Research on the spatial distribution and Geographical Environmental of Grotto Temples in Southern Shaanxi of China by ArcGIS

Research on the spatial distribution and Geographical Environmental of Grotto Temples in Southern Shaanxi of China by ArcGIS | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Research on the spatial distribution and Geographical Environmental of Grotto Temples in Southern Shaanxi of China by ArcGIS Jing Zhang, Xinghui Han This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4235135/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Grottoes Temple is a kind of immovable material cultural heritage, Inclding architecture, sculptures and murals, which not only contains rich history and culture, but also expresses the spiritual civilization of mankind and the route of Buddhist transmission, and the distribution of grottoes also has many relations with the geographical environment. At present, 178 grottoes temples are distributed in southern Shaanxi. This paper analyzes the excavation environment of southern Shaanxi Grottoes by using 1:200,000 geological data sets and 30m resolution DEM(digital elevation model) topographic data. Secondly, the nuclear density analysis and standard deviation ellipse method are used to analyze the gathering degree of cave temple cultural sites and the distribution direction and pattern of cave temples in the study area, and discuss the distribution characteristics and spatiotemporal evolution model of the grottoes in southern Shaanxi. The final results include the following contents: (1) The distribution of grotto temples in southern Shaanxi is related to topography and geomorphology, mainly built on cliffs, the elevation is mainly below 1000m. As the elevation increases, the number of grottoes decreases. (2) The grotto temples of southern Shaanxi are mainly located near the river. The distribution pattern of grottoes is consistent with the direction of river gully. (3)The grottoes in southern Shaanxi are distributed unbalanced, due to geographical reasons, mainly distributed in Shangluo and Ankang areas. Southern Shaanxi Region grotto temples Spatial Distribution Cultural Heritage Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Grotto Temple originated in ancient India, it is a kind of temple by built on the mountain. Grotto Temple is an important expression of the developmentand dissemination of ancient religious culture. The first grotto temples were dug in Xinjiang in the 3rd century. After the Han Dynasty, the grottoes developed from west to east along the Silk Road,, during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the number of grottoes gradually increased and developed to the mainland of China, It is mainly distributed in Xinjiang, Gansu, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Chongqing and other regions, The number of grottoes is rich and multiple, forming a belt of grottoes. [ 1 ] Xi 'an (Chang 'an)is the capital of Shaanxi Province, it was once the center of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation, dissemination and international exchange, and Changan was also the starting point of the Silk Road. Therefore, Shaanxi left a large number of grottoes by the multi-ethnic Buddhist activities .At present, there were 894 grottoes from the Northern Wei Dynasty to the Qing dynasties in Shaanxi, with profound connotations, wide distribution, and is widely distributed in Guanzhong, northern Shaanxi and southern Shaanxi.It is a representative of small and medium-sized grottoes in northern China. [ 2 ] According to the third national cultural relics survey, there are 178 grotto temples in southern Shaanxi, including 46 in Hanzhong, 12 in Shangluo and 120 in Ankang. However, for the study of the grottoes in southern Shaanxi, the academic circle has only carried out some data investigation, and the relevant research is very weak, which seriously restricts the protection and utilization of the grottoes. At the same time, due to the complex and diverse terrain in Shaanxi, this paper focuses on analyzing the geographical characteristics and distribution environment of the grottoes in southern Shaanxi, [ 3 ] systematically understanding the distribution mode of the grottoes in this region, expected to better protect the cultural sites of the grottoes, and to understand the historical development and folk culture of southern Shaanxi, purpose to promote the inheritance of traditional culture. Geography of southern Shaanxi The Southern Shaanxi is located in the southern part of Shaanxi Province, spans between latitudes 31°N and 34°N and longitudes 105°E and 111°E. This region encompasses the cities of Hanzhong, Ankang, and Shangluo, with an area of approximately 74,000 square kilometers. It borders the cities of Xi'an and Xianyang in the Guanzhong region to the north, Henan to the east, and links to the Jingxiang and Bashu regions to the south. Southern Shaanxi acts as a crucial passageway for connections between the Jingxiang and Bashu regions. [ 4 ] The southern Shaanxi is located south of the Qinling Mountains, the upper of the Han River, spanning across the Qinling and Bashan mountain ranges, divided by the Han River into two major regions with the Han River as the boundary, the north belongs to the Qinling area, the south to the DaBa Mountain area. The Qinling Mountains feature a layered structure, with erosional surfaces at altitudes of 3000 meters, 2600–2800 meters, 1500–1800 meters, 1100 − 900 meters, and around 700 meters arranged from the main ridge southward to the Han River valley. Valley zones exhibit 1 to 4 levels of terraces. The elevation and geomorphology vary, with the southern part being the Bashan Mountains. Between the two mountain ranges flows the Han River, forming a landscape of high mountains, mid-mountains, low mountains, basins, and hills from north to south. The strata are primarily metamorphic rocks, along with igneous and sedimentary rocks. The rivers in the Southern Shaanxi region include the Han River, Dan River, and the Luo River, belonging to the Yangtze and Yellow River systems. The tributaries form a dendritic water system, creating a geographical pattern of two mountains flanking a river. Data Sources and Research Methodologies 2.1 Data sources This article collects location data of grotto temples in the Southern Shaanxi region, mainly DEM (digital elevation model) data [ 5 ] and topographic data. Referring to the "Complete Catalogue of Shaanxi Grottoes", and using a chronology system and archaeological classification, the grottoes in Southern Shaanxi are divided into four periods: Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties; Sui and Tang Dynasties; Five Dynasties to Song and Yuan Dynasties; Ming and Qing Dynasties. By utilizing geographic information technology to visualize the spatial distribution of grotto temples, this study analyzes the degree of agglomeration of grotto temples, revealing the characteristics and patterns of their distribution. [ 6 ] First, the location of each grotto temple site is pinpointed one by one through Google Maps, then imported into ArcGIS. Sites with unknown dates are excluded. Secondly, DEM data, administrative vector maps, and site points from different periods are collected for the Southern Shaanxi region, to create DEMs for grotto temples in Southern Shaanxi, and to stratify color coding and reclassify based on altitude and slope direction; finally, based on the location, quantity, and frequency of site distributions from different periods. [ 7 ] Using the DEM of Southern Shaanxi combined with river valleys and stratigraphic lithology, the ArcGIS hydrological analysis tool is used to extract valley networks, selecting different distances from river valley buffer zones to study the distribution of grotto temples, analyzing the extent to which river valleys influence the site selection of grotto temples. 2.2 Research methods Nearest Neighbor Distance Using the Nearest Neighbor Distance tool in ArcGIS, the nearest neighbor index R for the grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was calculated to be 0.73 < 1 (Table 2 ). The nearest neighbor index method describes distribution patterns by comparing the average distance between neighboring points. First, the distances between these points are measured, and then compared with a known pattern to determine the similarity of the observed pattern. [ 8 ] Typically, a random distribution is used as the benchmark for comparison. If the observed pattern's nearest neighbor distance is greater than that of a random distribution, it indicates that the observed pattern is closer to a uniform distribution; otherwise, it tends towards a clustered distribution. The type of point pattern can be determined by calculating the nearest neighbor index (R). The formula for calculating this index is: [ 9 ] $${\stackrel{-}{d}}_{min}=\frac{1}{n}\sum _{i=1}^{n}{d}_{min}\left(si\right)$$ $$R=\frac{{\stackrel{-}{d}}_{min}}{E\left({d}_{min}\right)}=2\stackrel{-}{d}\sqrt{\frac{n}{A}}$$ In the formula: \({d}_{min}\) represents the distance from each event to its nearest neighbor; n indicates the number of stone temple cultural heritage sites within the study area; \({\stackrel{-}{d}}_{min}\) signifies the average distance calculated for all events based on the total number of points (n) within the pattern; and A refers to the area of the study region. When R = 1, it indicates that the stone cave temple sites in Southern Shaanxi are randomly distributed; When R 1, it implies that the stone cave temple sites in Southern Shaanxi have a dispersed distribution; Kernel Density tool Using the Kernel Density tool in ArcGIS, [ 10 ] the kernel density distribution map of the grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was obtained (Fig. 3 ). Kernel density analysis is a method that simulates the distribution of spatial point data continuously, using the kernel density values in spatial grids to reflect the distribution of points in space. The calculation formula is as follows: $$f\left(x\right)=\frac{1}{n}{\sum }_{i=1}^{n}\frac{1}{r}K\left(\frac{X-{X}_{i}}{r}\right)$$ In this context, f(x) is the kernel density value at any given point x in the space; r represents the search radius; X - Xi indicates the distance between point Xi and the central point X; n is the number of points required within a distance less than or equal to r from any arbitrary point X in the space; K is the spatial weight function. Standard deviation ellipse The standard deviation ellipse [ 11 ] tool of ArcGIS software is analyze grottoes environment in different history periods. The standard deviation of X and y coordinates was calculated mainly by calculating the mean center in a certain area, so as to define the trend of X and Y coordinates, which was expressed as an elliptic axis. By analyzing the center of the ellipse, wheelbase separation and rotation Angle, the spatial distribution characteristics of the object are quantitatively analyzed. [ 12 ] The formula for calculating the standard deviation ellipse is as follows: $${SDE}_{x}=\sqrt{\frac{\sum _{i=1}^{n}{(xi-\stackrel{-}{x})}^{2}}{n}}$$ $${SDE}_{y}=\sqrt{\frac{\sum _{i=1}^{n}{(yi-\stackrel{-}{y})}^{2}}{n}}$$ In this context, (xi, yi) denote the Cartesian coordinates of the ith grotto temple feature within the dataset, and n signifies the total count of all such features. The summation operator represents the calculation to determine the mean center for all the grotto temple features present in the dataset, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive understanding and quantification of their spatial distribution patterns. [ 13 ] The formula for calculating the rotational angle is as follows: $$\text{tan}\theta =\frac{A+B}{C}$$ $$\text{A}=\left(\sum _{i=1}^{\text{n}}{{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{x}}}_{i}}^{2}-\sum _{i=1}^{\text{n}}{{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{y}}}_{i}}^{2}\right)$$ $$\text{B}=\sqrt{{\left(\sum _{i=1}^{\text{n}}{{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{x}}}_{i}}^{2}-\sum _{i=1}^{\text{n}}{{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{y}}}_{i}}^{2}\right)+4\left(\sum _{i=1}^{\text{n}}{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{x}}}_{i}{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{y}}}_{i}\right)}^{2}}$$ $$\text{C}=2\sum _{i=1}^{\text{n}}{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{x}}}_{i}{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{y}}}_{i}$$ Where \({\stackrel{\sim}{\text{x}}}_{i}\) represents the mean center, and \({\stackrel{\sim}{\text{y}}}_{i}\) denotes the difference between X and Y coordinates. The standard deviations along the X-axis and Y-axis are as follows: $${\sigma }_{x}=\sqrt{2}\sqrt{\frac{\sum _{i=1}^{\text{n}}{\left({\stackrel{\sim}{\text{x}}}_{i}\text{cos}\theta -{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{y}}}_{i}\text{sin}\theta \right)}^{2}}{n}}$$ $${\sigma }_{y}=\sqrt{2}\sqrt{\frac{\sum _{i=1}^{\text{n}}{\left({\stackrel{\sim}{\text{x}}}_{i}\text{sin}\theta -{\stackrel{\sim}{\text{y}}}_{i}\text{cos}\theta \right)}^{2}}{n}}$$ In the calculation results of the standard deviation ellipse, the long axis of the ellipse represents the direction of data distribution, while the short axis represents the range of data distribution. The greater the difference between the lengths of the long and short axes (the greater the flatness), the more apparent the directional tendency of the data. Conversely, if the long and short axes are closer in length, the directional tendency is less apparent. The short axis represents the range of data distribution; the shorter the short axis, the more apparent the centripetal force of the data, whereas the longer the short axis, the greater the degree of data dispersion. The center point indicates the central position of the entire dataset. [ 14 ] The rotation angle represents the dominant direction of the distribution, as shown in Fig. 4 . Result 3. Spatial Distribution Analysis of grotto temples in Southern Shaanxi Region Spatial analysis methods help to enhance the understanding of spatial relationships among geographically-related data by establishing statistical connections through spatial positioning. [ 15 ] Rivers were one of the important considerations for ancient people in constructing grotto temples, with most sites built near rivers. The buffer analysis tool can construct a valley buffer model, overlaying the grotto temple sites in Southern Shaanxi with the valley buffer zones to analyze the interrelationship between site distribution and valleys. [ 16 ] Overlaying grotto temple data with topographic data of the Southern Shaanxi region to explore the distribution direction and characteristics of grotto temples. 3.1 Elevation distribution of grotto temples By acquiring DEM data for the Southern Shaanxi region and then importing it into ArcGIS software, elevation analysis overlay analysis from the Arc Toolbox was used to overlay the distribution map of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi with the topographic elevation map of Southern Shaanxi. It was found that there are 21 grotto sites within an elevation of 500 meters, 11 sites within 500–1000 meters, 5 sites within 1000–1500 meters, and 2 sites above 1500 meters. It was discovered that the distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi shows an overall decreasing trend as the elevation increases (as shown in Table 1 ). Among them, a significant number of grottoes are concentrated within three elevation ranges: below 500 meters, 500–1000 meters, and 1000–1500 meters, accounting for 72.5% of the total. Specifically, grottoes below 500 meters in elevation are mainly distributed in the central region of Southern Shaanxi, those between 500–1000 meters are primarily located in the northern region of Southern Shaanxi, and grottoes above 1500 meters are also concentrated in the northern region of Southern Shaanxi. Table 1 Elevation Statistics Table for grotto temples in Southern Shaanxi Region Periods Site Elevation/m Total 1500 Wei-Jin 0 0 0 0 0 Sui-Tang 5 1 0 0 6 Song-Yuan 2 0 0 0 2 Ming-Qing 14 10 5 2 31 Based on the analysis of the above statistical table, grottoes are usually constructed in low mountain and hill areas, built at suitable mountain heights. If the terrain is too high, the limitations of ancient technology and economic development make it difficult to carry out construction activities; if the terrain is too low, it cannot meet the environmental conditions required for the construction of grotto-type cultural relics. This is because the construction of grottoes requires a beautiful, quiet environment with relatively lush vegetation, and low mountain and hill areas are also more suitable for human habitation and transportation. [ 17 ] From a geological perspective, the Southern Shaanxi region is mountainous with argillaceous sandstone, and the Shangluo area also has thick layers of conglomerate and conglomeratic sandstone, all of which have well-developed vertical joints and are easy to carve. There are often rivers flowing in front of the cliffs, which is conducive to highlighting the Buddha statues and creating a solemn Buddhist atmosphere. 3.2 Distribution of Grotto Temples Based on Slope Gradient Analysis To reveal the slope distribution characteristics of grotto sites in Southern Shaanxi, GIS was used to analyze the study area, and slope data of grotto sites were extracted from the DEM of the Southern Shaanxi region. Slopes were divided into four categories according to the slope grading index: gentle slopes (0–5°) and (5–10°), moderate slopes (10–15°) and (15–20°), steep slopes (20–25°), and very steep slopes (> 25°). Based on the above analysis, slope data of grotto sites distributed in Southern Shaanxi were extracted, and a slope distribution map of grottoes on different slopes (Fig. 1 ) was drawn. [ 18 ] It can be seen from the figure: there are 14 sites on moderate slopes, 13 sites on gentle slopes, and 9 sites on steep slopes. The largest number of grottoes, 14, accounting for 38.8% of the total, are distributed on moderate slopes, concentrated in the central Hanzhong, northwest of Ankang, and northeast of Shangluo; followed by gentle slopes with 13 sites, accounting for 36% of the total, scattered throughout the three cities; steep slopes have 9 sites, accounting for 25% of the total, concentrated in the northwest of Hanzhong, eastern Ankang, and southern Shangluo; there are no grotto temples distributed on very steep slopes. Generally, people choose to carve grotto temples on moderate and gentle slopes, and the analysis results are consistent with the actual situation. 3.3 The Spatial Distribution of Grottoes in Relation to River Networks DEM data for the Southern Shaanxi region were acquired, and hydrological analysis measurements from the Arc Toolbox were used to analyze the distance between rivers and grottoes in the Southern Shaanxi region (Fig. 2). The results show that 90% of the grotto temples are within 3 kilometers of rivers, totaling 36 sites. Grottoes within 1 kilometer account for 70% of the total number of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi, with 28 sites, such as Lingyan Temple Grotto and Longmen Temple Grotto in Hanzhong, Buddha Cave Grotto and Thousand Buddha Cave Grotto in Ankang, and Fengguan Mountain Grotto in Shangluo, etc. The number of grotto temples decreases with increasing distance from the river. The main rivers in the Southern Shaanxi region are the Han River and Dan River, with grottoes distributed on both sides of the two river basins. For example, Shuigou River Grotto, Fengguan Mountain Grotto, Zhongshan Temple Grotto, and Shuiyue Cave Grotto are concentrated along the tributaries of the Dan River. Wanfo Temple Grotto, Luhukou Grotto, and Thousand Buddha Cave Grotto are concentrated along the Dan River. Since ancient times, human life has been inseparable from rivers, with ancient cultural sites, villages, and towns from various periods all built along rivers. Rivers play a crucial role in human life. [ 19 ] Generally, people choose locations close to but not immediately adjacent to rivers, typically within 3 kilometers. This choice balances the risk of flood disasters with the convenience of daily life, ensuring that losses are minimized in the event of natural disasters, while still conveniently utilizing river resources for agricultural production and domestic water use. [ 20 ] Figure 2: Distribution of Caves Along River in Southern Shaanxi Region 4. The Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Grotto Temples in Southern Shaanxi 4.1Analysis of Agglomeration Degree for the Distribution of grotto in Southern Shaanxi Region Table 2 Nearest Neighbor Distance Indices for Stone Caves in Southern Shaanxi Region during Different Historical Periods Period Mean Observed Distance (km) Expected Average Distance (km) Difference (R) Z- score P- value Distribution Type Sui-Tang 4.258 2.682 1.58 2.7 0.005 Scattered Song-Yuan 14.561 2.290 6.35 17.7 0 Scattered Ming-Qing 1.8155 2.482 0.73 -2.5 0.0100 Clustered Overall 1.558 2.121 0.73 -3.1 0.001 Clustered The calculation results show that there were no large-scale grottoes in the Southern Shaanxi region during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties; a dispersed distribution during the Sui and Tang Dynasties; a dispersed distribution during the Song and Yuan Dynasties; and a clustered distribution during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The spatial distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi shows a trend of clustering over historical periods, with a high degree of agglomeration. From the map 3, it can be observed that the distribution density of grottoes in the region has the characteristic of being concentrated, presenting several core areas and multiple dot-like zones, generally showing a radial spread from multiple core areas outwards. Among these, the highest distribution density core area is located in Ankang and Shangluo cities; secondary core areas and dot-like dispersed areas are located in Hanzhong city. The distribution of grottoes in Ankang and Shangluo cities both exhibit characteristics of concentration, while the distribution characteristics of the existing grottoes in Hanzhong city include three concentrated areas as well as some dot-like dispersed distributions. The degrees of aggregation for different periods are summarized as follows: 1. Sui and Tang Dynasties During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the nearest neighbor distance index R for the distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was 1.58 > 1, showing a dispersed distribution (Table 2 ). During this period, the grottoes were mainly concentrated in the areas of Hanzhong city and Shangluo city, with the most dense core area located in the central-eastern part of Ankang city. The distribution radiated outward from two core areas (Fig. 3 b). 2. Song and Yuan Dynasties During the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the nearest neighbor distance index R for the distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was 6.35 > 1, showing a dispersed distribution (Table 2 ). In this period, a small number of grottoes appeared in Hanzhong city and Ankang city, significantly reduced from the previous period, with no grottoes appearing in Shangluo city, sparsely distributed in the western part of Hanzhong and within Ankang city (Fig. 3 c). Ming and Qing Dynasties During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the nearest neighbor distance index R for the distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was 0.73 < 1, indicating a clustered distribution (Table 2 ). Shangluo city had the densest distribution, significantly increasing from the previous period, while a small number of grottoes were clustered in the southeast part of Hanzhong and the eastern part of Ankang, showing a stronger degree of clustering compared to the previous two periods (Fig. 3 d). Through the analysis of the clustering degree of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi mentioned above, it is found that the excavation of grotto temples is closely related to the spread of Buddhism at that time. The Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties period marked the initial stage of grottoes in Shaanxi, with no clustered distribution of grottoes yet. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, influenced by Buddhism, Shaanxi began substantial cave excavations and sculpting, with Southern Shaanxi serving as an important area for various cultural exchanges and integrations due to its connection between Jingxiang and Bashu. Grotto temples emerged, clustering along the road from Chang'an to Sichuan. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, due to wars, the scope of grotto temples in Shaanxi gradually expanded, the number increased, and they began to exhibit clustered distributions. 4.2 The directional distribution of grottoes across different time periods Using the standard deviation ellipse method, the distribution of the Shaanxi Southern Grottoes during different historical periods was analyzed. From the Sui and Tang Dynasties to the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the rotation angle of the standard deviation ellipse gradually decreased, and the distribution direction shifted from northwest to southeast to become more oriented towards the east-west direction. During this period, the Shaanxi Southern Grottoes exhibited a trend of contraction in the southwest-northeast direction and expansion in the west-east direction. From the Song and Yuan Dynasties to the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the rotation angle of the standard deviation ellipse continued to decrease, and the distribution direction shifted from west-east to southwest-northeast, further strengthening. During this period, the Shaanxi Southern Grottoes exhibited a trend of expansion in the north-south direction, with the eastern direction spreading from the eastern part of Ankang during the Song and Yuan Dynasties to the eastern part of Shangluo during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The directional distribution of the Shaanxi Southern Grottoes showed a trend of polarization followed by expansion throughout the entire historical period. Overlaying terrain data with standard deviation ellipses, we explore whether the distribution pattern and orientation of grottoes are related to terrain types. From the perspective of southern Shaanxi's terrain, grottoes are mainly distributed in lower altitude areas, with the majority concentrated in low-altitude alluvial plains. The standard deviation ellipses established based on the classification of grotto sites by historical dynasties, as shown in Fig. 5, indicate the following dimensions:For the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the Y-axis distance of the standard deviation ellipse is 30089, the X-axis distance is 146247, with the X-axis as the long axis and the Y-axis as the short axis;For the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the Y-axis distance of the standard deviation ellipse is 11949, the X-axis distance is 202792, with the X-axis as the long axis and the Y-axis as the short axis༛For the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the Y-axis distance of the standard deviation ellipse is 66472, the X-axis distance is 188006, with the X-axis as the long axis and the Y-axis as the short axis.All three dynasties' standard deviations exhibit the characteristic of having the X-axis as the long axis, indicating an overall spatial pattern of "northwest-southeast." The distribution pattern of grottoes aligns with the flow direction of the Han River and Dan River, and coincides with the distribution pattern of low-altitude alluvial plains. This suggests that the distribution of grottoes is closely related to river valleys and is influenced by them. [ 21 ] Conclusion It is based on the analysis of the geographical environment of the grottoes distribution in southern Shaanxi Province, the elevation, distance from the river and slope of the grottoes distribution were analyzed with the nearest neighbor index and the concentration degree and the standard ellipse difference, it summarizes the geographical environment and distribution pattern of the grottoes in southern Shaanxi.The conclusion is as follows: (1) The Southern Shaanxi Grottoes are mainly distributed in hilly areas, primarily below an elevation of 1000 meters, totaling 32 locations, such as Fengguan Mountain Grottoes, Zhongshan Temple Grottoes, and Shuiyue Cave Grottoes. Beyond 1000 meters, as the elevation increases, the number of grottoes gradually decreases. They are concentrated in the eastern and western parts of Southern Shaanxi, with fewer in the central region. Due to technological limitations in ancient times, it was challenging for people to engage in construction activities above an elevation of 1000 meters, while areas with lower terrain did not meet the environmental requirements for grotto temple construction. (2)The Southern Shaanxi Grottoes are primarily constructed on middle slopes and gentle slopes, mainly within the range of 10°to 20°on middle slopes, totaling 14 locations. They are concentrated in the central part of Hanzhong, the northwest part of Ankang City, and the northeast region of Shangluo. Following this, there are 13 locations situated on flat slopes ranging from 0° to 10°. (3)The site selection of Southern Shaanxi Grottoes mainly favors locations near rivers. Grotto temples within a distance of 1 kilometer from rivers account for 70%, such as Lingyan Temple Grottoes in Hanzhong, Fodong River Grottoes in Ankang, Qianfodong Grottoes, and Fengguan Mountain Grottoes in Shangluo, all situated near the Han River and the Luo River. As the distance increases, the number of grotto temples decreases, with approximately 90% of them located within 3 kilometers from rivers. (4)The distribution of Southern Shaanxi Grottoes exhibits temporal differences, primarily concentrating during the Ming dynastiesand Qing dynasties.The development of Chan Buddhism in Southern Shaanxi further advanced during the Ming and Qing periods, Promote popular belief, especially folk belief in Guanyin, coinciding with the relative prosperity of the region's economy, The government embedded a large number of immigrants of Sichuan, which greatly facilitated the development of grottoes. Declarations Ethical Approval Grotto Temple is a cultural heritage. Commissioned by Social Sciences of Shaanxi, China. The paper studies the distribution of grottoes heritage in Shaanxi, and is committed to the protection of grottoes culture. Funding This work was supported by the Shaanxi Social Science Foundation of China: Study on the environment and art of Grotto temple in Shaanxi from the perspective of historical geography (2022J074) Author contributions ZHJ wrote the main manuscript text. HXH analysis formula, data and management, prepared figures1-4 and table1-2. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Availability of data and materials The data presented in this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. Competing interests The authors declare that the article have no competing interests. Correspondence Zhang Jing [email protected] Xi'an University of Technology, School of Art and Design, Xi'an, China 710048 References Gong Yuchen, Wang Lele, Wang Jinhua. 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Technology Wind, 2021,(05):132-135 Gao Xuhong. Research on the Distribution and Spatial Morphological Features of Historical and Cultural Towns and Villages along the Fen River Basin Based on GIS[J]. Housing & Real Estate, 2021(21):39-40 Zhang XinHong, Yang Haiqin, Li Hongjun. Temporal and Spatial Distribution Characteristics and Influencing Factors of Grottoes in Gansu Province[J]. Journal of Northwest University (Natural Science Edition), 2023, 53(03):401-412 Chen Yonggui, Hao Hongke, Li Pengfei. Application of GIS in Landscape Planning and Design[J]. Journal of Northwest Forestry University, 04(2005): 174-176 Quan Dongji, Huang Yan, Dong Anqi, et al. Study on the Temporal and Spatial Distribution and Influencing Factors of Grotto Temples in Gansu Province[J]. China Soft Science, 2022, (S1):167-173 Fan Hao, Yang Xiaoxia, Bai Yang. Spatial Distribution Characteristics and Influencing Factors Analysis of Stone Cave Tourist Resources in China[J]. Journal of Southwest University (Natural Science Edition), 2015, 37(12):98-103 Runze Yang. A study on the spatial distribution and historical evolution of grotto heritage: a case study of Gansu Province, China[J]. Heritage Science 11.1(2023):165-180 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4235135","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":288863916,"identity":"aa31a211-6e74-4fe4-ad01-b9eddf7cb108","order_by":0,"name":"Jing Zhang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAzElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC+/uHDz74+MdGjrG9gVg9N9iSDWc2pBkz9xwgWguPmjRvw+HE9hkJROpgnN3DIMG7I82Yd+bjjTcYamyiCWphljl7wEDyjI2c5Oy0YguGY2m5DYS0sDHkJSQYsKUZG87OMZNgbDhMWAsPQ47BgQS2w4n7b54hUouERI5hw8G2w4mNM3iI1GLAcyyZseFMmjFjD9AvCcT4xYC9+fjvPxWgqDy88caHGhvCWlC0SySQohyihVQdo2AUjIJRMDIAANtJREYCuzTDAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Xi'an University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jing","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":288863917,"identity":"6995c1a6-de31-4136-85da-49e98cda6a93","order_by":1,"name":"Xinghui Han","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xi'an University of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xinghui","middleName":"","lastName":"Han","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-04-08 08:45:59","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4235135/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4235135/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":54510890,"identity":"c653e767-38e5-4ee0-a1a5-6f24fce0b460","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 15:29:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":759446,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSlope Analysis Map of Karst Caves in Southern Shaanxi\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4235135/v1/b422394dc42c2f72927a46e5.png"},{"id":54510888,"identity":"607906f1-5966-48ed-8939-33f9fa59e0fb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 15:29:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":190408,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of Caves Along River in Southern Shaanxi Region\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4235135/v1/595d481c59df38f648c7b738.png"},{"id":54511582,"identity":"3c89bcf3-2232-4cf9-9eaa-8af3490b2bc2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 15:37:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":780226,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution and Agglomeration of Stone Caves in Southern Shaanxi during Different Historical Periods\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4235135/v1/85553391f6fd6bf0ac21d719.png"},{"id":54510889,"identity":"b576fc6d-16c0-4370-b012-9195ef4b8e5e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-11 15:29:05","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":524148,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDirectional Distribution Map of Stone Caves in Southern Shaanxi across Different Historical Periods\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4235135/v1/38280ba28500f4cea52a2982.png"},{"id":54917672,"identity":"5875e229-16e9-4207-b8a5-7c63e7872067","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-18 14:35:42","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1902747,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4235135/v1/7d082dcd-d460-48c5-9d59-31c117026d6e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Research on the spatial distribution and Geographical Environmental of Grotto Temples in Southern Shaanxi of China by ArcGIS","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eGrotto Temple originated in ancient India, it is a kind of temple by built on the mountain. Grotto Temple is an important expression of the developmentand dissemination of ancient religious culture. The first grotto temples were dug in Xinjiang in the 3rd century. After the Han Dynasty, the grottoes developed from west to east along the Silk Road,, during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the number of grottoes gradually increased and developed to the mainland of China, It is mainly distributed in Xinjiang, Gansu, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Chongqing and other regions, The number of grottoes is rich and multiple, forming a belt of grottoes.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eXi 'an (Chang 'an)is the capital of Shaanxi Province, it was once the center of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation, dissemination and international exchange, and Changan was also the starting point of the Silk Road. Therefore, Shaanxi left a large number of grottoes by the multi-ethnic Buddhist activities .At present, there were 894 grottoes from the Northern Wei Dynasty to the Qing dynasties in Shaanxi, with profound connotations, wide distribution, and is widely distributed in Guanzhong, northern Shaanxi and southern Shaanxi.It is a representative of small and medium-sized grottoes in northern China.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eAccording to the third national cultural relics survey, there are 178 grotto temples in southern Shaanxi, including 46 in Hanzhong, 12 in Shangluo and 120 in Ankang. However, for the study of the grottoes in southern Shaanxi, the academic circle has only carried out some data investigation, and the relevant research is very weak, which seriously restricts the protection and utilization of the grottoes. At the same time, due to the complex and diverse terrain in Shaanxi, this paper focuses on analyzing the geographical characteristics and distribution environment of the grottoes in southern Shaanxi, \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e systematically understanding the distribution mode of the grottoes in this region, expected to better protect the cultural sites of the grottoes, and to understand the historical development and folk culture of southern Shaanxi, purpose to promote the inheritance of traditional culture.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Geography of southern Shaanxi","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Southern Shaanxi is located in the southern part of Shaanxi Province, spans between latitudes 31\u0026deg;N and 34\u0026deg;N and longitudes 105\u0026deg;E and 111\u0026deg;E. This region encompasses the cities of Hanzhong, Ankang, and Shangluo, with an area of approximately 74,000 square kilometers. It borders the cities of Xi'an and Xianyang in the Guanzhong region to the north, Henan to the east, and links to the Jingxiang and Bashu regions to the south. Southern Shaanxi acts as a crucial passageway for connections between the Jingxiang and Bashu regions.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe southern Shaanxi is located south of the Qinling Mountains, the upper of the Han River, spanning across the Qinling and Bashan mountain ranges, divided by the Han River into two major regions with the Han River as the boundary, the north belongs to the Qinling area, the south to the DaBa Mountain area. The Qinling Mountains feature a layered structure, with erosional surfaces at altitudes of 3000 meters, 2600\u0026ndash;2800 meters, 1500\u0026ndash;1800 meters, 1100\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;900 meters, and around 700 meters arranged from the main ridge southward to the Han River valley. Valley zones exhibit 1 to 4 levels of terraces. The elevation and geomorphology vary, with the southern part being the Bashan Mountains. Between the two mountain ranges flows the Han River, forming a landscape of high mountains, mid-mountains, low mountains, basins, and hills from north to south. The strata are primarily metamorphic rocks, along with igneous and sedimentary rocks. The rivers in the Southern Shaanxi region include the Han River, Dan River, and the Luo River, belonging to the Yangtze and Yellow River systems. The tributaries form a dendritic water system, creating a geographical pattern of two mountains flanking a river.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Data Sources and Research Methodologies","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Data sources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis article collects location data of grotto temples in the Southern Shaanxi region, mainly DEM (digital elevation model) data \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eand topographic data. Referring to the \"Complete Catalogue of Shaanxi Grottoes\", and using a chronology system and archaeological classification, the grottoes in Southern Shaanxi are divided into four periods: Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties; Sui and Tang Dynasties; Five Dynasties to Song and Yuan Dynasties; Ming and Qing Dynasties. By utilizing geographic information technology to visualize the spatial distribution of grotto temples, this study analyzes the degree of agglomeration of grotto temples, revealing the characteristics and patterns of their distribution.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, the location of each grotto temple site is pinpointed one by one through Google Maps, then imported into ArcGIS. Sites with unknown dates are excluded. Secondly, DEM data, administrative vector maps, and site points from different periods are collected for the Southern Shaanxi region, to create DEMs for grotto temples in Southern Shaanxi, and to stratify color coding and reclassify based on altitude and slope direction; finally, based on the location, quantity, and frequency of site distributions from different periods. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eUsing the DEM of Southern Shaanxi combined with river valleys and stratigraphic lithology, the ArcGIS hydrological analysis tool is used to extract valley networks, selecting different distances from river valley buffer zones to study the distribution of grotto temples, analyzing the extent to which river valleys influence the site selection of grotto temples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e2.2 Research methods\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eNearest Neighbor Distance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing the Nearest Neighbor Distance tool in ArcGIS, the nearest neighbor index R for the grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was calculated to be 0.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The nearest neighbor index method describes distribution patterns by comparing the average distance between neighboring points. First, the distances between these points are measured, and then compared with a known pattern to determine the similarity of the observed pattern.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e Typically, a random distribution is used as the benchmark for comparison. If the observed pattern's nearest neighbor distance is greater than that of a random distribution, it indicates that the observed pattern is closer to a uniform distribution; otherwise, it tends towards a clustered distribution. The type of point pattern can be determined by calculating the nearest neighbor index (R). The formula for calculating this index is:\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${\\stackrel{-}{d}}_{min}=\\frac{1}{n}\\sum _{i=1}^{n}{d}_{min}\\left(si\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$R=\\frac{{\\stackrel{-}{d}}_{min}}{E\\left({d}_{min}\\right)}=2\\stackrel{-}{d}\\sqrt{\\frac{n}{A}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the formula: \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({d}_{min}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e represents the distance from each event to its nearest neighbor; n indicates the number of stone temple cultural heritage sites within the study area; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\stackrel{-}{d}}_{min}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e signifies the average distance calculated for all events based on the total number of points (n) within the pattern; and A refers to the area of the study region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen R\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1, it indicates that the stone cave temple sites in Southern Shaanxi are randomly distributed;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen R\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1, it suggests that the stone cave temple sites in Southern Shaanxi exhibit a clustered distribution;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen R\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1, it implies that the stone cave temple sites in Southern Shaanxi have a dispersed distribution;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eKernel Density tool\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing the Kernel Density tool in ArcGIS, \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003ethe kernel density distribution map of the grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was obtained (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Kernel density analysis is a method that simulates the distribution of spatial point data continuously, using the kernel density values in spatial grids to reflect the distribution of points in space. The calculation formula is as follows:\u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$f\\left(x\\right)=\\frac{1}{n}{\\sum }_{i=1}^{n}\\frac{1}{r}K\\left(\\frac{X-{X}_{i}}{r}\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, f(x) is the kernel density value at any given point x in the space; r represents the search radius; X - Xi indicates the distance between point Xi and the central point X; n is the number of points required within a distance less than or equal to r from any arbitrary point X in the space; K is the spatial weight function.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStandard deviation ellipse\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe standard deviation ellipse\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e tool of ArcGIS software is analyze grottoes environment in different history periods. The standard deviation of X and y coordinates was calculated mainly by calculating the mean center in a certain area, so as to define the trend of X and Y coordinates, which was expressed as an elliptic axis. By analyzing the center of the ellipse, wheelbase separation and rotation Angle, the spatial distribution characteristics of the object are quantitatively analyzed. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eThe formula for calculating the standard deviation ellipse is as follows:\u003cdiv id=\"Equd\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equd\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${SDE}_{x}=\\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum _{i=1}^{n}{(xi-\\stackrel{-}{x})}^{2}}{n}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Eque\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Eque\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${SDE}_{y}=\\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum _{i=1}^{n}{(yi-\\stackrel{-}{y})}^{2}}{n}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, (xi, yi) denote the Cartesian coordinates of the ith grotto temple feature within the dataset, and n signifies the total count of all such features. The summation operator represents the calculation to determine the mean center for all the grotto temple features present in the dataset, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive understanding and quantification of their spatial distribution patterns.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eThe formula for calculating the rotational angle is as follows:\u003cdiv id=\"Equf\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equf\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\text{tan}\\theta =\\frac{A+B}{C}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equg\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equg\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\text{A}=\\left(\\sum _{i=1}^{\\text{n}}{{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{x}}}_{i}}^{2}-\\sum _{i=1}^{\\text{n}}{{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{y}}}_{i}}^{2}\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equh\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equh\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\text{B}=\\sqrt{{\\left(\\sum _{i=1}^{\\text{n}}{{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{x}}}_{i}}^{2}-\\sum _{i=1}^{\\text{n}}{{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{y}}}_{i}}^{2}\\right)+4\\left(\\sum _{i=1}^{\\text{n}}{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{x}}}_{i}{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{y}}}_{i}\\right)}^{2}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equi\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equi\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\text{C}=2\\sum _{i=1}^{\\text{n}}{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{x}}}_{i}{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{y}}}_{i}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{x}}}_{i}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e represents the mean center, and \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\({\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{y}}}_{i}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e denotes the difference between X and Y coordinates. The standard deviations along the X-axis and Y-axis are as follows:\u003cdiv id=\"Equj\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equj\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${\\sigma }_{x}=\\sqrt{2}\\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum _{i=1}^{\\text{n}}{\\left({\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{x}}}_{i}\\text{cos}\\theta -{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{y}}}_{i}\\text{sin}\\theta \\right)}^{2}}{n}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equk\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equk\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${\\sigma }_{y}=\\sqrt{2}\\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum _{i=1}^{\\text{n}}{\\left({\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{x}}}_{i}\\text{sin}\\theta -{\\stackrel{\\sim}{\\text{y}}}_{i}\\text{cos}\\theta \\right)}^{2}}{n}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the calculation results of the standard deviation ellipse, the long axis of the ellipse represents the direction of data distribution, while the short axis represents the range of data distribution. The greater the difference between the lengths of the long and short axes (the greater the flatness), the more apparent the directional tendency of the data. Conversely, if the long and short axes are closer in length, the directional tendency is less apparent. The short axis represents the range of data distribution; the shorter the short axis, the more apparent the centripetal force of the data, whereas the longer the short axis, the greater the degree of data dispersion. The center point indicates the central position of the entire dataset. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eThe rotation angle represents the dominant direction of the distribution, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Result","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3. Spatial Distribution Analysis of grotto temples in Southern Shaanxi Region\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpatial analysis methods help to enhance the understanding of spatial relationships among geographically-related data by establishing statistical connections through spatial positioning.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eRivers were one of the important considerations for ancient people in constructing grotto temples, with most sites built near rivers. The buffer analysis tool can construct a valley buffer model, overlaying the grotto temple sites in Southern Shaanxi with the valley buffer zones to analyze the interrelationship between site distribution and valleys.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eOverlaying grotto temple data with topographic data of the Southern Shaanxi region to explore the distribution direction and characteristics of grotto temples.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Elevation distribution of grotto temples\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBy acquiring DEM data for the Southern Shaanxi region and then importing it into ArcGIS software, elevation analysis overlay analysis from the Arc Toolbox was used to overlay the distribution map of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi with the topographic elevation map of Southern Shaanxi. It was found that there are 21 grotto sites within an elevation of 500 meters, 11 sites within 500\u0026ndash;1000 meters, 5 sites within 1000\u0026ndash;1500 meters, and 2 sites above 1500 meters. It was discovered that the distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi shows an overall decreasing trend as the elevation increases (as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Among them, a significant number of grottoes are concentrated within three elevation ranges: below 500 meters, 500\u0026ndash;1000 meters, and 1000\u0026ndash;1500 meters, accounting for 72.5% of the total. Specifically, grottoes below 500 meters in elevation are mainly distributed in the central region of Southern Shaanxi, those between 500\u0026ndash;1000 meters are primarily located in the northern region of Southern Shaanxi, and grottoes above 1500 meters are also concentrated in the northern region of Southern Shaanxi.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eElevation Statistics Table for grotto temples in Southern Shaanxi Region\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeriods\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSite Elevation/m\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e500\u0026ndash;1000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1000\u0026ndash;1500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWei-Jin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSui-Tang\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSong-Yuan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMing-Qing\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBased on the analysis of the above statistical table, grottoes are usually constructed in low mountain and hill areas, built at suitable mountain heights. If the terrain is too high, the limitations of ancient technology and economic development make it difficult to carry out construction activities; if the terrain is too low, it cannot meet the environmental conditions required for the construction of grotto-type cultural relics. This is because the construction of grottoes requires a beautiful, quiet environment with relatively lush vegetation, and low mountain and hill areas are also more suitable for human habitation and transportation.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eFrom a geological perspective, the Southern Shaanxi region is mountainous with argillaceous sandstone, and the Shangluo area also has thick layers of conglomerate and conglomeratic sandstone, all of which have well-developed vertical joints and are easy to carve. There are often rivers flowing in front of the cliffs, which is conducive to highlighting the Buddha statues and creating a solemn Buddhist atmosphere.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Distribution of Grotto Temples Based on Slope Gradient Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo reveal the slope distribution characteristics of grotto sites in Southern Shaanxi, GIS was used to analyze the study area, and slope data of grotto sites were extracted from the DEM of the Southern Shaanxi region. Slopes were divided into four categories according to the slope grading index: gentle slopes (0\u0026ndash;5\u0026deg;) and (5\u0026ndash;10\u0026deg;), moderate slopes (10\u0026ndash;15\u0026deg;) and (15\u0026ndash;20\u0026deg;), steep slopes (20\u0026ndash;25\u0026deg;), and very steep slopes (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;25\u0026deg;). Based on the above analysis, slope data of grotto sites distributed in Southern Shaanxi were extracted, and a slope distribution map of grottoes on different slopes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) was drawn. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eIt can be seen from the figure: there are 14 sites on moderate slopes, 13 sites on gentle slopes, and 9 sites on steep slopes. The largest number of grottoes, 14, accounting for 38.8% of the total, are distributed on moderate slopes, concentrated in the central Hanzhong, northwest of Ankang, and northeast of Shangluo; followed by gentle slopes with 13 sites, accounting for 36% of the total, scattered throughout the three cities; steep slopes have 9 sites, accounting for 25% of the total, concentrated in the northwest of Hanzhong, eastern Ankang, and southern Shangluo; there are no grotto temples distributed on very steep slopes. Generally, people choose to carve grotto temples on moderate and gentle slopes, and the analysis results are consistent with the actual situation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 The Spatial Distribution of Grottoes in Relation to River Networks\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDEM data for the Southern Shaanxi region were acquired, and hydrological analysis measurements from the Arc Toolbox were used to analyze the distance between rivers and grottoes in the Southern Shaanxi region (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). The results show that 90% of the grotto temples are within 3 kilometers of rivers, totaling 36 sites. Grottoes within 1 kilometer account for 70% of the total number of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi, with 28 sites, such as Lingyan Temple Grotto and Longmen Temple Grotto in Hanzhong, Buddha Cave Grotto and Thousand Buddha Cave Grotto in Ankang, and Fengguan Mountain Grotto in Shangluo, etc. The number of grotto temples decreases with increasing distance from the river. The main rivers in the Southern Shaanxi region are the Han River and Dan River, with grottoes distributed on both sides of the two river basins. For example, Shuigou River Grotto, Fengguan Mountain Grotto, Zhongshan Temple Grotto, and Shuiyue Cave Grotto are concentrated along the tributaries of the Dan River. Wanfo Temple Grotto, Luhukou Grotto, and Thousand Buddha Cave Grotto are concentrated along the Dan River.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSince ancient times, human life has been inseparable from rivers, with ancient cultural sites, villages, and towns from various periods all built along rivers. Rivers play a crucial role in human life.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003eGenerally, people choose locations close to but not immediately adjacent to rivers, typically within 3 kilometers. This choice balances the risk of flood disasters with the convenience of daily life, ensuring that losses are minimized in the event of natural disasters, while still conveniently utilizing river resources for agricultural production and domestic water use.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e Figure 2: Distribution of Caves Along River in Southern Shaanxi Region\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4. The Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Grotto Temples in Southern Shaanxi\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.1Analysis of Agglomeration Degree for the Distribution of grotto in Southern Shaanxi Region\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNearest Neighbor Distance Indices for Stone Caves in Southern Shaanxi Region during Different Historical Periods\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeriod\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean Observed Distance (km)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExpected Average Distance (km)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDifference (R)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZ-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003escore\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003evalue\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDistribution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSui-Tang\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.258\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.682\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eScattered\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSong-Yuan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.561\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.290\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eScattered\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMing-Qing\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.8155\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.482\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClustered\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.558\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.121\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClustered\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe calculation results show that there were no large-scale grottoes in the Southern Shaanxi region during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties; a dispersed distribution during the Sui and Tang Dynasties; a dispersed distribution during the Song and Yuan Dynasties; and a clustered distribution during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The spatial distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi shows a trend of clustering over historical periods, with a high degree of agglomeration.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom the map 3, it can be observed that the distribution density of grottoes in the region has the characteristic of being concentrated, presenting several core areas and multiple dot-like zones, generally showing a radial spread from multiple core areas outwards. Among these, the highest distribution density core area is located in Ankang and Shangluo cities; secondary core areas and dot-like dispersed areas are located in Hanzhong city. The distribution of grottoes in Ankang and Shangluo cities both exhibit characteristics of concentration, while the distribution characteristics of the existing grottoes in Hanzhong city include three concentrated areas as well as some dot-like dispersed distributions. The degrees of aggregation for different periods are summarized as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Sui and Tang Dynasties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuring the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the nearest neighbor distance index R for the distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was 1.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1, showing a dispersed distribution (Table \u003cspan\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). During this period, the grottoes were mainly concentrated in the areas of Hanzhong city and Shangluo city, with the most dense core area located in the central-eastern part of Ankang city. The distribution radiated outward from two core areas (Fig. \u003cspan\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. Song and Yuan Dynasties\u003c/p\u003eDuring the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the nearest neighbor distance index R for the distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was 6.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1, showing a dispersed distribution (Table \u003cspan\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In this period, a small number of grottoes appeared in Hanzhong city and Ankang city, significantly reduced from the previous period, with no grottoes appearing in Shangluo city, sparsely distributed in the western part of Hanzhong and within Ankang city (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003cbr\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMing and Qing Dynasties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuring the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the nearest neighbor distance index R for the distribution of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi was 0.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1, indicating a clustered distribution (Table \u003cspan\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Shangluo city had the densest distribution, significantly increasing from the previous period, while a small number of grottoes were clustered in the southeast part of Hanzhong and the eastern part of Ankang, showing a stronger degree of clustering compared to the previous two periods (Fig. \u003cspan\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ed).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThrough the analysis of the clustering degree of grottoes in Southern Shaanxi mentioned above, it is found that the excavation of grotto temples is closely related to the spread of Buddhism at that time. The Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties period marked the initial stage of grottoes in Shaanxi, with no clustered distribution of grottoes yet. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, influenced by Buddhism, Shaanxi began substantial cave excavations and sculpting, with Southern Shaanxi serving as an important area for various cultural exchanges and integrations due to its connection between Jingxiang and Bashu. Grotto temples emerged, clustering along the road from Chang\u0026apos;an to Sichuan. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, due to wars, the scope of grotto temples in Shaanxi gradually expanded, the number increased, and they began to exhibit clustered distributions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.2 The directional distribution of grottoes across different time periods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsing the standard deviation ellipse method, the distribution of the Shaanxi Southern Grottoes during different historical periods was analyzed. From the Sui and Tang Dynasties to the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the rotation angle of the standard deviation ellipse gradually decreased, and the distribution direction shifted from northwest to southeast to become more oriented towards the east-west direction. During this period, the Shaanxi Southern Grottoes exhibited a trend of contraction in the southwest-northeast direction and expansion in the west-east direction. From the Song and Yuan Dynasties to the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the rotation angle of the standard deviation ellipse continued to decrease, and the distribution direction shifted from west-east to southwest-northeast, further strengthening. During this period, the Shaanxi Southern Grottoes exhibited a trend of expansion in the north-south direction, with the eastern direction spreading from the eastern part of Ankang during the Song and Yuan Dynasties to the eastern part of Shangluo during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The directional distribution of the Shaanxi Southern Grottoes showed a trend of polarization followed by expansion throughout the entire historical period.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverlaying terrain data with standard deviation ellipses, we explore whether the distribution pattern and orientation of grottoes are related to terrain types. From the perspective of southern Shaanxi\u0026apos;s terrain, grottoes are mainly distributed in lower altitude areas, with the majority concentrated in low-altitude alluvial plains. The standard deviation ellipses established based on the classification of grotto sites by historical dynasties, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;5, indicate the following dimensions:For the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the Y-axis distance of the standard deviation ellipse is 30089, the X-axis distance is 146247, with the X-axis as the long axis and the Y-axis as the short axis;For the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the Y-axis distance of the standard deviation ellipse is 11949, the X-axis distance is 202792, with the X-axis as the long axis and the Y-axis as the short axis༛For the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the Y-axis distance of the standard deviation ellipse is 66472, the X-axis distance is 188006, with the X-axis as the long axis and the Y-axis as the short axis.All three dynasties\u0026apos; standard deviations exhibit the characteristic of having the X-axis as the long axis, indicating an overall spatial pattern of \u0026quot;northwest-southeast.\u0026quot; The distribution pattern of grottoes aligns with the flow direction of the Han River and Dan River, and coincides with the distribution pattern of low-altitude alluvial plains. This suggests that the distribution of grottoes is closely related to river valleys and is influenced by them.\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt is based on the analysis of the geographical environment of the grottoes distribution in southern Shaanxi Province, the elevation, distance from the river and slope of the grottoes distribution were analyzed with the nearest neighbor index and the concentration degree and the standard ellipse difference, it summarizes the geographical environment and distribution pattern of the grottoes in southern Shaanxi.The conclusion is as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1) The Southern Shaanxi Grottoes are mainly distributed in hilly areas, primarily below an elevation of 1000 meters, totaling 32 locations, such as Fengguan Mountain Grottoes, Zhongshan Temple Grottoes, and Shuiyue Cave Grottoes. Beyond 1000 meters, as the elevation increases, the number of grottoes gradually decreases. They are concentrated in the eastern and western parts of Southern Shaanxi, with fewer in the central region. Due to technological limitations in ancient times, it was challenging for people to engage in construction activities above an elevation of 1000 meters, while areas with lower terrain did not meet the environmental requirements for grotto temple construction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2)The Southern Shaanxi Grottoes are primarily constructed on middle slopes and gentle slopes, mainly within the range of 10\u0026deg;to 20\u0026deg;on middle slopes, totaling 14 locations. They are concentrated in the central part of Hanzhong, the northwest part of Ankang City, and the northeast region of Shangluo. Following this, there are 13 locations situated on flat slopes ranging from 0\u0026deg; to 10\u0026deg;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3)The site selection of Southern Shaanxi Grottoes mainly favors locations near rivers. Grotto temples within a distance of 1 kilometer from rivers account for 70%, such as Lingyan Temple Grottoes in Hanzhong, Fodong River Grottoes in Ankang, Qianfodong Grottoes, and Fengguan Mountain Grottoes in Shangluo, all situated near the Han River and the Luo River. As the distance increases, the number of grotto temples decreases, with approximately 90% of them located within 3 kilometers from rivers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(4)The distribution of Southern Shaanxi Grottoes exhibits temporal differences, primarily concentrating during the Ming dynastiesand Qing dynasties.The development of Chan Buddhism in Southern Shaanxi further advanced during the Ming and Qing periods, Promote popular belief, especially folk belief in Guanyin, coinciding with the relative prosperity of the region's economy, The government embedded a large number of immigrants of Sichuan, which greatly facilitated the development of grottoes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGrotto Temple is a cultural heritage. Commissioned by Social Sciences of Shaanxi, China. The paper studies the distribution of grottoes heritage in Shaanxi, and is committed to the protection of grottoes culture.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the Shaanxi Social Science Foundation of China: Study on the environment and\u0026nbsp;art of Grotto temple in Shaanxi from the perspective of historical\u0026nbsp;geography (2022J074)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZHJ wrote the main manuscript text. HXH analysis formula, data and management, prepared figures1-4 and table1-2. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data presented in this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that the article have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrespondence\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZhang Jing [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eXi\u0026apos;an University of Technology, School of Art and Design, Xi\u0026apos;an, China 710048\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGong Yuchen, Wang Lele, Wang Jinhua. A Study on the Temporal and Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Chinese Stone Caves Based on ArcGIS Geographic Information System Analysis[J]. 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Heritage Science 11.1(2023):165-180\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Southern Shaanxi Region, grotto temples, Spatial Distribution, Cultural Heritage","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4235135/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4235135/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eGrottoes Temple is a kind of immovable material cultural heritage, Inclding architecture, sculptures and murals, which not only contains rich history and culture, but also expresses the spiritual civilization of mankind and the route of Buddhist transmission, and the distribution of grottoes also has many relations with the geographical environment. At present, 178 grottoes temples are distributed in southern Shaanxi. This paper analyzes the excavation environment of southern Shaanxi Grottoes by using 1:200,000 geological data sets and 30m resolution DEM(digital elevation model) topographic data. Secondly, the nuclear density analysis and standard deviation ellipse method are used to analyze the gathering degree of cave temple cultural sites and the distribution direction and pattern of cave temples in the study area, and discuss the distribution characteristics and spatiotemporal evolution model of the grottoes in southern Shaanxi. The final results include the following contents: (1) The distribution of grotto temples in southern Shaanxi is related to topography and geomorphology, mainly built on cliffs, the elevation is mainly below 1000m. As the elevation increases, the number of grottoes decreases. (2) The grotto temples of southern Shaanxi are mainly located near the river. The distribution pattern of grottoes is consistent with the direction of river gully. (3)The grottoes in southern Shaanxi are distributed unbalanced, due to geographical reasons, mainly distributed in Shangluo and Ankang areas.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Research on the spatial distribution and Geographical Environmental of Grotto Temples in Southern Shaanxi of China by ArcGIS","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-11 15:29:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4235135/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1e6033dd-e755-4d35-995c-c651215fb2f2","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 11th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-04-18T14:35:29+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-11 15:29:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4235135","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4235135","identity":"rs-4235135","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}