Bridging gaps in legal and criminal justice systems to help prevent trafficking and migration in the Horn of Africa

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It assesses legal frameworks, investigative capacity, victim services, and regional cooperation. The report notes that mixed migration flows shape responses, with smuggling often evolving into trafficking. Despite existing laws, enforcement remains weak and underfunded, and its link to irregular migration deters victims from seeking help. Recommendations include victim-centered laws, stronger investigative units, expanded survivor support services, regional cooperation, improved data collection, and protection from immigration sanctions to strengthen interventions. Criminal justice Horn of Africa Human trafficking Migrant smuggling Victim protection Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Introduction The Horn of Africa faces challenges, including irregular migration, smuggling, and human trafficking, that hinder enforcement and victim identification (Vusha, 2022 ). The region experiences diverse migration patterns, trafficking concerns, justice obstacles, and uncoordinated efforts (Mombelloni, 2024 ). Identifying vulnerable groups and systemic factors is essential to understanding these issues (Hub, 2023 ). International treaties set standards for prevention, while regional agreements strengthen cooperation, capacity building, data sharing, and enforcement (Kavanagh et al., 2023 ). Countries such as Djibouti, Eritrea, and Ethiopia need laws that define trafficking, align with international standards, and impose appropriate penalties (Badar & Higgins, 2022 ). Challenges such as legal discrepancies, enforcement gaps, and weak regional coordination hinder efforts to protect victims and deliver justice (Ilchyshyn et al., 2023 ). Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia face limited enforcement, insufficient victim support, and poor cross-border cooperation (Tadesse & Tafesse, 2024 ). Progress requires reviewing laws, updating evidentiary standards, and improving decision-making to strengthen legal frameworks, support victims, and enhance data sharing (Khan & Ahmed, 2025 ). This research examines legal approaches to combating human trafficking and migrant smuggling, emphasizing dignity, protection, and fairness. It discusses responses, challenges, and strategies, highlighting variations across legal systems, enforcement, victim protections, and legislation. The study calls for improved law enforcement training, enhanced support for survivors, and regional cooperation to ensure legal consistency, strengthen investigations, and bolster efforts to assist victims and achieve justice. Theoretical and Empirical Literature Review The Horn of Africa's trafficking literature highlights structural issues such as conflict, poverty, and high labor demand, driven by criminal groups and weak states (Bariagaber, 2023 ). It also notes fragmented legal frameworks, low prosecution rates, and reliance on CSOs for victim support, with these factors varying across countries (Castellano, 2023 ). Theoretical frameworks link societal vulnerabilities to exploitation through irregular migration, and empirical studies show that smuggling often leads to trafficking, especially at transit points such as Djibouti (Bish, 2024 ). Djibouti is a key trafficking corridor; Ethiopia has inconsistent legal frameworks; and Somalia’s insecurity hampers enforcement (Ifesa, 2023 ). Gaps include limited data, unclear links between migration and trafficking, and a need for mixed-methods research. Priorities are victim identification, investigation, and regional data sharing (Wiriyadee & Terdudomtham, 2025 ). A gap analysis identifies weaknesses in legal frameworks, enforcement, and reliance on civil society for survivor support (Desalegn & Poniah, 2025 ). Reforms propose victim-centered laws, specialized law enforcement training, and regional cooperation (Gonzalez, 2026 ). A checklist for Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia highlights legislation, prosecution, and reforms (Abshiro, 2023 ). Djibouti should pass anti-trafficking laws, improve investigations, and establish referral protocols and shelters (Naz et al., 2025 ). Eritrea needs to revise penal codes, ratify treaties, and improve victim programs (Hailu, 2025 ). Ethiopia must strengthen data collection, law enforcement training, and victim services (Chanko & Halder, 2025 ). Somalia requires stronger legislation, better case documentation, and increased judicial capacity (Kulmie, 2025 ). Challenges include data collection and enforcement issues that undermine victim protection. Donor support fosters cooperation between CSOs and governments (Levine et al., 2023 ). The review examines how legal systems address trafficking and smuggling. Ethiopia has comprehensive legislation; Djibouti and Somalia have less-developed legislation (Abdulahi, 2022 ). Eritrea's secretive system complicates assessment (Yhdego, 2024 ). Enforcement is constrained by resource and political limitations, and victim assistance is limited (Rockowitz et al., 2024 ). The overlap between smuggling and trafficking complicates enforcement and underscores the need for victim-centered approaches (Wiriyadee & Terdudomtham, 2025 ). Fragmented cooperation and data gaps hinder progress. Improving legal consistency and investigative capacity is crucial (Nabiebu et al., 2025 ). It covers many topics but lacks depth, resulting in a fragmented narrative and a weak theoretical foundation that makes it appear disconnected from broader academic discussions. It also fails to clearly identify the research gap it aims to address, obscuring its contribution. This study aims to improve clarity, establish a guiding theoretical framework, explicitly define the research gap, and narrow its scope to strengthen analysis and relevance. Methodology Research on human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa examines Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, using qualitative, multi-source methods to evaluate legal frameworks and stakeholder roles. It employs a mixed-methods approach—doctrinal analysis, case studies, digital surveys, interviews, and secondary sources—to examine legal fragmentation and enforcement gaps. Despite access constraints, snowball sampling and interviews with legal practitioners enhance data collection. The aim is to identify legal gaps using measurable indicators of harmonization, cooperation, enforcement, victim protection, and implementation. A convergent design links empirical data with legal gaps, ensuring reliability through ethical considerations and triangulation. The data include statutes, regulations, case law, and interview insights on cross-border enforcement. Analysis quantifies legal indicators and explores themes to align evidence with theoretical frameworks. Methodology Research on human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa examines Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, using qualitative, multi-source methods to evaluate legal frameworks and stakeholder roles. It employs a mixed-methods approach—doctrinal analysis, case studies, digital surveys, interviews, and secondary sources—to examine legal fragmentation and enforcement gaps. Despite access constraints, snowball sampling and interviews with legal practitioners enhance data collection. The aim is to identify legal gaps using measurable indicators of harmonization, cooperation, enforcement, victim protection, and implementation. A convergent design links empirical data with legal gaps, ensuring reliability through ethical considerations and triangulation. The data include statutes, regulations, case law, and interview insights on cross-border enforcement. Analysis quantifies legal indicators and explores themes to align evidence with theoretical frameworks. Results and Discussions The legal framework for mixed migration in the Horn of Africa faces uneven international compliance, hindered by project-specific challenges that impede cross-border cooperation. Smuggling and trafficking issues blur legal lines, as migrants may shift from smuggling to trafficking when exploited. Each country has unique issues: Djibouti's weak anti-trafficking laws; Eritrea's limited civil society and data transparency; Ethiopia's inconsistent enforcement; and Somalia's fragmented authority structures. These gaps—such as inconsistent legal definitions, inadequate training, challenges in victim identification, and limited prosecutorial data—hamper policymaking. Reforms should aim to harmonize laws, enhance investigations, support victims, and improve data collection. Legal and Criminal Law Enforcement Intervention The Horn of Africa's legal frameworks, including international conventions, regional agreements, and initiatives such as the Khartoum Process, aim to harmonize laws, foster cooperation, and promote prevention. Countries—Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Somaliland—are strategically vital yet face conflict, displacement, and terrorism (Mombelloni, 2024; Hamilton & Renouard, 2024). The region faces humanitarian crises, political instability, and underdevelopment. Human trafficking and migrant smuggling commonly use routes through Sudan, Libya, Djibouti, and Yemen (Nzau, 2024). Ethiopia’s anti-trafficking laws combat these crimes, but smugglers use organized networks and cashless transactions such as hawala. Djibouti’s Law 133 (2016) targets trafficking, but enforcement is hampered by limited funding and training. Laws comply with international protocols, yet challenges in protecting victims and prosecuting offenders persist (Mandisodza, 2024). Djibouti's legal system is less comprehensive than Ethiopia’s, underscoring the need for greater international cooperation and a stronger emphasis on awareness, capacity-building, regional collaboration, and victim support (Tadesse & Tafesse, 2025). Convictions are difficult to secure; border controls and awareness initiatives lack robust legal foundations. Programs such as MMTF and MRCs help build capacity (Chiré & Pinauldt, 2022). Eritrea uses legal and international measures against trafficking, but enforcement is weak, resulting in a Tier 3 ranking in the U.S. Trafficking in Persons Report. Victim handling protocols are inconsistent, and protections are inadequate (Katungati, 2025). Although Eritrea has ratified several treaties, it lacks a comprehensive anti-trafficking law. Its draft Constitution promises equal rights, but the justice system is ambiguous, penalties are weak, and immigration laws do not address trafficking (Smits & Wirtz, 2023). The focus mainly on women and minors for sexual exploitation leaves gaps for other forms of abuse. Corruption and organized crime protections are weak; investigations are limited; and arbitrary detention hampers efforts to combat corruption and organized crime (Hailu, 2025). In 2005, Djibouti ratified the UNTOC, along with treaties from the late 1970s to the early 2000s. Despite Eritrea's recent ratifications, particularly in 2014, Ethiopia’s commitments span older and more recent agreements, including the 1993 ICCPR. Ethiopia adheres to international labor and human rights standards but has not ratified many relevant treaties. It enforces strict penalties for human trafficking and migrant smuggling, though insufficient victim support persists. The Ethiopian Constitution’s Article 18(2) prohibits human trafficking, yet vulnerable groups remain at risk. Ethiopia treats trafficking and smuggling as criminal offenses (Article 4). Proclamations No. 909/2015 and No. 1178/2020 focus on prevention, victim assistance, and legal gaps, expanding definitions of trafficking and penalties, establishing a Victim Fund, and creating a national committee. The Criminal Code targets labor exploitation and applies to crimes against Ethiopians, including transnational offenses with international cooperation. Proclamation No. 1178/2020 also strengthens mechanisms for the seizure of property. Although Ethiopia's National Plan of Action against Human Trafficking has seen limited updates, it aims to align with international standards. However, obstacles such as discriminatory law enforcement and gaps in the Palermo Protocol's definitions of trafficking persist. Various ministries collect data and assist victims; however, resources remain limited. Ethiopia has signed ethical recruitment agreements with Middle Eastern countries to combat labor exploitation (Busza et al., 2023). Its refugee policies comply with international obligations that prohibit expulsion or refoulement (Sisay, 2024). The Somali government enacts treaties to combat trafficking but omits a key UN convention. Its strategy lacks a comprehensive response due to resource constraints and its focus on terrorism. Human trafficking remains a problem (FOGLI & Majorano, 2025). Puntland has measures in place, whereas Somaliland lacks a systematic prosecution system. The 2012 Provisional Constitution guarantees security and bans illegal detention, but does not explicitly protect trafficking victims. Laws do not safeguard witnesses because of fears of retaliation. Enforcement remains uncertain despite legal provisions. Measures include the Puntland Counter-Trafficking Board and the Interministerial Task Force (Kamara, 2024). Challenges such as capacity constraints, coordination difficulties, and document control issues impede progress. Repatriation and non-refoulement issues persist, though some deportations occur under the Immigration Act. Support from the IMF and the EU through the Human Trafficking Framework is weakly enforced due to conflict and governance issues (Mehra & Sharif, 2024). International organizations help victims via Migration Response Centers in Hargeisa and Bosasso (Abdinasir, 2021). Key instruments include the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. AU policies focus on border controls, cooperation, and assistance to victims. Governments handle law enforcement, border security, and international cooperation. Economic conditions vary: Ethiopia advances with infrastructure, while Eritrea and Somalia face instability. Anti-trafficking efforts include campaigns and cross-border cooperation, but legal steps are insufficient. Addressing poverty and enhancing education and healthcare are vital. Progress depends on stakeholder collaboration, particularly in Ethiopia, with an emphasis on job creation, regional cooperation, and community involvement to combat smuggling and trafficking. Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia have taken measures to combat human trafficking. Djibouti has strengthened border security and cooperation; Eritrea remains isolated. Ethiopia has made progress through reforms. Somalia faces setbacks due to conflict and weak governance. Despite improvements in anti-trafficking units and training, challenges such as limited resources, corruption, and instability persist. Enhancing regional collaboration through shared databases, joint training, stronger laws, and a dedicated task force could strengthen efforts. Figure 1 shows that migrant smuggling and human trafficking are criminal offenses under national law. One hundred three respondents (86.6%) noted that participation in organized crime is criminalized; 90 (75.6%) reported efforts to criminalize such activities; 84 (70.6%) confirmed that participation itself is criminalized; and 55 (46.2%) indicated that conspiracy or association is criminalized in their respective states. Fewer respondents associating conspiracy or association with criminality may suggest enforcement gaps or a lack of awareness that warrants further attention. Additionally, 55 respondents (46.2%) reported cases of unlawful identity disclosure; 91 (76.5%) cited forced labor, slavery-like practices, or the use of labor or services; and 72 (60.5%) confirmed the use of labor or services. The legal system actively prosecutes trafficking cases, promotes international cooperation, and supports victim rehabilitation. However, organized crime related to migration and trafficking continues to pose significant challenges, especially given reports of forced labor and identity theft that point to serious rights violations and victim exploitation. Figure 2 shows that 84.9% of respondents believe their government is not making the expected effort. Ratings of the government's actions against migrant smuggling and human trafficking indicate that 28.6% assigned a score of 2, 16.5% a 3, 3.4% a 4, and 5% a 6 (the highest). These findings suggest that the majority view government efforts as insufficient, with only a small share considering them effective. The results underscore the urgent need for improved policies and measures to address these issues. Poor performance increases vulnerability, heightens the risk of exploitation, and diminishes public trust, as citizens feel neglected. Ineffective responses may exacerbate the problem, thereby increasing crime and community instability. Conversely, 15.1% of respondents believe their government actively engages in administrative, legal, social, and economic efforts. Among 119 respondents, 82 (68.9%) reported legal actions, 67 (56.3%) administrative efforts, 52 (43.7%) social initiatives, and 48 (40.3%) economic interventions. This indicates strong public demand for government involvement across sectors, particularly through legal measures, reflecting a push for regulation. Citizens seek strategies to enhance governance and societal well-being through these areas. The findings highlight the need for clear data, legal priorities, and risk strategies to avoid criminalizing survivors. The review looks at frameworks, enforcement, and protections in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Gaps remain: some countries have laws, others lack transparency. Enforcement varies across underfunded agencies, leading to few prosecutions and poor data. Victims depend on civil society, but efforts are often legally weak, risking criminalization. Cross-border cooperation is patchy due to ad hoc projects and fragmented data, hindering anti-trafficking efforts. A comparative analysis shows strengths, gaps, and policy priorities. Table 1: Comparative results table Dimension Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Somalia Legal framework Draft/partial anti‑trafficking provisions Limited public transparency on statutes National anti‑trafficking law(s) exist Fragmented federal/state legal authority Enforcement capacity Small, under-resourced units Weak oversight; constrained civil society Larger apparatus, but uneven regional implementation Courts and police hampered by insecurity Victim protection Few formal shelters; CSOS referrals Minimal services; restricted access Mixed CSOS and some state referrals Humanitarian actors provide most services Cross-border cooperation Project-based, transit hub role Low formal regional engagement Source: Completion Author,2025 Table 1 shows that prosecutions and convictions are rare in documented cases of victimization, with CSOs primarily providing support. Cross-border coordination is inconsistent and project-based. Countries such as Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia report low figures due to limited capacity and procedural issues. Most survivor aid comes from CSOs and UN agencies, creating gaps in geographic coverage and sustainability. Recommendations include tracking investigations and prosecutions, supporting victims, and considering risks, including data shortages, security concerns, and overlaps with migration. Program success varies across countries, shaped by stability, laws, enforcement, and culture. Djibouti's strategic position and robust legal framework could improve implementation, unlike conflict-affected Somalia. Figure 3 shows that few cases of human trafficking or migrant smuggling are reported and prosecuted. The primary reasons are limitations within the justice system (85 respondents, 71.4%), family reluctance (67 respondents, 56.3%), and legal gaps (65 respondents, 54.6%). These factors create significant challenges, underscoring the difficulty of combating these crimes. Flaws in the justice system, along with social and legal barriers, impede progress. Addressing these issues requires reforms and heightened awareness to ensure justice and prevent future offenses. The respondent elaborates on the roles of judges, prosecutors, defense lawyers, and traffickers in tackling migrant smuggling and human trafficking in Ethiopia, emphasizing challenges stemming from social and economic crises, the complexity of investigating organized crimes, and systemic coordination problems. Figure 4 shows that 65 respondents (54.6%) with knowledge of migrant smuggling and human trafficking reported involvement in both commercial and noncommercial activities. Meanwhile, 10 (8.4%) said it was solely noncommercial, and 44 (37%) viewed it as a commercial crime. These crimes differ widely in severity and impact. Commercial crimes typically involve organized networks and profit motives, resulting in larger-scale operations and more victims. Noncommercial crimes are more localized but can still cause serious harm, requiring specialized interventions. Perpetrators face severe penalties, including lengthy prison sentences and fines. These crimes are prosecuted under national and international laws, often involving extradition and cross-jurisdictional efforts. Legal measures also seek to dismantle criminal networks and hold offenders accountable. Figure 5 shows that migrant smuggling and human trafficking cases are reported, investigated, and prosecuted, but obstacles persist. These obstacles include perceived weaknesses in the justice system (85 respondents, 71.4%), family reluctance (67 respondents, 56.3%), and a lack of relevant laws (65 respondents, 54.6%). Structural inefficiencies and flaws in the justice system impede prosecution; family reluctance, stemming from fear or stigma; and legal gaps due to the absence of laws. Additional challenges include limited law enforcement resources, corruption, and complex cross-border investigations, which impede efforts to prevent, detect, and prosecute these crimes. The HoA region, including Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, faces criticism for strict anti-trafficking policies that fail to address root causes. It remains a key trafficking hub, affecting thousands of children each year and causing trauma and stigma. To better protect victims, authorities should develop legal frameworks, form task forces, provide training, and improve shelters and services. Figure 6 shows the Five Ps framework guiding policies against migrant smuggling and trafficking: prevention, protection, prosecution, partnership, and policy development. Prevention addresses root causes and raises awareness; protection ensures victim safety; prosecution targets traffickers; partnership promotes collaboration; policy guides strategy. Respondents report: 38.7% implementing prevention, 29.4% protection, 21% provision, 29.4% prosecution, 18.1% participation, 15.1% no policies, and 31.9% unsure. Adoption varies by province, with prevention and prosecution more common than protection and partnership. The Five Ps emphasize awareness, addressing poverty, safeguarding victims, law enforcement, and collaboration. Challenges include political instability, limited resources, and corruption. Experts recommend combining economic development with political stabilization. Figure 7 presents responses on human trafficking and migration policies within the Five V's framework. Of 14 respondents, 11.8% mentioned the Victim Derivative policy; 21% referred to Victim Vulnerable; 15.1% supported Victim Potential; and 10.9% endorsed Victim Presumed. Overall, 26.9% indicated a Victim Policy, 21% selected neither, and 40.3% answered maybe. The data show that Victim Policy is the most popular at 26.9%, with significant uncertainty, as 40.3% responded "maybe". Other policies received less support, indicating greater diversity of opinion. The Five V's are crucial for targeted interventions and support. Figure 8 shows whether national criminal justice units are trained and have access to guidelines or expert help in areas related to human trafficking and migrant smuggling. These include: 45 (37.8%) for proactive investigations; 27 (22.7%) for disruptive investigations; 40 (33.6%) for crime scene investigations; 34 (28.6%) for reactive investigations; 45 (37.8%) for information and evidence gathering; 28 (23.5%) for undercover techniques; 39 (32.8%) for the use of informants; 41 (34.5%) for interviewing techniques; 25 (21%) for child-specific treatment; 47 (39.5%) for media use; 20 (16.8%) for databases; 24 (20.2%) for international law enforcement cooperation—including joint investigations and intelligence sharing; and 37 (31.1%) for preparing charges and trials; 30 (25.2%) for asset freezing, seizing, and confiscation; and 18 (15.1%) for coordinating victim support. Using specialized guidelines, national criminal justice units can effectively combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. They conduct investigations, manage crime scenes, gather evidence, and work with informants. Their training enables them to handle complex cases, protect vulnerable groups, and collaborate internationally. These capabilities are essential for dismantling networks, securing convictions, and supporting victims. By applying advanced techniques, coordinating with agencies, and ensuring victim protection, these units play a vital role in combating trafficking. Figure 9 shows that in cases of human trafficking and migrant smuggling, the judicial system provides tailored procedures to protect victims while ensuring a fair trial for defendants. These include court services (57.1%), interpretation (44.5%), victim services (31.9%), hearings (44.5%), information management (25.2%), case flow (25.2%), trial support (25.2%), facilities (17.6%), witness protection (36.1%), psychological support (25.2%), accommodation and transportation (26.1%), protection from abuse (24.4%), identity protection (24.4%), witness support (21.8%), defendant exclusion (15.1%), pretrial detention (20.2%), video examinations (21%), judicial counsel (21.8%), legal advice (21.8%), and legal defense access (26.1%). Testifying while ensuring fairness is a delicate balance; these services serve as safeguards to protect trial integrity and participant well-being. Measures such as witness protection, psychological support, video examinations, and detention are intended to create a secure, fair environment that safeguards witnesses' rights and safety. Figure 10 presents regular assessments of human trafficking and migrant smuggling, promoting international cooperation across areas: 40 (33.6%) for Extradition, 45 (37.8%) for Mutual Legal Assistance, 31 (26.1%) for Transfer of Proceedings, 26 (21.8%) for Transfer of Sentenced Persons, 39 (32.8%) for Investigation, 26 (21.8%) for Asset Seizure, 31 (26.1%) for Witness Protection, 46 (38.7%) for Law Enforcement, 20 (16.8%) for Investigative Techniques, 45 (37.8%) for Crime Prevention, and 31 (26.1%) for Joint Investigations, Border Measures, and Cross-Border Cooperation. These assessments reinforce international efforts by streamlining extradition, legal support, and joint investigations, identifying gaps, sharing best practices, and developing strategies to combat these crimes more effectively. Table 2: Comparative descriptive table Country Investigations (relative) Prosecutions (relative) Convictions (relative) Victim services Data availability Djibouti Low; transit cases reported Low Rare CSOS shelters; few state services Limited; project reports Eritrea Minimal public reporting Very limited Very limited Very limited; restricted civil society Poor official transparency is low Ethiopia Moderate; regional variance Low–moderate Low Mixed: CSOS + some state referrals Better than peers but uneven Somalia Sporadic; security‑dependent Sporadic Source: Completion Author,2025 Table 2 highlights challenges in combating human trafficking and smuggling in the Horn of Africa, driven by legal and operational gaps in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Issues include slow justice, dependence on CSOs, limited regional cooperation, and resource shortages. Conflict, poverty, and insecurity increase vulnerability and hinder investigations. Balancing victim protection and enforcement complicates responses, and fragmented laws hinder cooperation. Reforms focus on legal harmonization, more vigorous law enforcement, and stronger partnerships with CSOs. Accurate data and research are crucial for progress. Despite existing laws, weak enforcement leads to delays and reliance on CSOs, while structural issues impede evidence gathering and prosecutions. Ongoing conflicts reduce victim protection, and some authorities criminalize victims, undermining trust. CSOs and international groups worry about dependency and sustainability. Trafficking networks exploit borders, but sporadic efforts limit information sharing, especially in Somalia. Effective disruptions require protocols for information sharing, joint investigations, and legal alignment. Reforms should include legal harmonization, capacity building, and stable state-CSO collaborations. Using minimal datasets and mixed-methods research is vital for monitoring efforts and distinguishing trafficking from smuggling. Best Practices for Improving Effectiveness This analysis reviews best practices in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia regarding human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Ethiopia's strategy strengthens enforcement and victim protection. Djibouti's legal system yields more convictions, whereas Eritrea's lack of comprehensive legislation limits prosecutions. Ethiopia and Somalia have enacted legal reforms but face enforcement challenges. The report highlights regional cooperation and recommends establishing a central task force to facilitate data sharing, coordinate responses, and provide ongoing training for officials. Figure 11 presents best practices in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia to combat migrant smuggling and human trafficking. It highlights 77 practices (64.7%) focused on community engagement, 68 (57.1%) on prevention, 39 (32.8%) on prosecution, and 36 (30.3%) on legal aid. Additionally, 28 practices (23.5%) strengthen law enforcement cooperation, and 21 (17.6%) focus on international collaboration. These strategies aim to address regional challenges. Efforts in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia focus on strengthening laws, training law enforcement, and fostering international collaboration to combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Strategies include dismantling trafficking networks, addressing root causes, creating economic opportunities, and engaging communities and the education sector. Challenges such as limited resources, political instability, and corruption hinder law enforcement and victim support. Civil society groups are vital for raising awareness and providing victim assistance, while regional cooperation is essential for addressing cross-border crimes. Djibouti has a strong legal framework, but others face implementation challenges due to stability and resource constraints. Combating trafficking requires a comprehensive approach that includes legal reforms, victim support, and awareness campaigns. Table 3: Comparison of strengths and key gaps Country Strengths Critical legal gaps Operational gaps Djibouti Strategic transit location; some draft provisions Limited implementing guidance; unclear referral protocols Small enforcement units; few shelters Eritrea Centralized control can enable rapid policy change Low legal transparency; unclear international alignment Minimal civil‑society services; scarce data Ethiopia Existing national law and larger institutional footprint Regional implementation inconsistency; gaps in non-punishment Resource constraints; corruption vulnerabilities Somalia An active humanitarian protection presence in some areas Fragmented federal/state legal authority Insecurity limits courts and police; ad‑hoc referrals Source: Completion Author,2025 Table 3 examines Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia's responses to human trafficking and migrant smuggling through legal and criminal justice systems. It compares legal frameworks, enforcement, victim protection, and cross-border cooperation. Results reveal inconsistent laws, slow case progression due to resource constraints, significant protection gaps, primarily in CSOS services, and a fragmented regional response lacking formal cooperation. Country snapshots show varying legal measures and enforcement issues. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations Addressing justice gaps in the Horn of Africa requires harmonizing laws, training prosecutors, and adopting a victim-centered approach. Led by AU/IGAD with donor and civil society support, efforts target legal fragmentation, operational hurdles, and victim-protection issues that impede investigations and convictions and lead to re-victimization. Discrepancies between commitments and practices on trafficking and smuggling are evident. While some laws support anti-trafficking efforts, enforcement inconsistencies are exacerbated by resource shortages and corruption. Reliance on CSOs highlights government weaknesses. Reforms include harmonizing laws, establishing specialized units, strengthening CSO partnerships, and improving data systems. Key recommendations and policy proposals emphasize clarifying the law, establishing investigative teams, expanding protections, promoting regional cooperation, standardizing data collection, and combating corruption. An integrated legal and social strategy is essential for meaningful progress, including alignment with UN protocols, the creation of regional investigative units, the standardization of mutual legal aid procedures, the enforcement of victim identification protocols, and the strengthening of community prevention efforts. Challenges such as political differences and limited resources can be addressed through phased implementation and community engagement to build trust. Declarations Consent to publish: "Not applicable." Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all participants before and during data collection. Anonymized publicly available datasets help protect vulnerable groups. All research activities were approved by the Institutional Review Board of Mekelle University College of Health Sciences (MU-IRB2624/2025), which also approved the study protocol. Ethical Approval and Compliance: The study was granted ethical approval. The Protocol approval for all research activities, obtained from MU College of Health Sciences' Institutional Review Board, is attached as a supporting document (MU-IRB2624/2025). This section on ethics approval and consent to participate verifies that all procedures with human participants adhered to relevant institutional standards and the Declaration of Helsinki. Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated and/or analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author. All datasets and materials supporting our research for review by referees and editors are available through HTMS (Responses) - Google Sheets. Conflict of interest: No conflicts of interest have been reported. Funding: No sources have funded either the research or this article. Clinical Trial Number The manuscript contains no clinical section. Author Contribution Berihu Teweldebirhan Gebresilassie, as the corresponding author, drafted the main manuscript, while all authors reviewed it. References Abdinasir, I. I. (2021). International Non-Government Organizations (INGOs) and Protection of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Somalia, a Case Study of Danish Refugee Council (DRC) (Doctoral dissertation, Kampala International University). Abdulahi, H. D. (2022). Ethnic based federalism in Ethiopia: The Somali region case. Abshiro, H. (2023). Human Trafficking in Africa: the Case of Ethiopian Males to the Republic of South Africa, 1991-2020 (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). 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Fragmented responses: Variability in law enforcement and prosecutorial approaches to sexual assault cases. Qualitative Criminology (QC) , 15 (1), 3. Hailu, M. (2025). Nationality Laws in Ethiopia and Eritrea: Overview of Evolution, Attainments and Gaps. Hub, S. (2023). Status of Peace and Security in the East and Horn of Africa. American Friends Service Committee: Philadelphia, PA, USA . Ifesa, T. A. (2023). A Critical Analysis of the Impacts of the Maritime Territorial Disputes on Bilateral Relations of States: the Case of Kenya and Somalia (2009-2021) (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). Ilchyshyn, N., Brusakova, O., Krykun, V., & Myroshnychenko, Y. (2023). International legal cooperation in the field of criminal justice: New challenges and ways to overcome them. Journal of Law and Sustainable Development , 11 (4), e767-e767. Kamara, I. (2024). Coalition Dynamics in Anti-Human Trafficking Efforts: Understanding the Engagement of Coalition Actors in Implementing the Anti-Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Act of 2022 in Sierra Leone. Katungati, S. M. (2025). Analysis of the Legal Framework for Combating Human Trafficking in Kenya. Essays of Faculty of Law, University of Pécs, Yearbook of [year] , (1). Kavanagh, M. M., Wenham, C., da Fonseca, E. M., Helfer, L. R., Nyukuri, E., Maleche, A., ... & Waris, A. (2023). Increasing compliance with international pandemic law: international relations and new global health agreements. The Lancet , 402 (10407), 1097–1106. Khan, M. N. I., & Ahmed, I. (2025). A Systematic Review of Judicial Reforms and Legal Access Strategies in the Age of Cybercrime and Digital Evidence. International Journal of Scientific Interdisciplinary Research , 5 (2), 01–29. Kulmie, D. A. (2025). Assessing the Effectiveness of Somali Courts in Anti-Corruption Cases: A Public Perception and Confidence Analysis. Levine, A. C., Park, A., Adhikari, A., Alejandria, M. C. P., Bradlow, B. H., Lopez-Portillo, M. F., ... & Heller, P. (2023). The role of civil society organizations (CSOs) in the COVID-19 response across the Global South: A multinational, qualitative study. PLOS global public health , 3 (9), e0002341. Mandisodza, G. (2024). BEYOND BORDERS: TACKLING HUMAN TRAFFICKING THROUGH STRUCTURAL REFORM, REGIONAL COOPERATION, AND COMMUNITY RESILIENCE. INTRACTABLE PROBLEMS OF HUMAN RIGHTS , 12. Mehra, A. V., & Sharif, G. (2024). Legal Framework and International Cooperation in Combating Human Trafficking. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (IJFMR) , 6 (2), 1–15. Mombelloni, A. (2024). Crisis in Context: Exploring the Regional Dynamics of the Refugee Displacement in the Horn of Africa. Nabiebu, M., Ijiomah, A., Ekpo, M. E., & Agube, N. (2025). Harmonization vs. Fragmentation: The Struggle to Govern Cross-Border Data in Trade Agreements. Advances in Law, Pedagogy, and Multidisciplinary Humanities , 3 (1), 173-190. Naz, U., Khan, M. R., & Mirza, K. A. (2025). A Case Study on the Role of IORA and IONS in Combating Human Trafficking and Irregular Migration in the Western Indian Ocean (2015–2025). Social Science Review Archives , 3 (4), 545–564. Nzau, M. (2024). Migration Trends and Organized Transnational Crime in Twenty-First-Century Eastern Africa: A Critical Analysis. In Understanding the Horizontal and Vertical Nature of African Migration in Contemporary Times (pp. 175-194). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. Rockowitz, S., Wagner, K., Cooper, R., Stevens, L., Davies, K., Woodhams, J., ... & Flowe, H. D. (2024). A systematic review of criminal justice initiatives to strengthen the criminal investigation and prosecution of sexual violence in East Africa. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse , 25 (1), 813–827. Sisay, G. (2024). Scoping review of empirical studies on human trafficking in Ethiopia. Cogent Social Sciences , 10 (1), 2341957. Smits, K., & Wirtz, M. (2023). Escaping Eritrea: The Vulnerability of Eritreans to Human Trafficking. In Enslaved: Trapped and Trafficked in Digital Black Holes: Human Trafficking Trajectories to Libya. (pp. 255–295). Langaa RPCIG. Tadesse, G. A., & Tafesse, T. (2024). Exploring Drivers of Trafficking in Persons in the Horn of Africa with Emphasis on the Eastern Route to the Gulf States through Djibouti. Journal homepage: www.ajids.com. Et , 8 , 2. Tadesse, G. A., & Tafesse, T. (2025). Human Trafficking in the Horn of Africa with Emphasis on the Eastern Route to the Gulf States through Djibouti. Migration and Development, 14(1), 7–27. Vusha, J. L. (2022). Border Management and the Implications on Régional Security in the Horn of Africa Region: a Case Study of Kenya, Somalia Border (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). Wiriyadee, S., & Terdudomtham, T. (2025). The Policy Recommendation for A Victim-Centered Approach in Human Trafficking Proceedings. Journal of Contemporary Social Sciences and Humanities , 12 (1), 21–38. Yhdego, M. (2024). Environmental Impact Assessment Systems in Eritrea: A Critical Review. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 03 Apr, 2026 Reviews received at journal 01 Apr, 2026 Reviews received at journal 31 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 29 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Mar, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 24 Mar, 2026 Editor invited by journal 06 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 20 Feb, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 19 Feb, 2026 First submitted to journal 19 Feb, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8797895","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":611898721,"identity":"4a3c45d2-dcdd-4986-9a05-e20f19ab70b3","order_by":0,"name":"Berihu Teweldebirhan 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13:55:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8797895/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8797895/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":105492589,"identity":"51312176-d76f-43f5-86e9-b830b1f3d594","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:32","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":123921,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNational criminalization\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/fd8faf2b507cd475b5fe75ad.png"},{"id":105492590,"identity":"f5085120-c7a0-4bcc-b310-dc8a59d827bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:33","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54910,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEvaluation of the government's performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/c2a7a06f361505fdddee6d29.png"},{"id":105492588,"identity":"b61f9e6e-2391-4c03-b65f-0269dca07cb9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:31","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59371,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCases reported to the Authorities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/40d551f94e8ee094f023d3f5.png"},{"id":105492594,"identity":"be0167b5-33c4-46bd-8d9e-e63087ce206c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:33","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47465,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNature of the cases\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/141d553ee030cd63d611d437.png"},{"id":105492584,"identity":"4b1b73f3-078f-4c45-aeac-063c94bdfae2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:30","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":276495,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eReason for Report\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/11d5e76a2e9c187fe5ef013a.png"},{"id":105492591,"identity":"a9a5907c-d56e-4e50-a93a-a4e7dfbc8094","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:33","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74269,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFive Ps as a Policy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/bb34e3cd75d89e4ce9eaac98.png"},{"id":105492587,"identity":"79dcd904-2336-4549-bb73-7bdc3ffea923","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:31","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":89513,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFive Vs as a Policy\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/627d56a723a243c95eb3f988.png"},{"id":105567237,"identity":"aa35576d-0d69-434e-b634-24bc231ff05c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 12:58:44","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":317335,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAccess to specialized guidelines or specialists\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/855cba299b972c266d3d047a.png"},{"id":105492583,"identity":"524f060d-2c90-4f16-98e0-730bfcef2fbc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:30","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":346744,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe services in the justice system\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/e6a9199f83463c29bb428158.png"},{"id":105492586,"identity":"5fba718d-2d1c-42ad-b80a-fab389cffe7a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:31","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":342737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe international cooperation mechanism of governments\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/962cd278cbbaf968e3e87d9b.png"},{"id":105492585,"identity":"fe59ddf5-7b8d-4502-8bb2-3150b599fe7f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-26 15:42:30","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":170399,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe best practices to enhance effectiveness\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Author, 2025\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/d50c5c98073207ad38b62fcd.png"},{"id":105570138,"identity":"9629bf8a-549c-49e3-a5e9-5f26dc233faa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 13:14:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2676959,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8797895/v1/3a364553-28d2-4214-b8ee-8b1d3ec3701c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Bridging gaps in legal and criminal justice systems to help prevent trafficking and migration in the Horn of Africa","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Horn of Africa faces challenges, including irregular migration, smuggling, and human trafficking, that hinder enforcement and victim identification (Vusha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The region experiences diverse migration patterns, trafficking concerns, justice obstacles, and uncoordinated efforts (Mombelloni, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Identifying vulnerable groups and systemic factors is essential to understanding these issues (Hub, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational treaties set standards for prevention, while regional agreements strengthen cooperation, capacity building, data sharing, and enforcement (Kavanagh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Countries such as Djibouti, Eritrea, and Ethiopia need laws that define trafficking, align with international standards, and impose appropriate penalties (Badar \u0026amp; Higgins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Challenges such as legal discrepancies, enforcement gaps, and weak regional coordination hinder efforts to protect victims and deliver justice (Ilchyshyn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia face limited enforcement, insufficient victim support, and poor cross-border cooperation (Tadesse \u0026amp; Tafesse, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Progress requires reviewing laws, updating evidentiary standards, and improving decision-making to strengthen legal frameworks, support victims, and enhance data sharing (Khan \u0026amp; Ahmed, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research examines legal approaches to combating human trafficking and migrant smuggling, emphasizing dignity, protection, and fairness. It discusses responses, challenges, and strategies, highlighting variations across legal systems, enforcement, victim protections, and legislation. The study calls for improved law enforcement training, enhanced support for survivors, and regional cooperation to ensure legal consistency, strengthen investigations, and bolster efforts to assist victims and achieve justice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Theoretical and Empirical Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Horn of Africa's trafficking literature highlights structural issues such as conflict, poverty, and high labor demand, driven by criminal groups and weak states (Bariagaber, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It also notes fragmented legal frameworks, low prosecution rates, and reliance on CSOs for victim support, with these factors varying across countries (Castellano, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheoretical frameworks link societal vulnerabilities to exploitation through irregular migration, and empirical studies show that smuggling often leads to trafficking, especially at transit points such as Djibouti (Bish, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Djibouti is a key trafficking corridor; Ethiopia has inconsistent legal frameworks; and Somalia’s insecurity hampers enforcement (Ifesa, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Gaps include limited data, unclear links between migration and trafficking, and a need for mixed-methods research. Priorities are victim identification, investigation, and regional data sharing (Wiriyadee \u0026amp; Terdudomtham, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). A gap analysis identifies weaknesses in legal frameworks, enforcement, and reliance on civil society for survivor support (Desalegn \u0026amp; Poniah, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Reforms propose victim-centered laws, specialized law enforcement training, and regional cooperation (Gonzalez, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2026\u003c/span\u003e). A checklist for Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia highlights legislation, prosecution, and reforms (Abshiro, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Djibouti should pass anti-trafficking laws, improve investigations, and establish referral protocols and shelters (Naz et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Eritrea needs to revise penal codes, ratify treaties, and improve victim programs (Hailu, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Ethiopia must strengthen data collection, law enforcement training, and victim services (Chanko \u0026amp; Halder, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Somalia requires stronger legislation, better case documentation, and increased judicial capacity (Kulmie, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChallenges include data collection and enforcement issues that undermine victim protection. Donor support fosters cooperation between CSOs and governments (Levine et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The review examines how legal systems address trafficking and smuggling. Ethiopia has comprehensive legislation; Djibouti and Somalia have less-developed legislation (Abdulahi, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Eritrea's secretive system complicates assessment (Yhdego, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Enforcement is constrained by resource and political limitations, and victim assistance is limited (Rockowitz et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The overlap between smuggling and trafficking complicates enforcement and underscores the need for victim-centered approaches (Wiriyadee \u0026amp; Terdudomtham, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Fragmented cooperation and data gaps hinder progress. Improving legal consistency and investigative capacity is crucial (Nabiebu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt covers many topics but lacks depth, resulting in a fragmented narrative and a weak theoretical foundation that makes it appear disconnected from broader academic discussions. It also fails to clearly identify the research gap it aims to address, obscuring its contribution. This study aims to improve clarity, establish a guiding theoretical framework, explicitly define the research gap, and narrow its scope to strengthen analysis and relevance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2 name=\"removable\"\u003eMethodology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp name=\"removable\"\u003eResearch on human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa examines Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, using qualitative, multi-source methods to evaluate legal frameworks and stakeholder roles. It employs a mixed-methods approach—doctrinal analysis, case studies, digital surveys, interviews, and secondary sources—to examine legal fragmentation and enforcement gaps. Despite access constraints, snowball sampling and interviews with legal practitioners enhance data collection. The aim is to identify legal gaps using measurable indicators of harmonization, cooperation, enforcement, victim protection, and implementation. A convergent design links empirical data with legal gaps, ensuring reliability through ethical considerations and triangulation. The data include statutes, regulations, case law, and interview insights on cross-border enforcement. Analysis quantifies legal indicators and explores themes to align evidence with theoretical frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eResearch on human trafficking and migrant smuggling in the Horn of Africa examines Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, using qualitative, multi-source methods to evaluate legal frameworks and stakeholder roles. It employs a mixed-methods approach—doctrinal analysis, case studies, digital surveys, interviews, and secondary sources—to examine legal fragmentation and enforcement gaps. Despite access constraints, snowball sampling and interviews with legal practitioners enhance data collection. The aim is to identify legal gaps using measurable indicators of harmonization, cooperation, enforcement, victim protection, and implementation. A convergent design links empirical data with legal gaps, ensuring reliability through ethical considerations and triangulation. The data include statutes, regulations, case law, and interview insights on cross-border enforcement. Analysis quantifies legal indicators and explores themes to align evidence with theoretical frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe legal framework for mixed migration in the Horn of Africa faces uneven international compliance, hindered by project-specific challenges that impede cross-border cooperation. Smuggling and trafficking issues blur legal lines, as migrants may shift from smuggling to trafficking when exploited. Each country has unique issues: Djibouti\u0026apos;s weak anti-trafficking laws; Eritrea\u0026apos;s limited civil society and data transparency; Ethiopia\u0026apos;s inconsistent enforcement; and Somalia\u0026apos;s fragmented authority structures. These gaps\u0026mdash;such as inconsistent legal definitions, inadequate training, challenges in victim identification, and limited prosecutorial data\u0026mdash;hamper policymaking. Reforms should aim to harmonize laws, enhance investigations, support victims, and improve data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"_Toc202742788\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLegal and Criminal Law Enforcement Intervention\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Horn of Africa\u0026apos;s legal frameworks, including international conventions, regional agreements, and initiatives such as the Khartoum Process, aim to harmonize laws, foster cooperation, and promote prevention. Countries\u0026mdash;Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Somaliland\u0026mdash;are strategically vital yet face conflict, displacement, and terrorism (Mombelloni, 2024; Hamilton \u0026amp; Renouard, 2024). The region faces humanitarian crises, political instability, and underdevelopment. Human trafficking and migrant smuggling commonly use routes through Sudan, Libya, Djibouti, and Yemen (Nzau, 2024). Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s anti-trafficking laws combat these crimes, but smugglers use organized networks and cashless transactions such as hawala. Djibouti\u0026rsquo;s Law 133 (2016) targets trafficking, but enforcement is hampered by limited funding and training. Laws comply with international protocols, yet challenges in protecting victims and prosecuting offenders persist (Mandisodza, 2024). Djibouti\u0026apos;s legal system is less comprehensive than Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s, underscoring the need for greater international cooperation and a stronger emphasis on awareness, capacity-building, regional collaboration, and victim support (Tadesse \u0026amp; Tafesse, 2025). Convictions are difficult to secure; border controls and awareness initiatives lack robust legal foundations. Programs such as MMTF and MRCs help build capacity (Chir\u0026eacute; \u0026amp; Pinauldt, 2022). Eritrea uses legal and international measures against trafficking, but enforcement is weak, resulting in a Tier 3 ranking in the U.S. Trafficking in Persons Report. Victim handling protocols are inconsistent, and protections are inadequate (Katungati, 2025). Although Eritrea has ratified several treaties, it lacks a comprehensive anti-trafficking law. Its draft Constitution promises equal rights, but the justice system is ambiguous, penalties are weak, and immigration laws do not address trafficking (Smits \u0026amp; Wirtz, 2023). The focus mainly on women and minors for sexual exploitation leaves gaps for other forms of abuse. Corruption and organized crime protections are weak; investigations are limited; and arbitrary detention hampers efforts to combat corruption and organized crime (Hailu, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2005, Djibouti ratified the UNTOC, along with treaties from the late 1970s to the early 2000s. Despite Eritrea\u0026apos;s recent ratifications, particularly in 2014, Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s commitments span older and more recent agreements, including the 1993 ICCPR. Ethiopia adheres to international labor and human rights standards but has not ratified many relevant treaties. It enforces strict penalties for human trafficking and migrant smuggling, though insufficient victim support persists. The Ethiopian Constitution\u0026rsquo;s Article 18(2) prohibits human trafficking, yet vulnerable groups remain at risk. Ethiopia treats trafficking and smuggling as criminal offenses (Article 4). Proclamations No. 909/2015 and No. 1178/2020 focus on prevention, victim assistance, and legal gaps, expanding definitions of trafficking and penalties, establishing a Victim Fund, and creating a national committee. The Criminal Code targets labor exploitation and applies to crimes against Ethiopians, including transnational offenses with international cooperation. Proclamation No. 1178/2020 also strengthens mechanisms for the seizure of property. Although Ethiopia\u0026apos;s National Plan of Action against Human Trafficking has seen limited updates, it aims to align with international standards. However, obstacles such as discriminatory law enforcement and gaps in the Palermo Protocol\u0026apos;s definitions of trafficking persist. Various ministries collect data and assist victims; however, resources remain limited. Ethiopia has signed ethical recruitment agreements with Middle Eastern countries to combat labor exploitation (Busza et al., 2023). Its refugee policies comply with international obligations that prohibit expulsion or refoulement (Sisay, 2024).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Somali government enacts treaties to combat trafficking but omits a key UN convention. Its strategy lacks a comprehensive response due to resource constraints and its focus on terrorism. Human trafficking remains a problem (FOGLI \u0026amp; Majorano, 2025). Puntland has measures in place, whereas Somaliland lacks a systematic prosecution system. The 2012 Provisional Constitution guarantees security and bans illegal detention, but does not explicitly protect trafficking victims. Laws do not safeguard witnesses because of fears of retaliation. Enforcement remains uncertain despite legal provisions. Measures include the Puntland Counter-Trafficking Board and the Interministerial Task Force (Kamara, 2024). Challenges such as capacity constraints, coordination difficulties, and document control issues impede progress. Repatriation and non-refoulement issues persist, though some deportations occur under the Immigration Act. Support from the IMF and the EU through the Human Trafficking Framework is weakly enforced due to conflict and governance issues (Mehra \u0026amp; Sharif, 2024). International organizations help victims via Migration Response Centers in Hargeisa and Bosasso (Abdinasir, 2021). Key instruments include the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. AU policies focus on border controls, cooperation, and assistance to victims. Governments handle law enforcement, border security, and international cooperation. Economic conditions vary: Ethiopia advances with infrastructure, while Eritrea and Somalia face instability. Anti-trafficking efforts include campaigns and cross-border cooperation, but legal steps are insufficient. Addressing poverty and enhancing education and healthcare are vital. Progress depends on stakeholder collaboration, particularly in Ethiopia, with an emphasis on job creation, regional cooperation, and community involvement to combat smuggling and trafficking.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDjibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia have taken measures to combat human trafficking. Djibouti has strengthened border security and cooperation; Eritrea remains isolated. Ethiopia has made progress through reforms. Somalia faces setbacks due to conflict and weak governance. Despite improvements in anti-trafficking units and training, challenges such as limited resources, corruption, and instability persist. Enhancing regional collaboration through shared databases, joint training, stronger laws, and a dedicated task force could strengthen efforts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 1 shows that migrant smuggling and human trafficking are criminal offenses under national law. One hundred three respondents (86.6%) noted that participation in organized crime is criminalized; 90 (75.6%) reported efforts to criminalize such activities; 84 (70.6%) confirmed that participation itself is criminalized; and 55 (46.2%) indicated that conspiracy or association is criminalized in their respective states. Fewer respondents associating conspiracy or association with criminality may suggest enforcement gaps or a lack of awareness that warrants further attention. Additionally, 55 respondents (46.2%) reported cases of unlawful identity disclosure; 91 (76.5%) cited forced labor, slavery-like practices, or the use of labor or services; and 72 (60.5%) confirmed the use of labor or services. The legal system actively prosecutes trafficking cases, promotes international cooperation, and supports victim rehabilitation. However, organized crime related to migration and trafficking continues to pose significant challenges, especially given reports of forced labor and identity theft that point to serious rights violations and victim exploitation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 2 shows that 84.9% of respondents believe their government is not making the expected effort. Ratings of the government\u0026apos;s actions against migrant smuggling and human trafficking indicate that 28.6% assigned a score of 2, 16.5% a 3, 3.4% a 4, and 5% a 6 (the highest). These findings suggest that the majority view government efforts as insufficient, with only a small share considering them effective. The results underscore the urgent need for improved policies and measures to address these issues. Poor performance increases vulnerability, heightens the risk of exploitation, and diminishes public trust, as citizens feel neglected. Ineffective responses may exacerbate the problem, thereby increasing crime and community instability. Conversely, 15.1% of respondents believe their government actively engages in administrative, legal, social, and economic efforts. Among 119 respondents, 82 (68.9%) reported legal actions, 67 (56.3%) administrative efforts, 52 (43.7%) social initiatives, and 48 (40.3%) economic interventions. This indicates strong public demand for government involvement across sectors, particularly through legal measures, reflecting a push for regulation. Citizens seek strategies to enhance governance and societal well-being through these areas.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings highlight the need for clear data, legal priorities, and risk strategies to avoid criminalizing survivors. The review looks at frameworks, enforcement, and protections in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Gaps remain: some countries have laws, others lack transparency. Enforcement varies across underfunded agencies, leading to few prosecutions and poor data. Victims depend on civil society, but efforts are often legally weak, risking criminalization. Cross-border cooperation is patchy due to ad hoc projects and fragmented data, hindering anti-trafficking efforts. A comparative analysis shows strengths, gaps, and policy priorities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1: Comparative results table\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDimension\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDjibouti\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEritrea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthiopia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSomalia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLegal framework\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDraft/partial anti‑trafficking provisions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLimited public transparency on statutes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNational anti‑trafficking law(s) exist\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFragmented federal/state legal authority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnforcement capacity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmall, under-resourced units\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeak oversight; constrained civil society\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLarger apparatus, but uneven regional implementation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCourts and police hampered by insecurity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVictim protection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFew formal shelters; CSOS referrals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimal services; restricted access\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixed CSOS and some state referrals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHumanitarian actors provide most services\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCross-border cooperation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProject-based, transit hub role\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow formal regional engagement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource:\u0026nbsp;Completion\u0026nbsp;Author,2025\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 shows that prosecutions and convictions are rare in documented cases of victimization, with CSOs primarily providing support. Cross-border coordination is inconsistent and project-based. Countries such as Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia report low figures due to limited capacity and procedural issues. Most survivor aid comes from CSOs and UN agencies, creating gaps in geographic coverage and sustainability. Recommendations include tracking investigations and prosecutions, supporting victims, and considering risks, including data shortages, security concerns, and overlaps with migration. Program success varies across countries, shaped by stability, laws, enforcement, and culture. Djibouti\u0026apos;s strategic position and robust legal framework could improve implementation, unlike conflict-affected Somalia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 3 shows that few cases of human trafficking or migrant smuggling are reported and prosecuted. The primary reasons are limitations within the justice system (85 respondents, 71.4%), family reluctance (67 respondents, 56.3%), and legal gaps (65 respondents, 54.6%). These factors create significant challenges, underscoring the difficulty of combating these crimes. Flaws in the justice system, along with social and legal barriers, impede progress. Addressing these issues requires reforms and heightened awareness to ensure justice and prevent future offenses. The respondent elaborates on the roles of judges, prosecutors, defense lawyers, and traffickers in tackling migrant smuggling and human trafficking in Ethiopia, emphasizing challenges stemming from social and economic crises, the complexity of investigating organized crimes, and systemic coordination problems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 4 shows that 65 respondents (54.6%) with knowledge of migrant smuggling and human trafficking reported involvement in both commercial and noncommercial activities. Meanwhile, 10 (8.4%) said it was solely noncommercial, and 44 (37%) viewed it as a commercial crime. These crimes differ widely in severity and impact. Commercial crimes typically involve organized networks and profit motives, resulting in larger-scale operations and more victims. Noncommercial crimes are more localized but can still cause serious harm, requiring specialized interventions. Perpetrators face severe penalties, including lengthy prison sentences and fines. These crimes are prosecuted under national and international laws, often involving extradition and cross-jurisdictional efforts. Legal measures also seek to dismantle criminal networks and hold offenders accountable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 5 shows that migrant smuggling and human trafficking cases are reported, investigated, and prosecuted, but obstacles persist. These obstacles include perceived weaknesses in the justice system (85 respondents, 71.4%), family reluctance (67 respondents, 56.3%), and a lack of relevant laws (65 respondents, 54.6%). Structural inefficiencies and flaws in the justice system impede prosecution; family reluctance, stemming from fear or stigma; and legal gaps due to the absence of laws. Additional challenges include limited law enforcement resources, corruption, and complex cross-border investigations, which impede efforts to prevent, detect, and prosecute these crimes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe HoA region, including Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia, faces criticism for strict anti-trafficking policies that fail to address root causes. It remains a key trafficking hub, affecting thousands of children each year and causing trauma and stigma. To better protect victims, authorities should develop legal frameworks, form task forces, provide training, and improve shelters and services.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 6 shows the Five Ps framework guiding policies against migrant smuggling and trafficking: prevention, protection, prosecution, partnership, and policy development. Prevention addresses root causes and raises awareness; protection ensures victim safety; prosecution targets traffickers; partnership promotes collaboration; policy guides strategy. Respondents report: 38.7% implementing prevention, 29.4% protection, 21% provision, 29.4% prosecution, 18.1% participation, 15.1% no policies, and 31.9% unsure. Adoption varies by province, with prevention and prosecution more common than protection and partnership. The Five Ps emphasize awareness, addressing poverty, safeguarding victims, law enforcement, and collaboration. Challenges include political instability, limited resources, and corruption. Experts recommend combining economic development with political stabilization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 7 presents responses on human trafficking and migration policies within the Five V\u0026apos;s framework. Of 14 respondents, 11.8% mentioned the Victim Derivative policy; 21% referred to Victim Vulnerable; 15.1% supported Victim Potential; and 10.9% endorsed Victim Presumed. Overall, 26.9% indicated a Victim Policy, 21% selected neither, and 40.3% answered maybe. The data show that Victim Policy is the most popular at 26.9%, with significant uncertainty, as 40.3% responded \u0026quot;maybe\u0026quot;. Other policies received less support, indicating greater diversity of opinion. The Five V\u0026apos;s are crucial for targeted interventions and support.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 8 shows whether national criminal justice units are trained and have access to guidelines or expert help in areas related to human trafficking and migrant smuggling. These include: 45 (37.8%) for proactive investigations; 27 (22.7%) for disruptive investigations; 40 (33.6%) for crime scene investigations; 34 (28.6%) for reactive investigations; 45 (37.8%) for information and evidence gathering; 28 (23.5%) for undercover techniques; 39 (32.8%) for the use of informants; 41 (34.5%) for interviewing techniques; 25 (21%) for child-specific treatment; 47 (39.5%) for media use; 20 (16.8%) for databases; 24 (20.2%) for international law enforcement cooperation\u0026mdash;including joint investigations and intelligence sharing; and 37 (31.1%) for preparing charges and trials; 30 (25.2%) for asset freezing, seizing, and confiscation; and 18 (15.1%) for coordinating victim support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing specialized guidelines, national criminal justice units can effectively combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. They conduct investigations, manage crime scenes, gather evidence, and work with informants. Their training enables them to handle complex cases, protect vulnerable groups, and collaborate internationally. These capabilities are essential for dismantling networks, securing convictions, and supporting victims. By applying advanced techniques, coordinating with agencies, and ensuring victim protection, these units play a vital role in combating trafficking.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 9 shows that in cases of human trafficking and migrant smuggling, the judicial system provides tailored procedures to protect victims while ensuring a fair trial for defendants. These include court services (57.1%), interpretation (44.5%), victim services (31.9%), hearings (44.5%), information management (25.2%), case flow (25.2%), trial support (25.2%), facilities (17.6%), witness protection (36.1%), psychological support (25.2%), accommodation and transportation (26.1%), protection from abuse (24.4%), identity protection (24.4%), witness support (21.8%), defendant exclusion (15.1%), pretrial detention (20.2%), video examinations (21%), judicial counsel (21.8%), legal advice (21.8%), and legal defense access (26.1%). Testifying while ensuring fairness is a delicate balance; these services serve as safeguards to protect trial integrity and participant well-being. Measures such as witness protection, psychological support, video examinations, and detention are intended to create a secure, fair environment that safeguards witnesses\u0026apos; rights and safety.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 10 presents regular assessments of human trafficking and migrant smuggling, promoting international cooperation across areas: 40 (33.6%) for Extradition, 45 (37.8%) for Mutual Legal Assistance, 31 (26.1%) for Transfer of Proceedings, 26 (21.8%) for Transfer of Sentenced Persons, 39 (32.8%) for Investigation, 26 (21.8%) for Asset Seizure, 31 (26.1%) for Witness Protection, 46 (38.7%) for Law Enforcement, 20 (16.8%) for Investigative Techniques, 45 (37.8%) for Crime Prevention, and 31 (26.1%) for Joint Investigations, Border Measures, and Cross-Border Cooperation. These assessments reinforce international efforts by streamlining extradition, legal support, and joint investigations, identifying gaps, sharing best practices, and developing strategies to combat these crimes more effectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2: Comparative descriptive table\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCountry\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInvestigations (relative)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProsecutions (relative)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConvictions (relative)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVictim services\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDjibouti\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow; transit cases reported\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRare\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCSOS shelters; few state services\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLimited; project reports\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEritrea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimal public reporting\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVery limited\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVery limited\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVery limited; restricted civil society\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor official transparency is low\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthiopia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate; regional variance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow\u0026ndash;moderate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixed: CSOS + some state referrals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBetter than peers but uneven\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSomalia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSporadic; security‑dependent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSporadic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource:\u0026nbsp;Completion\u0026nbsp;Author,2025\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 highlights challenges in combating human trafficking and smuggling in the Horn of Africa, driven by legal and operational gaps in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Issues include slow justice, dependence on CSOs, limited regional cooperation, and resource shortages. Conflict, poverty, and insecurity increase vulnerability and hinder investigations. Balancing victim protection and enforcement complicates responses, and fragmented laws hinder cooperation. Reforms focus on legal harmonization, more vigorous law enforcement, and stronger partnerships with CSOs. Accurate data and research are crucial for progress. Despite existing laws, weak enforcement leads to delays and reliance on CSOs, while structural issues impede evidence gathering and prosecutions. Ongoing conflicts reduce victim protection, and some authorities criminalize victims, undermining trust. CSOs and international groups worry about dependency and sustainability. Trafficking networks exploit borders, but sporadic efforts limit information sharing, especially in Somalia. Effective disruptions require protocols for information sharing, joint investigations, and legal alignment. Reforms should include legal harmonization, capacity building, and stable state-CSO collaborations. Using minimal datasets and mixed-methods research is vital for monitoring efforts and distinguishing trafficking from smuggling.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBest Practices for Improving Effectiveness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis analysis reviews best practices in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia regarding human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Ethiopia\u0026apos;s strategy strengthens enforcement and victim protection. Djibouti\u0026apos;s legal system yields more convictions, whereas Eritrea\u0026apos;s lack of comprehensive legislation limits prosecutions. Ethiopia and Somalia have enacted legal reforms but face enforcement challenges. The report highlights regional cooperation and recommends establishing a central task force to facilitate data sharing, coordinate responses, and provide ongoing training for officials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 11 presents best practices in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia to combat migrant smuggling and human trafficking. It highlights 77 practices (64.7%) focused on community engagement, 68 (57.1%) on prevention, 39 (32.8%) on prosecution, and 36 (30.3%) on legal aid. Additionally, 28 practices (23.5%) strengthen law enforcement cooperation, and 21 (17.6%) focus on international collaboration. These strategies aim to address regional challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEfforts in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia focus on strengthening laws, training law enforcement, and fostering international collaboration to combat human trafficking and migrant smuggling. Strategies include dismantling trafficking networks, addressing root causes, creating economic opportunities, and engaging communities and the education sector. Challenges such as limited resources, political instability, and corruption hinder law enforcement and victim support. Civil society groups are vital for raising awareness and providing victim assistance, while regional cooperation is essential for addressing cross-border crimes. Djibouti has a strong legal framework, but others face implementation challenges due to stability and resource constraints. Combating trafficking requires a comprehensive approach that includes legal reforms, victim support, and awareness campaigns.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3: Comparison of strengths and key gaps\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCountry\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStrengths\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCritical legal gaps\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOperational gaps\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDjibouti\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStrategic transit location; some draft provisions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLimited implementing guidance; unclear referral protocols\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSmall enforcement units; few shelters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEritrea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCentralized control can enable rapid policy change\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow legal transparency; unclear international alignment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimal civil‑society services; scarce data\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthiopia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExisting national law and larger institutional footprint\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegional implementation inconsistency; gaps in non-punishment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResource constraints; corruption vulnerabilities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSomalia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn active humanitarian protection presence in some areas\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFragmented federal/state legal authority\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInsecurity limits courts and police; ad‑hoc referrals\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource:\u0026nbsp;Completion\u0026nbsp;Author,2025\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 examines Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia\u0026apos;s responses to human trafficking and migrant smuggling through legal and criminal justice systems. It compares legal frameworks, enforcement, victim protection, and cross-border cooperation. Results reveal inconsistent laws, slow case progression due to resource constraints, significant protection gaps, primarily in CSOS services, and a fragmented regional response lacking formal cooperation. Country snapshots show varying legal measures and enforcement issues.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion and Policy Recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAddressing justice gaps in the Horn of Africa requires harmonizing laws, training prosecutors, and adopting a victim-centered approach. Led by AU/IGAD with donor and civil society support, efforts target legal fragmentation, operational hurdles, and victim-protection issues that impede investigations and convictions and lead to re-victimization. Discrepancies between commitments and practices on trafficking and smuggling are evident. While some laws support anti-trafficking efforts, enforcement inconsistencies are exacerbated by resource shortages and corruption. Reliance on CSOs highlights government weaknesses. Reforms include harmonizing laws, establishing specialized units, strengthening CSO partnerships, and improving data systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey recommendations and policy proposals emphasize clarifying the law, establishing investigative teams, expanding protections, promoting regional cooperation, standardizing data collection, and combating corruption. An integrated legal and social strategy is essential for meaningful progress, including alignment with UN protocols, the creation of regional investigative units, the standardization of mutual legal aid procedures, the enforcement of victim identification protocols, and the strengthening of community prevention efforts. Challenges such as political differences and limited resources can be addressed through phased implementation and community engagement to build trust.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026quot;Not applicable.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all participants before and during data collection. Anonymized publicly available datasets help protect vulnerable groups. All research activities were approved by the Institutional Review Board of Mekelle University College of Health Sciences (MU-IRB2624/2025), which also approved the study protocol.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval and Compliance:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was granted ethical approval. The Protocol approval for all research activities, obtained from MU College of Health Sciences\u0026apos; Institutional Review Board, is attached as a supporting document (MU-IRB2624/2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis section on ethics approval and consent to participate verifies that all procedures with human participants adhered to relevant institutional standards and the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author. All datasets and materials supporting our research for review by referees and editors are available through HTMS (Responses) - Google Sheets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo conflicts of interest have been reported.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo sources have funded either the research or this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe manuscript contains no clinical section.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBerihu Teweldebirhan Gebresilassie, as the corresponding author, drafted the main manuscript, while all authors reviewed it.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbdinasir, I. I. 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The Policy Recommendation for A Victim-Centered Approach in Human Trafficking Proceedings. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Contemporary Social Sciences and Humanities\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e(1), 21\u0026ndash;38.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYhdego, M. (2024). Environmental Impact Assessment Systems in Eritrea: A Critical Review.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Criminal justice, Horn of Africa, Human trafficking, Migrant smuggling, Victim protection","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8797895/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8797895/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis article examines how Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia's legal and criminal justice systems address human trafficking and migrant smuggling. It assesses legal frameworks, investigative capacity, victim services, and regional cooperation. The report notes that mixed migration flows shape responses, with smuggling often evolving into trafficking. Despite existing laws, enforcement remains weak and underfunded, and its link to irregular migration deters victims from seeking help. Recommendations include victim-centered laws, stronger investigative units, expanded survivor support services, regional cooperation, improved data collection, and protection from immigration sanctions to strengthen interventions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Bridging gaps in legal and criminal justice systems to help prevent trafficking and migration in the Horn of Africa","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-26 15:42:15","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8797895/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-03T17:31:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-01T07:07:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-31T05:45:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"324111760363084973457096699069549338959","date":"2026-03-29T09:03:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"91584119830653494082911473367303837679","date":"2026-03-25T07:21:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-24T08:42:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-06T13:42:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-02-20T05:11:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-19T18:17:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Sustainability","date":"2026-02-19T18:12:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"disu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Sustainability](https://www.springer.com/43621)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Discover Sustainability","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2f9e144a-3d86-4bc4-8868-9e7bc6d2d215","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 26th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-06T08:56:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-26 15:42:15","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8797895","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8797895","identity":"rs-8797895","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}