The interplay between parenting stress, parental self-compassion, and parent sex in parental emotion socialization

The interplay between parenting stress, parental self-compassion, and parent sex in parental emotion socialization | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The interplay between parenting stress, parental self-compassion, and parent sex in parental emotion socialization Charlotte Verhagen, Stefanie Duijndam, Nina Kupper, Myrthe Boekhorst This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6921259/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Parents play a crucial role in the development of children's emotion regulation skills, making it essential to understand the parental factors that influence this process. While parenting stress and self-compassion are known to impact general parenting practices (e.g., responsivity), less is known about how these factors shape parental support with specific emotion regulation strategies, especially in fathers and children in middle or late childhood. This study aimed to investigate the moderating effects of self-compassion and parent sex on the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted using data from parental self-report questionnaires, collected from a sample of Dutch parents ( N = 198 parents, M age = 42.8, 60.6% mothers) of children aged 6–12 ( M age = 9.1, 52% girl). The results revealed that higher parenting stress was associated with reduced parental support for adaptive emotion regulation strategies (e.g., reappraisal) and greater encouragement of maladaptive strategies (e.g., expressive suppression). Self-compassion buffered the relation between parenting stress and expressive suppression and positively predicted several adaptive strategies (e.g., acceptance). Lastly, fathers reported providing less support with five out of the 10 emotion regulation strategies (e.g., reappraisal) compared to mothers. These findings demonstrate a negative relation between parenting stress and parent-child co-regulation processes, while pointing to self-compassion as a potential protective factor. Interventions aimed at improving parental emotion coaching might benefit from incorporating self-compassion to enhance psychosocial outcomes for both parents and children. parenting stress self-compassion parental socialization fathers mothers Figures Figure 1 Highlights • Parenting stress is related to less adaptive parental assistance with child emotion regulation • Fathers provide less assistance with emotion regulation compared to mothers • Parental self-compassion is associated with more adaptive parental assistance with child emotion regulation • Self-compassion buffers the link between parenting stress and parental encouragement of suppression Introduction Across childhood, parents play a leading role in providing external regulation for children’s emotions, thereby supporting the development of children’s intrinsic emotion regulation skills (e.g., Silkenbeumer et al., 2016 ). Adaptive emotion regulation is key to children’s socio-emotional competence, making early parental support with emotion regulation crucial. Following the model of Morris et al. ( 2007 ), this parental role encompasses children's observation of parents’ emotion regulation (e.g., mirroring of emotional expressions), the emotional climate of the family (e.g., attachment), and emotion-related parenting practices. This latter component includes emotion socialization and emotional co-regulation, which are both processes through which parents assist with children's emotion regulation (Eisenberg et al., 1998 ; Paley & Hajal, 2022 ). Emotion socialization can be defined as the process supposed to enhance children's emotional awareness and understanding and reflects parental beliefs, goals, and values regarding children’s emotions (Silkenbeumer et al., 2024 ). Parents socialize their children around emotions in several ways, including their reactions to children’s emotions, their discussion, and expression of emotion (Eisenberg et al. 1998 ; Gottman et al. 1997 ; Zeman et al., 2013 ). On the other hand, the more dyadic concept of emotional co-regulation refers to the process in which the parent helps the child manage their emotions in the moment (Silkenbeumer et al., 2016 ; Verhagen et al., 2024 ). Thus, while emotion socialization involves teaching children socially accepted emotional responses, increasing their emotional awareness and competence, co-regulation facilitates the immediate selection and execution of effective regulation strategies. This emphasizes the importance of both processes for child emotion regulation, which is defined as the internal and external processes involved in initiating, evaluating and modifying the occurrence, intensity, and expression of emotions to accomplish one's goals (Thompson, 1994 ). Although the exact nature of parental assistance with child emotion regulation (i.e., emotion socialization, co-regulation) changes across childhood, research consistently shows that this process remains foundational in shaping the development of children's emotion regulation from birth through adolescence (Cohodes et al., 2022 ; Zeman et al., 2013 ). Most research has assessed parental assistance with child emotion regulation via variables that reflect dimensions of supportive versus unsupportive parenting practices (Frogley et al., 2023 ). Supportive parenting behaviors are characterized by recognizing and accepting children’s negative emotions, encouraging them to express their emotional experiences, and working with them to solve problems. Through these parenting practices, children are encouraged to adopt emotion regulation strategies (e.g., reappraisal, effective problem-solving) that have been related to positive child outcomes, such as lower internalizing and externalizing behaviors (Cohodes et al., 2022 ). On the other hand, unsupportive parenting behaviors are demonstrated by minimizing children’s negative emotions and avoiding opportunities to apply teaching or problem-solving around children’s emotional experiences (Gottman et al. 1997 ). Children of parents who promote these maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as expressive suppression, have been shown to be at greater risk for mental health problems (e.g., depression), internalizing, and externalizing symptoms, and have lower emotion competence (Cohodes et al., 2022 ; Frogley et al., 2023 ; Sanders et al., 2015 ). While an increasing body of research has explored the association between these supportive and unsupportive parenting behaviors and child outcomes, parental factors potentially underlying these practices remain understudied. One parental factor that has been consistently associated with parenting practices, and consequently with child outcomes, is parenting stress. Parenting stress can be defined as the psychological strain and feelings of overwhelm experienced by parents in response to stressors that can arise from the challenges and demands of parenting (Abidin, 1995 ). Stress is a common aspect of parenting, but lasting levels of parenting stress can become detrimental when parents lack resources, such as partner support or adequate knowledge, or rely on ineffective coping strategies (Deater-Deckard, 1998 ). Consistently, research has shown a relation between increased levels of parenting stress and undesirable child outcomes (e.g., Stone et al., 2016 ), such as poorer emotion regulation skills and more internalizing and externalizing problems in children (Fortunato et al., 2023 ; Stone et al., 2016 ). Some studies suggest that this relation is mediated by parenting behaviors (Carapito et al., 2020 ; Jackson et al., 2019 ). These studies found that while under high levels of stress, parents may exert more authoritarian (e.g., demanding, less responsive) and harsh parenting, which are in turn related to less optimal child outcomes, such as more behavioral problems. Moreover, in infants, research has found an association between increased levels of parenting stress and less sensitive and reciprocal co-regulation of behavior during play (Doiron et al., 2022 ). Yet, there is a lack of research that explores the relation between parenting stress and parenting practices directly related to supporting child emotion regulation. Thus, identifying protective factors that could buffer the effects of parenting stress on parenting practices and specifically on parental assistance with child emotion regulation, is valuable. One concept that has been shown to be negatively related to parenting stress is self-compassion (Garcia et al., 2022 ). Self-compassion refers to an attitude or ability to approach adversity or any perceived inadequacy (e.g., personal failure) with care and concern (Neff, 2003 ). According to Neff ( 2003 ), self-compassion consists of three interrelated components; self-kindness, a sense of common humanity (i.e., an understanding that suffering is a common human experience) and mindful awareness of experiences in the present moment. Self-compassion seems to be associated with the affective component of well-being and is associated with lower levels of negative affect, depression, anxiety, and higher levels of positive affect in adults (MacBeth & Gumley, 2012 ). Furthermore, self-compassion facilitates an empathetic and accepting attitude towards others and has been related to a wide variety of interpersonal benefits (Lathren et al., 2021 ). Within the parent-child relationship, self-compassion is believed to enhance both parental well-being and parenting quality. Self-compassion supports parents in their ability to cope with emotional distress and foster adaptive responses to the challenges of parenting (Shenaar-Golan et al., 2023 ). Research has shown that parents with higher self-compassion were more likely to attribute their children's behavior to external factors, were less critical, and used fewer distressed reactions when managing their children's emotions (Psychogiou et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, self-compassion has been linked to higher levels of mindful parenting and authoritative parenting, and lower levels of authoritarian and permissive parenting (Gouveia et al., 2016 ). Parents with greater self-compassion may thus be able to respond more sensitively to their children, thereby promoting positive behavioral outcomes and secure attachment (Lathren et al., 2020 ; Psychogiou et al., 2016 ). Together, these studies suggest that self-compassion is positively associated with parenting quality and might also be linked to more adaptive parental assistance with child emotion regulation. In addition to enhancing parenting quality, self-compassion is also thought to improve parental well-being by reducing feelings of guilt and shame in response to negative parenting events (Sirois et al., 2019 ). Higher levels of self-compassion have been positively associated with happy feelings toward parenting and life satisfaction during parenthood, and negatively linked to depressive symptoms, stress, anxiety, and anger in parents (Cohen & Naaman, 2023 ; Neff & Faso, 2015 ). Likewise, research has suggested that self-compassion may be an effective target for interventions aimed at reducing parenting stress (Gouveia et al., 2016 ). Previous studies have shown that parents who had more self-compassion reported lower parenting stress and higher self-efficacy (Mancini et al., 2023 ; Moreira et al., 2015 ) and parenting interventions that focus on enhancing self-compassion significantly reduced parenting stress (Jefferson et al., 2020 ). In parents of children with mental health problems, self-compassion was found to be more strongly related to parenting stress than child problem severity (Shenaar-Golan et al., 2021 ). Together, these findings suggest that promoting self-compassion may be important for reducing parenting stress and improving parent-child outcomes such as emotional socialization and co-regulation. Most research exploring these parental risk and protective factors has focused on mothers, often overlooking the contributions of fathers. Nevertheless, research does suggest that mothers and fathers play unique roles in the development of children's emotion regulation skills (Sanders et al., 2015 ; Van Lissa et al., 2019 ). It has been found that mothers’ unsupportive responses to sadness were associated with increased depressive symptoms in their children, while fathers’ unsupportive responses to anger had similar effects (Sanders et al., 2015 ). In adolescents, emotion regulation improved when they perceived their mothers as supportive, whereas fathers’ contributions were more pronounced when they were less restrictive in enforcing behavioral control (Van Lissa et al., 2019 ). Lastly, while maternal use of the emotion regulation strategy “expressive suppression” significantly predicted the child's use of suppression, this relation was not found for fathers (Bariola et al., 2012 ). Thus, studies including both mothers and fathers are important to reveal the unique effects of both maternal and paternal factors on parental assistance with child emotion regulation. An increasing body of research has explored the associations between parenting stress, parental self-compassion, parenting practices, and child outcomes. However, several research gaps remain. First, while research indicates that self-compassion can alleviate parenting stress, the interaction between these factors and their combined influence on parenting practices remains underexplored. Specifically, few studies have assessed how these factors impact the degree to which parents assist their child in implementing specific emotion regulation strategies in daily life (Cohodes et al., 2022 ). If self-compassion serves as a buffer against the negative impact of parenting stress on parental assistance with child emotion regulation, enhancing self-compassion could be a target of interventions aimed at improving parenting quality (Jefferson et al., 2020 ; Psychogiou et al. 2016 ). A last research gap pertains to the emphasis on mothers, infants, and toddlers in studies of parental assistance with child emotion regulation, with little focus paid to fathers and interactions with children in middle to late childhood. As elementary-school aged children are increasingly confronted with more complex, challenging situations, it is an important period to investigate parents’ support of child emotion regulation (Paley & Hajal, 2022 ). Therefore, we aimed to investigate the moderating effects of self-compassion and parent sex (mothers/fathers) on the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation. We expected a negative association between parenting stress and parental assistance with stereotypically adaptive strategies (e.g., reappraisal), and a positive association with “maladaptive” strategies (e.g., expressive suppression). Furthermore, it was hypothesized that self-compassion moderates the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation, serving as a buffer against the impact of parenting stress. As the inclusion of parent sex as moderator is exploratory, no specific hypotheses were made regarding its moderating effect on the primary relation. Method Participants and procedure The current study is part of the XX study, which included parents from a community-based sample who were part of a cross-sectional survey study. Research assistants at XX were asked to recruit parents as part of a second-year bachelor's course of the Psychology Program. Quota sampling was applied to ensure equal representation of both fathers and mothers of children from each of the following four age groups (i.e., 4–6, 6–8, 8–10, and 10–12 years old). Additionally, participants were recruited via advertisement (e.g., via social media, primary schools) and word of mouth. Eligible participants had to be able to read and understand the Dutch or English language, be ≥ 18 years of age and be a parent or caregiver of a child aged 4–12 years. In the current study, only Dutch-speaking parents of children between 6 and 12 years old were included. Participants were asked to fill in an online questionnaire via Qualtrics ( www.Qualtrics.com ) after providing informed consent. One in 50 participants had a chance to win a gift card worth 20 euros. The data used in the present study were collected between January and February 2025. Of the 473 participants that provided informed consent, 226 (47.8%) were Dutch–speaking biological parents of a child between 6 and 12 years old (see Fig. 1 for the inclusion and exclusion flowchart). The final study sample included 198 parents ( M age = 42.8, SD age = 6.0, 60.6% mothers) of children aged 6–12 ( M age = 9.1, SD age = 1.7, 52% girl). Ethical approval was obtained from XX (protocol XX). This study was not preregistered. Measures Parenting stress To measure parenting stress, the 34-item Parenting Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) was used (Vermulst et al., 2012 ). The questionnaire can be completed by parents of children between 0 and 18 years of age. Each item was rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 = not true, 2 = somewhat true, 3 = quite true, 4 = very true. Three subscales of the PSQ were used in the current study; parent-child relationship problems (six items; e.g., “I feel cheerful when my child is with me”), parenting problems (perceived competence in parenting, seven items; e.g., “my child listens to me”) and parental role restriction (six items; e.g., “my child keeps me from other activities”). Total scores combining the items of the three subscales range from 19 to 76, with higher scores indicating more parenting stress. Adequate reliability (McDonald's omega (ω) = .96) and factorial validity of the PSQ has been shown in a Dutch sample (Veerman et al., 2014 ). Likewise, reliability of the PSQ in the current study has been found to be good, with ω = .93. Self-compassion To measure parental self-compassion, the Self-Compassion Scale Short-Form (SCS-SF) was completed by the participating parents (Raes et al., 2011 ). Each of the 12 items (e.g., “when something painful happens I try to take a balanced view of the situation”) is rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 = almost never to 5 = almost always. Higher scores indicate more self-compassion. The items can be divided into six subscales; self-kindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. For the current study, all item scores were summed up to generate a total self-compassion score. Confirmatory factor analysis has supported the presence of this single higher order factor of self-compassion (Raes et al., 2011 ). Furthermore, in both Dutch and English samples, the SCS-SF has demonstrated adequate reliability (Cronbach's Alpha (α) > .86 in all samples) (Raes et al., 2011 ). Likewise, reliability of this scale in the current study has been found to be good, with α = .84. Parental assistance with child emotion regulation The Parental Assistance with Child Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (PACER) has been developed to measure the degree to which parents assist their child, instrumentally, in performing ten different emotion regulation strategies in daily life (Cohodes et al., 2022 ). The 50 items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The items of the PACER can be divided into ten subscales assessing both adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies; behavioral disengagement (e.g., “I remove my child from a situation when it is causing them to have negative feelings”), problem solving (“I help my child think carefully about different solutions to their problems”), social support search (“I help my child find other people to help them (including myself)”), rumination (“I help my child replay whatever is making them have negative feelings in their mind”), distraction (“I help my child find ways to distract themselves from their negative feelings”), reappraisal (“I help my child think of a situation in a positive light”), acceptance (“I help my child understand that it is okay to have negative feelings”), expressive suppression (“I help my child to not show their negative feelings”), venting (“I help my child talk openly with other people”), and avoidance (“I help my child avoid entering potentially uncomfortable situations whenever possible”). Excellent fit for this 10-factor model has been demonstrated in American and Turkish samples of parents of children between 0–17 years old (Cohodes et al., 2022 ; Pala et al., 2023 ). All ten subscales showed high internal reliability with McDonald's omega (α) > .85. For the current study, reliability was also found to be good with α > .87 for all subscales. Covariates Parental education level, child sex, child age, child diagnosis of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD(H)D) or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and parental anxiety and depressive symptoms were included as covariates. The latter was measured using the four-item Patient Health Questionnaire for anxiety and depression (PHQ-4). Statistical analysis All analyses were completed in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS version 28.0). Descriptive statistics and Pearson's bivariate correlations between parenting stress, parental self-compassion, parental assistance with child emotion regulation, and the covariates were calculated. Parental education level was recoded into a dichotomous variable comprising high education level (i.e., higher vocational education, university or higher) and low education level and with the latter as a reference. Descriptives were reported for the total sample and for mothers and fathers separately. Furthermore, an independent t-test was conducted to examine potential differences between mothers and fathers in the main variables of interest. To test the main hypotheses, a moderated, hierarchical linear regression was conducted. Ten different regression models were run, for each of the ten emotion regulation strategies (PACER) which were included as dependent variables. In the first step, the covariates were entered as predictors (i.e., child sex, child age, parental education level, parental anxiety and depressive symptoms, and child ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis). Parenting stress was entered in step 2 as a predictor to test its associations with parental assistance in different emotion regulation strategies. In step 3, the moderators ‘parent sex’ and ‘parental self-compassion' were added as additional predictors. To test their moderating effect, their interaction terms with parenting stress were entered in the final step. A significance criterion of p < .05 was used. A power analysis was conducted in G*Power with ten predictors. With a power of .95, a significance criterion of α = .05 and a small to medium effect size of f 2 = .15, the required sample size was 172. The participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly, so due to the sensitive nature of the research supporting data is not available. Results Preliminary analyses Demographical characteristics of the sample ( N = 198) can be found in Table 1 . Participants had a mean age of 42.8 ( SD = 6.0) and 120 (60.6%) were mothers ( N = 120) (Table 1 ). Most participants had a partner ( N = 182, 91.9%), completed higher vocational education, university or higher ( N = 140, 70.7%), and were of Dutch ethnicity (N = 176, 88.9%). Most participants were working full-time or part-time ( N = 183, 92.5%). The target children were on average 9.1 years old ( SD = 1.7, 52.0% girls), and 11.6% ( N = 23) of the children had an ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis. Table 1 Demographical characteristics (N = 198 ) N % M (SD) Range Demographics Parent age 197 42.8 (6.0) 29–78 Child age 198 9.1 (1.7) 6–12 Female sex parent 120 60.6 Female sex child 103 52.0 Diagnosis AD(H)D (child) 14 7.1 Diagnosis ASD (child) 9 4.5 Parental anxiety or depressive symptoms 1.3 (1.6) 0–8 Dutch ethnicity 176 88.9 Parent education High school or lower 14 7.1 Intermediate vocational education 44 22.2 Higher vocational education 90 45.5 University or higher 50 25.2 Marital status Married/registered partnership 139 70.2 Partner but unmarried 43 21.7 Single 6 3 Divorced 10 5.1 Descriptives of the study variables can be found in Table 2 . Results from the independent samples t-tests indicated a significant difference in behavioral disengagement ( t (196) = -2.32, p = .021), problem solving ( t (196) = -2.63, p = .009), social support search ( t (196) = -3.29, p = .001), distraction ( t (196) = -3.19, p = .002), reappraisal ( t (196) = -2.73, p = .007), and venting ( t (196) = -4.38 p < .001). Fathers reported lower levels of assistance with these emotion regulation strategies in their children compared to mothers (see Table 2 ). Table 2 Descriptives of the study variables for the total sample, for mothers, and fathers Total Fathers Mothers M ( SD ) M ( SD ) M ( SD ) t p Parenting stress 30.0 (7.0) 30.9 (6.8) 29.4 (7.2) 1.46 .146 Self-compassion 57.4 (10.9) 57.1 (10.2) 57.6 (11.3) -0.31 .757 Behavioral disengagement 27.1 (5.5) 26.0 (5.0) 27.8 (5.7) -2.26 .021 Problem solving 30.2 (4.3) 29.2 (4.9) 30.8 (3.7) -2.63 .009 Social support search 27.6 (5.1) 26.1 (5.4) 28.5 (4.7) -3.29 .001 Rumination 15.3 (6.9) 15.9 (5.9) 14.8 (7.4) 1.15 .253 Distraction 25.9 (6.1) 24.2 (6.1) 27.0 (5.8) -3.19 .002 Reappraisal 28.2 (4.3) 27.2 (3.9) 28.9 (4.4) -2.73 .007 Acceptance 27.6 (5.3) 26.7 (5.0) 28.1 (5.5) -1.81 .072 Expressive suppression 11.4 (5.5) 12.3 (5.2) 10.9 (5.7) 1.82 .070 Venting 26.2 (5.0) 24.4 (4.8) 27.5 (4.8) -4.38 < .001 Avoidance 18.3 (6.5) 18.6 (5.9) 18.1 (6.9) 0.56 .576 Note . The control group for the independent t-test refers to females. The Pearson correlations between all variables are shown in Table S1 (see Supplementals). Parenting stress was significantly correlated with self-compassion, ( r = -0.27, p < .001), behavioral disengagement ( r = -0.23, p < .001), problem solving ( r = -0.34, p < .001), social support search ( r = -0.15, p = .041), reappraisal ( r = -0.27, p < .001), acceptance ( r = -0.23, p < .001), expressive suppression ( r = 0.23, p = .001) and venting ( r = -0.15, p = .040). Furthermore, self-compassion was correlated with problem solving ( r = 0.16, p = .030), social support search ( r = 0.19, p = .007), reappraisal ( r = 0.21, p = .003), acceptance ( r = 0.16, p = .026), expressive suppression ( r = -0.29, p < .001), venting ( r = 0.22, p = .002), and avoidance ( r = -0.23, p = .001). Primary analyses The results of the moderated hierarchical regression analyses are shown in Table 3 . Model 1 included all covariates, in step 2 parenting stress was added, and self-compassion and parent sex were added in step 3. Model 4 included the interaction terms between self-compassion, parent sex and parenting stress. Below, the results of the third model are discussed, as the interaction terms in model 4 were not significant for any of the outcome variables, except for expressive suppression. Table 3 Moderation analysis for parental assistance with child emotion regulation strategies Behavioral disengagement Problem solving Social support search Rumination β t p R 2 β t p R 2 β t p R 2 β t p R 2 Step 1 .08* .04 .01 .02 Parental education (high) -0.20 -2.88 .004* 0.06 0.87 .387 0.004 0.05 .958 -0.11 -1.55 .122 Parental anxiety and depressive symptoms -0.04 -0.51 .613 -0.02 -0.28 .779 0.01 0.15 .885 0.06 0.87 .385 Child age 0.12 1.75 .083 0.12 1.65 .101 0.08 1.12 .265 0.01 0.09 .930 Child sex (boys) 0.14 2.00 .047* 0.07 0.90 .367 0.02 0.27 .788 0.03 0.47 .639 Child ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis -0.06 -0.87 .385 -0.12 -1.85 .065 0.04 0.60 .550 -0.07 -1.01 .314 Step 2 .12* .12* .04 .03 Parenting stress -0.24 -3.01 .003* -0.33 -4.26 < .001* -0.19 -2.36 .019* 0.06 0.76 .448 Step 3 .14* .16* .12* .03 Parenting stress -0.21 -2.62 .009* -0.29 -3.67 < .001* -0.12 -1.49 .137 0.04 0.51 .608 Parental self-compassion 0.06 0.76 .446 0.13 1.56 .119 0.24 2.94 .004* -0.05 -0.63 .531 Parent sex (fathers) -0.13 -1.82 .071 -0.16 -2.31 .022* -0.22 -3.17 .002* 0.08 1.05 .297 Step 4 .14* .17* .13* .04 Parenting stress * parental self-compassion -0.45 -1.03 .305 -0.50 -1.14 .256 0.41 0.91 .363 0.24 0.52 .603 Parenting stress * parent sex 0.11 0.33 .742 0.17 0.54 .592 -0.15 -0.47 .642 0.24 0.68 .500 Note . * p < .05 Table 3 continued Moderation analysis for parental assistance with child emotion regulation strategies Distraction Reappraisal Expressive suppression Acceptance β t p R 2 β t p R 2 β t p R 2 β t p R 2 Step 1 .03 .02 .02 .01 Parental education (high) -0.05 -0.70 .482 -0.06 -0.88 .378 -0.12 -1.59 .114 0.04 0.54 .591 Parental anxiety and depressive symptoms -0.13 -1.76 .080 -0.07 -0.92 .360 -0.02 -0.24 .808 0.06 0.85 .398 Child age 0.12 1.67 .097 -0.07 0.96 .339 -0.001 -0.02 .987 0.02 0.22 .824 Child sex (boys) -0.04 -0.54 .589 -0.03 -0.42 .673 0.03 0.48 .634 0.03 0.41 .681 Child ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis 0.04 0.60 .550 -0.09 -1.25 .213 -0.06 -0.82 .412 0.02 0.20 .842 Step 2 .05 .08* .09* .09* Parenting stress -0.13 -1.62 .107 -0.26 -3.30 .001* 0.31 3.89 < .001* -0.32 -4.00 < .001* Step 3 .09* .13* .19* .12* Parenting stress -0.10 -1.24 .215 -0.20 -2.54 .012* 0.22 2.89 .004* -0.27 -3.32 .001* Parental self-compassion 0.05 0.58 .564 0.21 2.51 .013* -0.34 -4.28 < .001* 0.20 2.38 .019* Parent sex (fathers) -0.20 -2.75 .007* -0.17 -2.47 .015* 0.13 1.96 .052 .21* -0.10 -1.36 .175 Step 4 .09 .14* .13* Parenting stress * parental self-compassion -0.15 -0.33 .746 -0.65 -1.47 .144 -0.97 -2.29 .023* 0.39 0.87 .384 Parenting stress * parent sex -0.03 -0.09 .927 -0.13 -0.41 .686 0.03 0.09 .930 -0.45 -1.38 .170 Note . * p < .05 Parenting stress was a consistent predictor of five of the ten emotion regulation strategies ( β range = 0.20 to 0.27, all p < .012). Higher parenting stress was related to less behavioral disengagement ( β = -0.21, p = .009 ) , problem solving ( β = -0.29, p < .001 ) , reappraisal ( β = -0.20, p = .012 ) , and acceptance ( β = -0.27, p = .001 ) , and to more expressive suppression ( β = 0.22, p = .004 ). Parental sex was significantly associated with problem solving ( β = -0.16, p = .022 ) , social support search ( β = -0.22, p = .002 ) , distraction ( β = -0.20, p = .007 ) , reappraisal ( β = -0.17, p = .015 ) , and venting ( β = -0.28, p < .001 ) . Fathers assisted their children to a lesser extent with these strategies compared to mothers. Parent sex did not moderate any association between parenting stress and the emotion regulation strategies. Parental self-compassion was significantly associated with five out of the ten strategies ( β range = 0.20 to 0.34, all p < .019). More self-compassion was related to more assistance with social support search ( β = 0.24, p = .004 ) , reappraisal ( β = 0.21, p = .013 ) , and acceptance ( β = 0.20, p = .019 ). Self-compassion was negatively associated with avoidance ( β = -0.22, p = .008 ) and expressive suppression ( β = -0.34, p < .001 ). Only in the relation between parenting stress and expressive suppression, did self-compassion operate as a significant moderator (model 4; β = -0.97, p = .023 ) , indicating that self-compassion buffered this relation. With regard to the covariates, parental education level was only significantly related to behavioral disengagement ( β = -1.42, p = .004 ) and avoidance ( β = -1.40, p = .018 ) , such that a lower education level was associated with more parental assistance with these emotion regulation strategies. Parental anxiety and depressive symptoms were significantly positively associated with seeking social support ( β = 0.55, p = .031 ) and acceptance ( β = 0.72, p = .006 ) . In contrast, these parental symptoms were negatively related to expressive suppression ( β = -0.83, p = .002 ) . Child age was unrelated to any of the outcome variables, and rumination was the only emotion regulation strategy for which none of the predictors reached statistical significance. Discussion The present study investigated the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation, as well as the moderating roles of parent sex and parental self-compassion. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that higher parenting stress was associated with lower use of stereotypically adaptive strategies and greater reliance on expressive suppression. Self-compassion significantly buffered the association of parenting stress with expressive suppression and was related to greater parental encouragement of adaptive strategies (e.g., reappraisal). Lastly, fathers seemed to provide less assistance with several strategies compared to mothers. In line with the first hypothesis, parenting stress was associated with less parental assistance with regulation strategies that are typically considered adaptive (i.e., problem solving, reappraisal, and acceptance). This is in line with previous research showing that higher levels of emotional distress, including parenting stress, are related to lower use of these strategies in parents (Cohodes et al., 2022 ; Pala et al., 2023 ). Moreover, higher levels of parenting stress were related to greater use of expressive suppression, a strategy typically considered maladaptive due to its bidirectional relation with psychopathology (Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010 ). Findings from previous studies align with the current results, revealing a relation between higher parenting stress and greater parental encouragement of expressive suppression in children (Cohodes et al., 2022 ; Pala et al., 2023 ). These findings imply that parental assistance with child emotion regulation may serve as a mechanism through which parental distress affects the development of child emotion dysregulation. Specifically, parents experiencing high stress levels may (un)consciously encourage their children to suppress their emotional expressions (e.g., “I help my child to not show their negative feelings”). This strategy, when consistently used over time, increases the risk of emotion dysregulation and psychopathological symptoms (e.g., Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010 ). Moreover, given that higher parenting stress is also related to reduced support for adaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, these findings warrant more attention in parenting interventions that aim to improve parental emotion coaching, such as the program Tuning in to Kids (TIK) (Mastromanno et al., 2021 ). It would be beneficial to increase parents’ awareness of how stress can influence their interactions with their child, and to provide them with tools to manage parenting stress more effectively. With respect to self-compassion, the results showed that self-compassion was positively related to adaptive regulation strategies (e.g., reappraisal and acceptance) and negatively associated with avoidance and expressive suppression. These findings support Lathren et al.’s ( 2020 ) intergenerational model, suggesting that parents who had supportive experiences with their own caregivers develop higher levels of self-compassion. The model posits that in turn, parents with greater self-compassion are better able to support their children when they express negative emotions (Lathren et al., 2020 ; Psychogiou et al., 2016 ). Parental self-compassion might for example prevent harsh parental responses to difficult child behavior or mistakes. Furthermore, children may implicitly learn from parents who model self-compassion when dealing with their own mistakes or difficulties (Lathren et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, the results indicated a buffering role of self-compassion in the relation between parenting stress and expressive suppression. Previous research has already shown the negative association between parenting stress and self-compassion (Garcia et al., 2022 ; Neff & Faso, 2015 ). Given that parents with more self-compassion tend to encourage adaptive emotion regulation strategies in their children, integrating self-compassion in family programs could be beneficial for both parents’ and children’s psychosocial outcomes. Parenting interventions which integrate self-compassion and seem to reduce parenting stress (Jefferson et al., 2020 ) may thus also be associated with improved familial processes, including parent-child co-regulation. Third, the moderating role of parent sex in the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation was examined. While parent sex did not moderate this association, we did find that fathers provided less assistance compared to mothers in five out of the ten strategies. Research on paternal emotion-related parenting practices is limited (Islamiah et al., 2023 ). Previous research has suggested that mothers may play a more prominent role in emotion socialization (Schoppe-Sullivan et al., 2013 ). This difference in socialization involvement was related to the relative contribution to family income. The current findings can also be interpreted considering prior research indicating that women are more likely to use expression and seek social support for their own emotion regulation (Sanchis-Sanchis et al., 2020 ). Mothers may therefore be more inclined to encourage their children to vent about their emotions and seek social support. Another possible explanation could be that mothers are more aware of their strategies when responding to children’s emotions (Barrett et al., 2000 ). This might enable them to better reflect and report on their strategies in questionnaires. Future research should explore these factors, particularly the degree of paternal involvement and sex differences in emotional awareness, to better understand the role of parent sex in parental assistance with child emotion regulation. As for the covariates that were included in the analyses, it was found that parents with a lower education level encouraged more behavioral disengagement and avoidance in their children. These findings align with previous research showing that adults with a lower education level tend to use escape-avoiding and distractive coping strategies more often (Vitulić & Prosen, 2016 ). This could be due to parents with a low education level having lower levels of coping resources, which may contribute to them relying more on passive strategies such as avoidance. These results underscore the importance of considering education level when investigating parents’ role in child emotion regulation. Additionally, parental anxiety and depressive symptoms were linked to greater encouragement of seeking social support and acceptance and less support for expressive suppression. While parental psychopathology is often linked to less adaptive parenting (Cohodes et al., 2022 ; Harvey et al., 2011 ), these findings suggest that parents with higher symptom levels try to foster more adaptive emotion regulation strategies in their children. Parents reporting psychopathological symptoms may have firsthand experience with the downsides of relying on suppression as a regulation strategy. Results suggest that this may increase their awareness of the importance of encouraging alternative strategies (e.g., acceptance and social support search) in their children. More research is needed to explore this relation. As a last note, rumination (e.g., “I help my child replay whatever is making them have negative feelings in their mind”), was the only strategy not associated with any of the predictors This finding is unlikely to be due to low mean-level endorsement (Cohodes et al., 2022 ), as expressive suppression, which had an even lower average score, was still linked to both parenting stress and self-compassion. A more plausible explanation is that rumination is a more internally focused emotion regulation strategy. As such, while parental factors like stress may influence a parent’s own tendency to ruminate, they may not explicitly impact the extent to which parents encourage rumination in their children. Similarly, prior research failed to find a correlation between mothers’ and daughters’ self-reported rumination (Douglas et al., 2017 ). Future research should investigate whether the inward nature of rumination explains these findings and explore other factors that may influence the use of rumination in parent-child interactions (Cohodes et al., 2022 ). Several limitations of the current study need to be considered when interpretating the findings. Firstly, the sample was not fully representative of the Dutch population, as approximately 70% of participants were highly educated, and the sample lacked ethnic diversity. This limits the generalizability of the results, as parent-child co-regulation processes may differ across socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds (e.g., Mata & Pauen, 2023 ). Future studies should aim to explore these processes in more culturally and socioeconomically diverse samples. Secondly, all data were based on parent reports, so reporting bias cannot be ruled out. This may have impacted the relatively low mean-level endorsement of typically maladaptive strategies, such as expressive suppression and rumination (Cohodes et al., 2022 ). Moreover, it is plausible that parents are not fully aware of or may have difficulty recalling the specific strategies they use in-the-moment when their child experiences a negative emotion. To address this, future studies should include child self-reports and observational methods in addition to parent-reports to examine concordance between these types of assessment. Thirdly, the study was not conducted in at-risk families, limiting the ability to explore parental assistance with child emotion regulation in families who might experience elevated levels of parenting stress. The current study did account for two indicators of dyadic risk as covariates, namely child ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis and parental anxiety and depressive symptoms. While child ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis was not related to parental assistance with child emotion regulation, parental anxiety and depressive symptoms was a significant covariate. Thus, future research should explore additional factors, such as parental neurodivergence or other indices of familial risk (e.g., child maltreatment) that may impact the regulation strategies parents support in their children. A key strength of this study is its focus on ten specific emotion regulation strategies parents may use in response to children’s negative emotions, rather than examining parental factors in relation to general parenting behaviors. Together, these findings gain more insights into how certain parental factors are associated with the emotion regulation strategies parents encourage in their children. The findings suggest that parents reporting higher parenting stress encourage less adaptive strategies and more expressive suppression in their children. Within this latter relation, parental self-compassion might play a protective role. The findings add to previous literature, showing that parental self-compassion not only benefits parental well-being but may also positively affect parent-child co-regulation. Thus, parenting interventions may benefit from addressing both parenting stress and incorporating self-compassion components to improve parental assistance with child emotion regulation. Lastly, this study sheds light on other important predictors of parents’ emotion coaching behaviors, including parent sex and parental psychopathological symptoms, that should be further explored in future research. Declarations Author Contribution All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by CV and MB. The first draft of the manuscript was written by CV and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. 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05:20:35","extension":"html","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":217116,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6921259/v1/c8ac410f4031d44a33aeba1f.html"},{"id":94980411,"identity":"3d360497-6437-4b26-8b57-606dc921c59b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 05:20:35","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":85955,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFlow chart inclusion and exclusion criteria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. \u003csup\u003e1 \u003c/sup\u003eParticipants who completed the questionnaires in English were excluded, to ensure full comprehension of the questionnaires, as most were not native English speakers.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6921259/v1/a76e1fbe5768f0d97c51dced.png"},{"id":106336976,"identity":"79adfb16-4071-42d5-b353-9efeddede3a1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 14:58:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1266279,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6921259/v1/3c033ad8-0e64-4c5a-8324-6e4b76cadba3.pdf"},{"id":94980417,"identity":"77daab37-3851-49e8-91e4-86474e75c21c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-03 05:20:35","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":29416,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementals3.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6921259/v1/fee9e9691e469af7f31880fa.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The interplay between parenting stress, parental self-compassion, and parent sex in parental emotion socialization","fulltext":[{"header":"Highlights","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Parenting stress is related to less adaptive parental assistance with child emotion regulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Fathers provide less assistance with emotion regulation compared to mothers\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Parental self-compassion is associated with more adaptive parental assistance with child emotion regulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Self-compassion buffers the link between parenting stress and parental encouragement of suppression\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAcross childhood, parents play a leading role in providing external regulation for children\u0026rsquo;s emotions, thereby supporting the development of children\u0026rsquo;s intrinsic emotion regulation skills (e.g., Silkenbeumer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Adaptive emotion regulation is key to children\u0026rsquo;s socio-emotional competence, making early parental support with emotion regulation crucial. Following the model of Morris et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), this parental role encompasses children's observation of parents\u0026rsquo; emotion regulation (e.g., mirroring of emotional expressions), the emotional climate of the family (e.g., attachment), and emotion-related parenting practices. This latter component includes emotion socialization and emotional co-regulation, which are both processes through which parents assist with children's emotion regulation (Eisenberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Paley \u0026amp; Hajal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmotion socialization can be defined as the process supposed to enhance children's emotional awareness and understanding and reflects parental beliefs, goals, and values regarding children\u0026rsquo;s emotions (Silkenbeumer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Parents socialize their children around emotions in several ways, including their reactions to children\u0026rsquo;s emotions, their discussion, and expression of emotion (Eisenberg et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Gottman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Zeman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, the more dyadic concept of emotional co-regulation refers to the process in which the parent helps the child manage their emotions in the moment (Silkenbeumer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Verhagen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, while emotion socialization involves teaching children socially accepted emotional responses, increasing their emotional awareness and competence, co-regulation facilitates the immediate selection and execution of effective regulation strategies. This emphasizes the importance of both processes for child emotion regulation, which is defined as the internal and external processes involved in initiating, evaluating and modifying the occurrence, intensity, and expression of emotions to accomplish one's goals (Thompson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Although the exact nature of parental assistance with child emotion regulation (i.e., emotion socialization, co-regulation) changes across childhood, research consistently shows that this process remains foundational in shaping the development of children's emotion regulation from birth through adolescence (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zeman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost research has assessed parental assistance with child emotion regulation via variables that reflect dimensions of supportive versus unsupportive parenting practices (Frogley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Supportive parenting behaviors are characterized by recognizing and accepting children\u0026rsquo;s negative emotions, encouraging them to express their emotional experiences, and working with them to solve problems. Through these parenting practices, children are encouraged to adopt emotion regulation strategies (e.g., reappraisal, effective problem-solving) that have been related to positive child outcomes, such as lower internalizing and externalizing behaviors (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, unsupportive parenting behaviors are demonstrated by minimizing children\u0026rsquo;s negative emotions and avoiding opportunities to apply teaching or problem-solving around children\u0026rsquo;s emotional experiences (Gottman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). Children of parents who promote these maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as expressive suppression, have been shown to be at greater risk for mental health problems (e.g., depression), internalizing, and externalizing symptoms, and have lower emotion competence (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Frogley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sanders et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). While an increasing body of research has explored the association between these supportive and unsupportive parenting behaviors and child outcomes, parental factors potentially underlying these practices remain understudied.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne parental factor that has been consistently associated with parenting practices, and consequently with child outcomes, is parenting stress. Parenting stress can be defined as the psychological strain and feelings of overwhelm experienced by parents in response to stressors that can arise from the challenges and demands of parenting (Abidin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Stress is a common aspect of parenting, but lasting levels of parenting stress can become detrimental when parents lack resources, such as partner support or adequate knowledge, or rely on ineffective coping strategies (Deater-Deckard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Consistently, research has shown a relation between increased levels of parenting stress and undesirable child outcomes (e.g., Stone et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), such as poorer emotion regulation skills and more internalizing and externalizing problems in children (Fortunato et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Stone et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Some studies suggest that this relation is mediated by parenting behaviors (Carapito et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Jackson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These studies found that while under high levels of stress, parents may exert more authoritarian (e.g., demanding, less responsive) and harsh parenting, which are in turn related to less optimal child outcomes, such as more behavioral problems. Moreover, in infants, research has found an association between increased levels of parenting stress and less sensitive and reciprocal co-regulation of behavior during play (Doiron et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Yet, there is a lack of research that explores the relation between parenting stress and parenting practices directly related to supporting child emotion regulation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThus, identifying protective factors that could buffer the effects of parenting stress on parenting practices and specifically on parental assistance with child emotion regulation, is valuable. One concept that has been shown to be negatively related to parenting stress is self-compassion (Garcia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Self-compassion refers to an attitude or ability to approach adversity or any perceived inadequacy (e.g., personal failure) with care and concern (Neff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). According to Neff (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), self-compassion consists of three interrelated components; self-kindness, a sense of common humanity (i.e., an understanding that suffering is a common human experience) and mindful awareness of experiences in the present moment. Self-compassion seems to be associated with the affective component of well-being and is associated with lower levels of negative affect, depression, anxiety, and higher levels of positive affect in adults (MacBeth \u0026amp; Gumley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, self-compassion facilitates an empathetic and accepting attitude towards others and has been related to a wide variety of interpersonal benefits (Lathren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Within the parent-child relationship, self-compassion is believed to enhance both parental well-being and parenting quality. Self-compassion supports parents in their ability to cope with emotional distress and foster adaptive responses to the challenges of parenting (Shenaar-Golan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Research has shown that parents with higher self-compassion were more likely to attribute their children's behavior to external factors, were less critical, and used fewer distressed reactions when managing their children's emotions (Psychogiou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, self-compassion has been linked to higher levels of mindful parenting and authoritative parenting, and lower levels of authoritarian and permissive parenting (Gouveia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Parents with greater self-compassion may thus be able to respond more sensitively to their children, thereby promoting positive behavioral outcomes and secure attachment (Lathren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Psychogiou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Together, these studies suggest that self-compassion is positively associated with parenting quality and might also be linked to more adaptive parental assistance with child emotion regulation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to enhancing parenting quality, self-compassion is also thought to improve parental well-being by reducing feelings of guilt and shame in response to negative parenting events (Sirois et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Higher levels of self-compassion have been positively associated with happy feelings toward parenting and life satisfaction during parenthood, and negatively linked to depressive symptoms, stress, anxiety, and anger in parents (Cohen \u0026amp; Naaman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Neff \u0026amp; Faso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Likewise, research has suggested that self-compassion may be an effective target for interventions aimed at reducing parenting stress (Gouveia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies have shown that parents who had more self-compassion reported lower parenting stress and higher self-efficacy (Mancini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Moreira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and parenting interventions that focus on enhancing self-compassion significantly reduced parenting stress (Jefferson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In parents of children with mental health problems, self-compassion was found to be more strongly related to parenting stress than child problem severity (Shenaar-Golan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Together, these findings suggest that promoting self-compassion may be important for reducing parenting stress and improving parent-child outcomes such as emotional socialization and co-regulation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost research exploring these parental risk and protective factors has focused on mothers, often overlooking the contributions of fathers. Nevertheless, research does suggest that mothers and fathers play unique roles in the development of children's emotion regulation skills (Sanders et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Van Lissa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It has been found that mothers\u0026rsquo; unsupportive responses to sadness were associated with increased depressive symptoms in their children, while fathers\u0026rsquo; unsupportive responses to anger had similar effects (Sanders et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In adolescents, emotion regulation improved when they perceived their mothers as supportive, whereas fathers\u0026rsquo; contributions were more pronounced when they were less restrictive in enforcing behavioral control (Van Lissa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Lastly, while maternal use of the emotion regulation strategy \u0026ldquo;expressive suppression\u0026rdquo; significantly predicted the child's use of suppression, this relation was not found for fathers (Bariola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, studies including both mothers and fathers are important to reveal the unique effects of both maternal and paternal factors on parental assistance with child emotion regulation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn increasing body of research has explored the associations between parenting stress, parental self-compassion, parenting practices, and child outcomes. However, several research gaps remain. First, while research indicates that self-compassion can alleviate parenting stress, the interaction between these factors and their combined influence on parenting practices remains underexplored. Specifically, few studies have assessed how these factors impact the degree to which parents assist their child in implementing specific emotion regulation strategies in daily life (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). If self-compassion serves as a buffer against the negative impact of parenting stress on parental assistance with child emotion regulation, enhancing self-compassion could be a target of interventions aimed at improving parenting quality (Jefferson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Psychogiou et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). A last research gap pertains to the emphasis on mothers, infants, and toddlers in studies of parental assistance with child emotion regulation, with little focus paid to fathers and interactions with children in middle to late childhood. As elementary-school aged children are increasingly confronted with more complex, challenging situations, it is an important period to investigate parents\u0026rsquo; support of child emotion regulation (Paley \u0026amp; Hajal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, we aimed to investigate the moderating effects of self-compassion and parent sex (mothers/fathers) on the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation. We expected a negative association between parenting stress and parental assistance with stereotypically adaptive strategies (e.g., reappraisal), and a positive association with \u0026ldquo;maladaptive\u0026rdquo; strategies (e.g., expressive suppression). Furthermore, it was hypothesized that self-compassion moderates the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation, serving as a buffer against the impact of parenting stress. As the inclusion of parent sex as moderator is exploratory, no specific hypotheses were made regarding its moderating effect on the primary relation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipants and procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e The current study is part of the XX study, which included parents from a community-based sample who were part of a cross-sectional survey study. Research assistants at XX were asked to recruit parents as part of a second-year bachelor's course of the Psychology Program. Quota sampling was applied to ensure equal representation of both fathers and mothers of children from each of the following four age groups (i.e., 4\u0026ndash;6, 6\u0026ndash;8, 8\u0026ndash;10, and 10\u0026ndash;12 years old). Additionally, participants were recruited via advertisement (e.g., via social media, primary schools) and word of mouth. Eligible participants had to be able to read and understand the Dutch or English language, be \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;18 years of age and be a parent or caregiver of a child aged 4\u0026ndash;12 years. In the current study, only Dutch-speaking parents of children between 6 and 12 years old were included. Participants were asked to fill in an online questionnaire via Qualtrics (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ewww.Qualtrics.com\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.Qualtrics.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) after providing informed consent. One in 50 participants had a chance to win a gift card worth 20 euros. The data used in the present study were collected between January and February 2025.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Of the 473 participants that provided informed consent, 226 (47.8%) were Dutch\u0026ndash;speaking biological parents of a child between 6 and 12 years old (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e for the inclusion and exclusion flowchart). The final study sample included 198 parents (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 42.8, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 6.0, 60.6% mothers) of children aged 6\u0026ndash;12 (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 9.1, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 1.7, 52% girl). Ethical approval was obtained from XX (protocol XX). This study was not preregistered.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003c FIGURE HERE \u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParenting stress\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo measure parenting stress, the 34-item Parenting Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) was used (Vermulst et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The questionnaire can be completed by parents of children between 0 and 18 years of age. Each item was rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;not true, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;somewhat true, 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;quite true, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;very true. Three subscales of the PSQ were used in the current study; parent-child relationship problems (six items; e.g., \u0026ldquo;I feel cheerful when my child is with me\u0026rdquo;), parenting problems (perceived competence in parenting, seven items; e.g., \u0026ldquo;my child listens to me\u0026rdquo;) and parental role restriction (six items; e.g., \u0026ldquo;my child keeps me from other activities\u0026rdquo;). Total scores combining the items of the three subscales range from 19 to 76, with higher scores indicating more parenting stress. Adequate reliability (McDonald's omega (ω)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.96) and factorial validity of the PSQ has been shown in a Dutch sample (Veerman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Likewise, reliability of the PSQ in the current study has been found to be good, with ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.93.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSelf-compassion\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo measure parental self-compassion, the Self-Compassion Scale Short-Form (SCS-SF) was completed by the participating parents (Raes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Each of the 12 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;when something painful happens I try to take a balanced view of the situation\u0026rdquo;) is rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;almost never to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;almost always. Higher scores indicate more self-compassion. The items can be divided into six subscales; self-kindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. For the current study, all item scores were summed up to generate a total self-compassion score. Confirmatory factor analysis has supported the presence of this single higher order factor of self-compassion (Raes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, in both Dutch and English samples, the SCS-SF has demonstrated adequate reliability (Cronbach's Alpha (α)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.86 in all samples) (Raes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Likewise, reliability of this scale in the current study has been found to be good, with α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParental assistance with child emotion regulation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Parental Assistance with Child Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (PACER) has been developed to measure the degree to which parents assist their child, instrumentally, in performing ten different emotion regulation strategies in daily life (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The 50 items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from \u0026ldquo;strongly disagree\u0026rdquo; to \u0026ldquo;strongly agree\u0026rdquo;. The items of the PACER can be divided into ten subscales assessing both adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies; behavioral disengagement (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I remove my child from a situation when it is causing them to have negative feelings\u0026rdquo;), problem solving (\u0026ldquo;I help my child think carefully about different solutions to their problems\u0026rdquo;), social support search (\u0026ldquo;I help my child find other people to help them (including myself)\u0026rdquo;), rumination (\u0026ldquo;I help my child replay whatever is making them have negative feelings in their mind\u0026rdquo;), distraction (\u0026ldquo;I help my child find ways to distract themselves from their negative feelings\u0026rdquo;), reappraisal (\u0026ldquo;I help my child think of a situation in a positive light\u0026rdquo;), acceptance (\u0026ldquo;I help my child understand that it is okay to have negative feelings\u0026rdquo;), expressive suppression (\u0026ldquo;I help my child to not show their negative feelings\u0026rdquo;), venting (\u0026ldquo;I help my child talk openly with other people\u0026rdquo;), and avoidance (\u0026ldquo;I help my child avoid entering potentially uncomfortable situations whenever possible\u0026rdquo;). Excellent fit for this 10-factor model has been demonstrated in American and Turkish samples of parents of children between 0\u0026ndash;17 years old (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pala et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). All ten subscales showed high internal reliability with McDonald's omega (α)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.85. For the current study, reliability was also found to be good with α\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.87 for all subscales.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCovariates\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParental education level, child sex, child age, child diagnosis of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD(H)D) or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and parental anxiety and depressive symptoms were included as covariates. The latter was measured using the four-item Patient Health Questionnaire for anxiety and depression (PHQ-4).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll analyses were completed in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS version 28.0). Descriptive statistics and Pearson's bivariate correlations between parenting stress, parental self-compassion, parental assistance with child emotion regulation, and the covariates were calculated. Parental education level was recoded into a dichotomous variable comprising high education level (i.e., higher vocational education, university or higher) and low education level and with the latter as a reference. Descriptives were reported for the total sample and for mothers and fathers separately. Furthermore, an independent t-test was conducted to examine potential differences between mothers and fathers in the main variables of interest. To test the main hypotheses, a moderated, hierarchical linear regression was conducted. Ten different regression models were run, for each of the ten emotion regulation strategies (PACER) which were included as dependent variables. In the first step, the covariates were entered as predictors (i.e., child sex, child age, parental education level, parental anxiety and depressive symptoms, and child ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis). Parenting stress was entered in step 2 as a predictor to test its associations with parental assistance in different emotion regulation strategies. In step 3, the moderators \u0026lsquo;parent sex\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;parental self-compassion' were added as additional predictors. To test their moderating effect, their interaction terms with parenting stress were entered in the final step. A significance criterion of p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05 was used.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA power analysis was conducted in G*Power with ten predictors. With a power of .95, a significance criterion of α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.05 and a small to medium effect size of f\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.15, the required sample size was 172.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly, so due to the sensitive nature of the research supporting data is not available.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePreliminary analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDemographical characteristics of the sample (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;198) can be found in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Participants had a mean age of 42.8 (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.0) and 120 (60.6%) were mothers (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;120) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Most participants had a partner (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;182, 91.9%), completed higher vocational education, university or higher (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;140, 70.7%), and were of Dutch ethnicity (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;176, 88.9%). Most participants were working full-time or part-time (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;183, 92.5%). The target children were on average 9.1 years old (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.7, 52.0% girls), and 11.6% (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;23) of the children had an ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDemographical characteristics (N\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;198\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e%\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRange\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDemographics\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParent age\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.8 (6.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u0026ndash;78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChild age\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e198\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.1 (1.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale sex parent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale sex child\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiagnosis AD(H)D (child)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiagnosis ASD (child)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental anxiety or depressive symptoms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.3 (1.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDutch ethnicity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e176\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParent education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh school or lower\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntermediate vocational education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigher vocational education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUniversity or higher\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarried/registered partnership\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartner but unmarried\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDivorced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u0026lt; Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e here \u0026gt;\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptives of the study variables can be found in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Results from the independent samples t-tests indicated a significant difference in behavioral disengagement (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(196) = -2.32, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.021), problem solving (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(196) = -2.63, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.009), social support search (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(196) = -3.29, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001), distraction (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(196) = -3.19, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002), reappraisal (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(196) = -2.73, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.007), and venting (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e(196) = -4.38 \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Fathers reported lower levels of assistance with these emotion regulation strategies in their children compared to mothers (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptives of the study variables for the total sample, for mothers, and fathers\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFathers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMothers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.0 (7.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.9 (6.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.4 (7.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.146\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelf-compassion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.4 (10.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.1 (10.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57.6 (11.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.757\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBehavioral disengagement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.1 (5.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.0 (5.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.8 (5.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProblem solving\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.2 (4.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.2 (4.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.8 (3.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.009\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial support search\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.6 (5.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.1 (5.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.5 (4.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRumination\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.3 (6.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.9 (5.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.8 (7.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.253\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistraction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.9 (6.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.2 (6.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.0 (5.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReappraisal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.2 (4.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.2 (3.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.9 (4.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.007\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.6 (5.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.7 (5.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.1 (5.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.072\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExpressive suppression\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.4 (5.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.3 (5.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.9 (5.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.070\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVenting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.2 (5.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.4 (4.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.5 (4.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvoidance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.3 (6.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.6 (5.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.1 (6.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.576\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. The control group for the independent t-test refers to females.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u0026lt; Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e here \u0026gt;\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Pearson correlations between all variables are shown in Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e (see Supplementals). Parenting stress was significantly correlated with self-compassion, (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.27, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), behavioral disengagement (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), problem solving (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.34, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), social support search (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.15, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.041), reappraisal (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.27, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), acceptance (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), expressive suppression (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001) and venting (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.15, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.040). Furthermore, self-compassion was correlated with problem solving (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.030), social support search (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.19, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.007), reappraisal (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.003), acceptance (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.026), expressive suppression (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.29, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), venting (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.22, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002), and avoidance (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = -0.23, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePrimary analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of the moderated hierarchical regression analyses are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Model 1 included all covariates, in step 2 parenting stress was added, and self-compassion and parent sex were added in step 3. Model 4 included the interaction terms between self-compassion, parent sex and parenting stress. Below, the results of the third model are discussed, as the interaction terms in model 4 were not significant for any of the outcome variables, except for expressive suppression.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModeration analysis for parental assistance with child emotion regulation strategies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"20\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c18\" colnum=\"18\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c19\" colnum=\"19\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c20\" colnum=\"20\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBehavioral disengagement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProblem solving\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial support search\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c20\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRumination\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStep 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.08*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental education (high)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.004*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.387\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.958\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.122\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental anxiety and depressive symptoms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.613\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.779\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.885\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.385\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChild age\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.083\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.101\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.265\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.930\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChild sex (boys)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.047*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.367\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.788\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.639\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChild ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.385\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.065\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.550\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.314\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStep 2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.12*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.12*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.003*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.019*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.448\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStep 3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.14*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.16*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.12*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.009*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.137\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.608\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental self-compassion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.446\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.119\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.004*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.531\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParent sex (fathers)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.071\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.022*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.002*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStep 4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.14*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.17*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.13*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress * parental self-compassion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.305\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.256\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.363\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c19\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.603\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c20\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress * parent sex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.742\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.592\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.642\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c16\" namest=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.500\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c20\" namest=\"c19\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"20\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003econtinued\u003c/b\u003e \u003cem\u003eModeration analysis for parental assistance with child emotion regulation strategies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"18\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c18\" colnum=\"18\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistraction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReappraisal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExpressive suppression\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c17\" namest=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcceptance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c18\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStep 1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental education (high)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.482\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.378\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.114\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.591\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental anxiety and depressive symptoms\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.080\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.360\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.808\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.398\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChild age\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.097\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.339\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.987\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.824\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChild sex (boys)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.589\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.673\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.634\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.681\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChild ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.550\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.213\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.412\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.842\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStep 2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.08*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.09*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.09*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.107\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStep 3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.09*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.13*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.19*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.12*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.215\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.012*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.004*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-3.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental self-compassion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.564\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.013*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-4.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.019*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParent sex (fathers)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.007*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.015*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.052\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.21*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.175\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStep 4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.14*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.13*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress * parental self-compassion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.746\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.023*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.384\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress * parent sex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.927\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.686\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.930\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c18\" namest=\"c17\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"18\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParenting stress was a consistent predictor of five of the ten emotion regulation strategies (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003erange\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.20 to 0.27, all \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.012). Higher parenting stress was related to less behavioral disengagement (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.009\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, problem solving (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.29, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, reappraisal (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.20, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.012\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, and acceptance (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e-0.27, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.001 \u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, and to more expressive suppression (\u003cem\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.22, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.004\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental sex was significantly associated with problem solving (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.16, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.022\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, social support search (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.22, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.002\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, distraction (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.20, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.007\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, reappraisal (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.17, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.015\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, and venting (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.28, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e. Fathers assisted their children to a lesser extent with these strategies compared to mothers. Parent sex did not moderate any association between parenting stress and the emotion regulation strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental self-compassion was significantly associated with five out of the ten strategies (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003erange\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003e=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.20 to 0.34, all \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.019). More self-compassion was related to more assistance with social support search (\u003cem\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.24, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.004\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, reappraisal (\u003cem\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.21, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.013\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, and acceptance (\u003cem\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.20, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.019\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e Self-compassion was negatively associated with avoidance (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.22, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.008\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e and expressive suppression (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e = -0.34, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.001\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e Only in the relation between parenting stress and expressive suppression, did self-compassion operate as a significant moderator (model 4; \u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.97, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.023\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, indicating that self-compassion buffered this relation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith regard to the covariates, parental education level was only significantly related to behavioral disengagement (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -1.42, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.004\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e and avoidance (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -1.40, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.018\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e, such that a lower education level was associated with more parental assistance with these emotion regulation strategies. Parental anxiety and depressive symptoms were significantly positively associated with seeking social support (\u003cem\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.55, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.031\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e and acceptance (\u003cem\u003eβ\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;0.72, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.006\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e. In contrast, these parental symptoms were negatively related to expressive suppression (\u003cem\u003eβ =\u003c/em\u003e -0.83, \u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;.002\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e. Child age was unrelated to any of the outcome variables, and rumination was the only emotion regulation strategy for which none of the predictors reached statistical significance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u0026lt; Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e here \u0026gt;\u003c/h2\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study investigated the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation, as well as the moderating roles of parent sex and parental self-compassion. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that higher parenting stress was associated with lower use of stereotypically adaptive strategies and greater reliance on expressive suppression. Self-compassion significantly buffered the association of parenting stress with expressive suppression and was related to greater parental encouragement of adaptive strategies (e.g., reappraisal). Lastly, fathers seemed to provide less assistance with several strategies compared to mothers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn line with the first hypothesis, parenting stress was associated with less parental assistance with regulation strategies that are typically considered adaptive (i.e., problem solving, reappraisal, and acceptance). This is in line with previous research showing that higher levels of emotional distress, including parenting stress, are related to lower use of these strategies in parents (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pala et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, higher levels of parenting stress were related to greater use of expressive suppression, a strategy typically considered maladaptive due to its bidirectional relation with psychopathology (Aldao \u0026amp; Nolen-Hoeksema, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Findings from previous studies align with the current results, revealing a relation between higher parenting stress and greater parental encouragement of expressive suppression in children (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pala et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These findings imply that parental assistance with child emotion regulation may serve as a mechanism through which parental distress affects the development of child emotion dysregulation. Specifically, parents experiencing high stress levels may (un)consciously encourage their children to suppress their emotional expressions (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I help my child to not show their negative feelings\u0026rdquo;). This strategy, when consistently used over time, increases the risk of emotion dysregulation and psychopathological symptoms (e.g., Aldao \u0026amp; Nolen-Hoeksema, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, given that higher parenting stress is also related to reduced support for adaptive emotion regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and acceptance, these findings warrant more attention in parenting interventions that aim to improve parental emotion coaching, such as the program Tuning in to Kids (TIK) (Mastromanno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It would be beneficial to increase parents\u0026rsquo; awareness of how stress can influence their interactions with their child, and to provide them with tools to manage parenting stress more effectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith respect to self-compassion, the results showed that self-compassion was positively related to adaptive regulation strategies (e.g., reappraisal and acceptance) and negatively associated with avoidance and expressive suppression. These findings support Lathren et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) intergenerational model, suggesting that parents who had supportive experiences with their own caregivers develop higher levels of self-compassion. The model posits that in turn, parents with greater self-compassion are better able to support their children when they express negative emotions (Lathren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Psychogiou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Parental self-compassion might for example prevent harsh parental responses to difficult child behavior or mistakes. Furthermore, children may implicitly learn from parents who model self-compassion when dealing with their own mistakes or difficulties (Lathren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the results indicated a buffering role of self-compassion in the relation between parenting stress and expressive suppression. Previous research has already shown the negative association between parenting stress and self-compassion (Garcia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Neff \u0026amp; Faso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Given that parents with more self-compassion tend to encourage adaptive emotion regulation strategies in their children, integrating self-compassion in family programs could be beneficial for both parents\u0026rsquo; and children\u0026rsquo;s psychosocial outcomes. Parenting interventions which integrate self-compassion and seem to reduce parenting stress (Jefferson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) may thus also be associated with improved familial processes, including parent-child co-regulation. Third, the moderating role of parent sex in the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation was examined. While parent sex did not moderate this association, we did find that fathers provided less assistance compared to mothers in five out of the ten strategies. Research on paternal emotion-related parenting practices is limited (Islamiah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Previous research has suggested that mothers may play a more prominent role in emotion socialization (Schoppe-Sullivan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). This difference in socialization involvement was related to the relative contribution to family income. The current findings can also be interpreted considering prior research indicating that women are more likely to use expression and seek social support for their own emotion regulation (Sanchis-Sanchis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Mothers may therefore be more inclined to encourage their children to vent about their emotions and seek social support. Another possible explanation could be that mothers are more aware of their strategies when responding to children\u0026rsquo;s emotions (Barrett et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). This might enable them to better reflect and report on their strategies in questionnaires. Future research should explore these factors, particularly the degree of paternal involvement and sex differences in emotional awareness, to better understand the role of parent sex in parental assistance with child emotion regulation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e As for the covariates that were included in the analyses, it was found that parents with a lower education level encouraged more behavioral disengagement and avoidance in their children. These findings align with previous research showing that adults with a lower education level tend to use escape-avoiding and distractive coping strategies more often (Vitulić \u0026amp; Prosen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). This could be due to parents with a low education level having lower levels of coping resources, which may contribute to them relying more on passive strategies such as avoidance. These results underscore the importance of considering education level when investigating parents\u0026rsquo; role in child emotion regulation. Additionally, parental anxiety and depressive symptoms were linked to greater encouragement of seeking social support and acceptance and less support for expressive suppression. While parental psychopathology is often linked to less adaptive parenting (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Harvey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), these findings suggest that parents with higher symptom levels try to foster more adaptive emotion regulation strategies in their children. Parents reporting psychopathological symptoms may have firsthand experience with the downsides of relying on suppression as a regulation strategy. Results suggest that this may increase their awareness of the importance of encouraging alternative strategies (e.g., acceptance and social support search) in their children. More research is needed to explore this relation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs a last note, rumination (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I help my child replay whatever is making them have negative feelings in their mind\u0026rdquo;), was the only strategy not associated with any of the predictors This finding is unlikely to be due to low mean-level endorsement (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), as expressive suppression, which had an even lower average score, was still linked to both parenting stress and self-compassion. A more plausible explanation is that rumination is a more internally focused emotion regulation strategy. As such, while parental factors like stress may influence a parent\u0026rsquo;s own tendency to ruminate, they may not explicitly impact the extent to which parents encourage rumination in their children. Similarly, prior research failed to find a correlation between mothers\u0026rsquo; and daughters\u0026rsquo; self-reported rumination (Douglas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Future research should investigate whether the inward nature of rumination explains these findings and explore other factors that may influence the use of rumination in parent-child interactions (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations of the current study need to be considered when interpretating the findings. Firstly, the sample was not fully representative of the Dutch population, as approximately 70% of participants were highly educated, and the sample lacked ethnic diversity. This limits the generalizability of the results, as parent-child co-regulation processes may differ across socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds (e.g., Mata \u0026amp; Pauen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Future studies should aim to explore these processes in more culturally and socioeconomically diverse samples. Secondly, all data were based on parent reports, so reporting bias cannot be ruled out. This may have impacted the relatively low mean-level endorsement of typically maladaptive strategies, such as expressive suppression and rumination (Cohodes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, it is plausible that parents are not fully aware of or may have difficulty recalling the specific strategies they use in-the-moment when their child experiences a negative emotion. To address this, future studies should include child self-reports and observational methods in addition to parent-reports to examine concordance between these types of assessment. Thirdly, the study was not conducted in at-risk families, limiting the ability to explore parental assistance with child emotion regulation in families who might experience elevated levels of parenting stress. The current study did account for two indicators of dyadic risk as covariates, namely child ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis and parental anxiety and depressive symptoms. While child ASD/AD(H)D diagnosis was not related to parental assistance with child emotion regulation, parental anxiety and depressive symptoms was a significant covariate. Thus, future research should explore additional factors, such as parental neurodivergence or other indices of familial risk (e.g., child maltreatment) that may impact the regulation strategies parents support in their children. A key strength of this study is its focus on ten specific emotion regulation strategies parents may use in response to children\u0026rsquo;s negative emotions, rather than examining parental factors in relation to general parenting behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTogether, these findings gain more insights into how certain parental factors are associated with the emotion regulation strategies parents encourage in their children. The findings suggest that parents reporting higher parenting stress encourage less adaptive strategies and more expressive suppression in their children. Within this latter relation, parental self-compassion might play a protective role. The findings add to previous literature, showing that parental self-compassion not only benefits parental well-being but may also positively affect parent-child co-regulation. Thus, parenting interventions may benefit from addressing both parenting stress and incorporating self-compassion components to improve parental assistance with child emotion regulation. Lastly, this study sheds light on other important predictors of parents\u0026rsquo; emotion coaching behaviors, including parent sex and parental psychopathological symptoms, that should be further explored in future research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by CV and MB. The first draft of the manuscript was written by CV and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe participants of this study did not give written consent for their data to be shared publicly, so due to the sensitive nature of the research supporting data is not available.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbidin, R. R. (1995). \u003cem\u003eParenting Stress Index: Professional manual\u003c/em\u003e (3rd ed.). Psychological Assessment Resources.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAldao, A., \u0026amp; Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2010). 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Routledge. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.4324/9780203080719.ch5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4324/9780203080719.ch5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"parenting stress, self-compassion, parental socialization, fathers, mothers","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6921259/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6921259/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e Parents play a crucial role in the development of children's emotion regulation skills, making it essential to understand the parental factors that influence this process. While parenting stress and self-compassion are known to impact general parenting practices (e.g., responsivity), less is known about how these factors shape parental support with specific emotion regulation strategies, especially in fathers and children in middle or late childhood. This study aimed to investigate the moderating effects of self-compassion and parent sex on the relation between parenting stress and parental assistance with child emotion regulation. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted using data from parental self-report questionnaires, collected from a sample of Dutch parents (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;198 parents, \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 42.8, 60.6% mothers) of children aged 6\u0026ndash;12 (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 9.1, 52% girl). The results revealed that higher parenting stress was associated with reduced parental support for adaptive emotion regulation strategies (e.g., reappraisal) and greater encouragement of maladaptive strategies (e.g., expressive suppression). Self-compassion buffered the relation between parenting stress and expressive suppression and positively predicted several adaptive strategies (e.g., acceptance). Lastly, fathers reported providing less support with five out of the 10 emotion regulation strategies (e.g., reappraisal) compared to mothers. These findings demonstrate a negative relation between parenting stress and parent-child co-regulation processes, while pointing to self-compassion as a potential protective factor. Interventions aimed at improving parental emotion coaching might benefit from incorporating self-compassion to enhance psychosocial outcomes for both parents and children.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The interplay between parenting stress, parental self-compassion, and parent sex in parental emotion socialization","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-03 05:20:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6921259/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5fbb37a2-7651-4e8e-8afe-217fcce27c9c","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T14:57:14+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-03 05:20:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6921259","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6921259","identity":"rs-6921259","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}