e\u0026nbsp;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.02.002\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOrd\u0026oacute;\u0026ntilde;ez S, \u0026amp; Garc\u0026iacute;a del Cura M. A (1983) Recent and Tertiary fluvial carbonates in Central Spain. Modern and ancient fluvial systems 485-497. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/9781444303773.ch39\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePedley M (2000) Ambient temperature freshwater microbial tufas. In Microbial sediments (179-186). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-04036-2_20\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePedley H.M (1990) Classification and Environmental Models Of Cool Freshwater Tufas. Sed. Geol 68: 143\u0026ndash;15. \u003cstrong\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(90)90124-C\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePedley M, Andrews J, Ordonez S, Garcia Del Cura M, Gonzales Martin J.A \u0026amp; Taylor D (1996) Does Climate Control The Morphological Fabric Of Freshwater Carbonates? A Comparative Study Of Holocene Barrage Tufas From Spain And Britain. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol 121: 239\u0026ndash;257.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(95)00080-1\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePentecost A, Andrews J.E, Dennis P.F, Marca-Bell \u0026amp; Dennis S (2006) Charophyte Growth In Small Temperate Water Bodies: Extreme Isotopic Disequilibrium And Implications For The Palaeoecology Of Shallow Marl Lakes. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol240: 389\u0026ndash;404. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.02.008\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePentecost A \u0026amp; Zhang Z (2001) A Review Of Chinese Travertines. Cave And Karst science 28: 15\u0026ndash;28.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePentecost A (1995) The quaternary travertine deposits of Europe and Asia Minor. Quaternary Science Reviews 14(10): 1005-1028. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(95)00101-8\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePentecost A (1988) Observations on growth rates and calcium carbonate deposition in the green alga Gongrosira. New phytologist 110(2): 249-253. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1988.tb00259.x\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePlatt N.H (1992) Fresh-Water Carbonates From The Lower Freshwater Molasse (Oligocene, Western Switzerland): Sedimentology And Stable Isotopes. Sediment. Geol 78: 81-99. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(92)90114-7\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePlatt N. H \u0026amp; Wright V. P (1992) Palustrine carbonates and the Florida Everglades; towards an exposure index for the fresh-water environment. Journal of Sedimentary Research 62(6): 1058-1071. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1306/D4267A4B-2B26-11D7-8648000102C1865D\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePlatt N.H \u0026amp; Wright V.P (1991) Lacustrine Carbonates: Facies Models, Facies Distribution And Hydrocarbon Aspects. In: Anado\u0026acute;N,P,Cabrera,L., Kelts, K. (Eds.), Lacustrine Facies Analysis. Special Publication International Association Of Sedimentologists 13: 57\u0026ndash; 74. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/9781444303919.ch3\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePla-Pueyo S, Gierlowski-Kordesch E. H, Viseras C, \u0026amp; Soria J. M (2009) Major controls on sedimentation during the evolution of a continental basin: Pliocene\u0026ndash;Pleistocene of the Guadix Basin (Betic Cordillera, southern Spain). Sedimentary Geology 219(1-4): 97-114. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.05.001\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRayang W.H, Chough S.K (1999) Alluvial To Lacustrine Systems In A Pull- Appart Margin : South Western Eumsing Basin (Cretaceous, Korea. Sedimentology 127: 31-46. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(99)00018-4\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRosen M. R (1994) The importance of groundwater in playas: a review of playa classifications and the sedimentology and hydrology of playas. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1130/SPE289-p1\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSanz E, Hoyos M, Calvo J.P \u0026amp; Rouchy J.M (1999) Nodular Anhydrite Growth Controlled By Pedogenic Structures In Evaporite Lake Formations. Sedimentary Geology 125: 195\u0026ndash;203. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(98)00150-X\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSanz M.E, Alonso-Zarza A.M \u0026amp; Calvo J.P (1995) Carbonate Pond Deposits Related To Semi Arid Alluvial Systems: Examples From The Tertiary Madrid Basin, Spain. Sedimentology 42: 437\u0026ndash; 452. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1995.tb00383.x\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSim L.L, Chambers J.M. \u0026amp; Davis J.A (2006) Ecological Regime Shifts In Salinised Wetland Systems. I. Salinity Thresholds For The Loss Of Submerged Macrophytes. Hydrobiologia 573: 89\u0026ndash;107.\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-006-0267-0\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTurkem I, Aksoy E \u0026amp; Tasgin C.K (2007) Alluvial And Lacustrine Facies In An Extensional Basin : The Miocene Of Malatya Basin, Eastern Turkey. Journal Of Asian Earth Sciences 30: 181-198. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.08.006\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eViles H. A \u0026amp; Pentecost A. (2007) Tufa and travertine. Geochemical sediments and landscapes 173-199. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/9780470712917.ch6\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"carbonates-and-evaporites","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"caev","sideBox":"Learn more about [Carbonates and Evaporites](http://link.springer.com/journal/13146)","snPcode":"13146","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13146/3","title":"Carbonates and Evaporites","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Lacustrine, Palustrine Tufa, Pleistocene, Tunisia","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2217267/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2217267/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe carbonate Bent Jedidi unit represents middle –late Pleistocene continental carbonate deposits in Northeastern Tunisia. The unit consists of three main facies associations; asymmetrically distributed (1) calcrete-palustrine (2) lacustrine, (3) Tuffa carbonate.This study evaluates variations in petrophysical properties within a lacustrine to palustrine and tufa carbonate. The transition from alluvial environments to lake margins settings displays a shift from conglomerate and silt to lacustrine palustrine mudstones to packstones (1) The palustrine carbonates include features like pseudo-microkarst, root cavities, gypsum, nodular and mottled limestone, (2) The lacustrine deposits include charophytes gastropods and ostracods, oxidation oncoids, oncoliths and recrystallization of calcite.(3) The Tufa deposits include, algae filament, mosse Tufa and laminated structure. The evaluation of the facies associations over time demonstrates an overall fall of the relative lake level. High proportion of low energy facies associated with a deeper lacustrine environment. While at the Top predominate high energy facies associated with a shallow lacustrine environment fluctuations in lake water level enabled land plants to occupy the lake margins during periods of low levels for this reason We found chenal porosity. This study aims to identify the depositional facies and the origin and paleoenvironmental significance of lacustrine /palustrine carbonates and tufas in the Pleistocene Bent Jedidi Lake.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Depositional controls on formation of Quaternary lacustrine Tufa Bent Jedidi spring systems, NE Tunisia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-11-09 20:39:15","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-2217267/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revision","date":"2022-12-19T02:09:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2022-12-17T10:30:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"c8090959-5e13-4ecf-ae6a-f318e063f0ec","date":"2022-12-08T02:15:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2022-11-19T12:34:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"228321df-5866-42f0-86ef-6248934efede","date":"2022-11-13T20:20:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"cfe060bc-418e-4fe9-9271-036284feccb3","date":"2022-11-09T04:30:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2022-11-06T01:05:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2022-11-06T01:00:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2022-11-05T01:20:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Carbonates and Evaporites","date":"2022-10-29T22:14:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"carbonates-and-evaporites","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"caev","sideBox":"Learn more about [Carbonates and Evaporites](http://link.springer.com/journal/13146)","snPcode":"13146","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13146/3","title":"Carbonates and Evaporites","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3cfeb5c2-9927-4035-855d-cb699d4d5534","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 9th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2023-10-16T20:35:17+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-2217267","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-023-00870-0","journal":{"identity":"carbonates-and-evaporites","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Carbonates and Evaporites"},"publishedOn":"2023-04-15 20:27:31","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 15th, 2023"},"versionCreatedAt":"2022-11-09 20:39:15","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s13146-023-00870-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-023-00870-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-2217267","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-2217267","identity":"rs-2217267","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"7rjqhiLT3MXkJMwkYKINL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}