Infrared Drying of Bocaiuva (Acrocomia Aculeata) Slices: Drying Kinetics, Energy Consumption, and Quality Characteristics

Infrared Drying of Bocaiuva (Acrocomia Aculeata) Slices: Drying Kinetics, Energy Consumption, and Quality Characteristics | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Infrared Drying of Bocaiuva (Acrocomia Aculeata) Slices: Drying Kinetics, Energy Consumption, and Quality Characteristics João Renato Jesus Junqueira, Juliana Rodrigues Carmo, Luciana Miyagusku, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4176196/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Bocaiuva is the fruit of the palm tree Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd, native to various regions of Brazil, particularly in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes. However, its commercialization is hindered by its fibrous nature and short shelf life, leading to post-harvest losses. This study aimed to obtain bocaiuva slices at different infrared drying temperatures (60, 70 and 80 ºC). It was found that a shortening in the drying time at 80 ºC caused an increase in the drying rate. Fick’s second law and Page’s equation were suitable for describing the process behavior. The thermodynamics and energetic analysis demonstrated higher energy efficiency at 80 ºC. Lower temperature (60 ºC) promoted lower total color difference and hygroscopicity, and higher volumetric shrinkage. The results suggested that IRD at 80 ºC was able to produce bocaiuva slices with suitable physical characteristics. Furthermore, the production of dried bocaiuva contributes to the regional development of the Cerrado biome, thereby enhancing the bioeconomy. Emerging Technologies Bioeconomy Cerrado biome Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1 INTRODUCTION The state of Mato Grosso do Sul boasts a rich diversity of native species, necessitating techniques that promote the valorization and preservation of its biomes, notably the Cerrado and Pantanal. Among these species is the Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd, a native palm found predominantly in the central region of Brazil, particularly in the Cerrado and Pantanal. The economic significance of this plant stems from the commercialization of its fruits, renowned for their edibility and utility in oil extraction, while also holding cultural and environmental importance (Bortolotto et al., 2021 ; Munhoz et al., 2013 ). Referred to as bocaiuva, macaúba , or coco-de-espinho , the fruits of this palm exhibit considerable nutritional potential, serving as a natural source of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and bioactive compounds. However, owing to their seasonality and perishable nature, it becomes imperative to employ techniques that prolong the shelf life of bocaiuva fruits while retaining their inherent characteristics. Processes aimed at reducing moisture content in the fruits can yield value-added products and enhance stability (Correia et al., 2022 ; V. M. da Silva et al., 2018 ). Infrared drying (IRD) emerges as a viable method for preserving bocaiuva fruits. This technique offers faster drying rates, improved heat transfer coefficients, and enhanced energy efficiency, resulting in reduced processing times. In IRD, radiation energy within the wavelength range of 0.78 to 1000 µm is converted into heat, facilitating moisture removal from the fruits. Notably, infrared energy is selectively transferred from the heat source to the sample, expediting heating while minimizing heat dispersion to the surroundings (Delfiya et al., 2022 ; Sakare et al., 2020 ; Salehi, 2020 ). In the literature, IRD has recently studied in foods and agricultural products such as: ginger (Osae et al., 2020 ), kiwifruit (Lyu et al., 2017 ), pears (Araujo et al., 2021 ), bitter melon (Akhoundzadeh Yamchi et al., 2023 ), okra (El-Mesery et al., 2023 ) among others. To our knowledge, no study was conducted for a native Cerrado fruit. This technology yields promising results; nevertheless, its implementation is confined to pilot scale and laboratory settings, necessitating comprehensive energy and feasibility assessments for its viability on an industrial scale. In this sense, the objective of this study was to analyze the quality of bocaiuva slices submitted to IRD observing the influence of different temperatures with respect to drying kinetics, mathematical modeling, thermodynamics, energetic and physical analyses. 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Fruit characterization The fruits of bocaiuva ( Acrocomia aculeata ) were obtained from a local producer (La Lima Village, Miranda, Campo Grande state, Brazil). The fruits were selected, washed, and sanitized, then removing the epicarp and endocarp manually. Samples were prepared with mesocarp slices, that were cut (2.50 ± 0.10 cm length × 1.00 ± 0.05 cm width × 0.25 ± 0.05 cm thick), with the aid of a stainless steel knife and stored under freezing (-18 ºC ± 1 ºC). Prior the experiments, the samples were thawed under refrigeration (4°C ± 1 ºC) during 12 h, followed by room temperature until thermal balance (25°C ± 1 ºC). The initial moisture content was 0.622 ± 0.012 kg of water/kg sample (wet basis, w.b.), determined by drying in an oven at 105 ºC until constant weight (AOAC, 2016). Total soluble solids (Abbè refractometer, Tecnal RL3, Brazil) pH analysis (HANNA pHmeter pH21, Brazil), and total titratable acidity by volume potentiometric measurements were also performed for the fruit characterization (Instituto Adolfo Lutz, 2008). The soluble solids content was 0.032 ± 0.002 kg solid/kg product, and the pH was 6.45 ± 0.06. The acidity total titratable was 0.313 ± 0.007 g of citric acid/ kg product. 2.2 Infrared drying experiments The drying process took place using an infrared radiation dryer (Model IV 2500, Gehaka, São Paulo, Brazil). Each batch involved drying 0.020 kg of fresh fruits. The experiments continued until reaching an average final moisture content of 0.150 ± 0.01 kg of water/kg sample (w.b.). During the drying, the mass of the samples was monitored using a digital balance coupled to the equipment (accuracy ± 0.01 g). The radiation source (infrared power of 300 W) was located at a fixed distance of approximately 0.10 m from the samples. The moisture content of the samples throughout the drying process was assessed gravimetrically by comparing the initial moisture content of the sample (before the drying) with its mass at each time interval. 2.3 Mathematical modeling The experimental results obtained were fitted using drying equations. The moisture ratio (MR) of the samples was calculated using the Eq. 1. $$MR=\frac{{{X_t}\; - \,{X_e}}}{{{X_0}\; - \;{X_e}}}\;$$ 1 where MR is the moisture ratio [dimensionless], X t is the moisture content at a specific time [kg water/kg], X 0 is the initial moisture content [kg water/kg] and X e is the moisture content under equilibrium conditions [kg water/kg]. The drying rate (DR) of the bocaiuva slices was calculated using Eq. 2 $$DR=\frac{{{X_{t+dt}}\; - \,{X_t}}}{{{d_t}}}\;$$ 2 where DR is drying rate [kg water/ (kg × min)], t is time [min] and dt is time increase [min]. The effective diffusivity (D eff ) was derived from the analytical solution of Fick's second law under unsteady-state conditions, as represented by Eq. 3: $$\frac{{\partial {X_t}}}{{\partial t}}\,=\,{D_{eff}}{\nabla ^2}{X_t}$$ 3 where D eff is the effective diffusivity [m 2 /s]. The solution to Eq. 3 is obtained using the Fourier series, assuming: Uniform initial moisture content moisture concentration symmetry \(\left. {{\raise0.7ex\hbox{${\partial {X_t}}$} \!\mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {{\partial {X_t}} {\partial t}}}\right.\kern-0pt}\!\lower0.7ex\hbox{${\partial t}$}}} \right|{\,_{_{{\mathop {_{{z=0}}}\limits_{{}} }}}}=0\); equilibrium content at the surface,\(X(L,t)=\,{X_e}\); the samples are infinite slabs, and shrinkage and external resistance to mass transfer are neglected. Considering an unidirectional moisture diffusion, the D eff was calculated according to Eq. 4 $$MR\,=\,\left( {\frac{8}{{{\pi ^2}}}\sum\limits_{{i=0}}^{\infty } {\frac{1}{{{{(2i+1)}^2}}}\,\exp \,\left( { - {{(2i+1)}^2}{\pi ^2}{D_{eff}}\frac{t}{{4{L^2}}}} \right)} } \right)$$ 4 where L is the characteristic length (half of the thickness). The activation energy, governing the relationship between D eff values and temperature dependence, is characterized by an Arrhenius-type correlation, as expressed by Eq. 5 \({D_{eff}}={D_0} \times \exp \left( { - \frac{{{E_a}}}{{RT}}} \right)\) (5) where D 0 is the pre-exponential factor of the Arrhenius equation [m 2 /s]; E a is the activation energy [kJ/mol]; R is the universal gas constant [8.314×10 − 3 kJ / (mol× K)] and T is the IRD temperature [K]. The Eq. (5) can be linearized into the form of Eq. (6): $$\ln {D_{eff}}=\ln {D_0} - \frac{{{E_a}}}{{RT}}$$ 6 E a can be calculated with the slope of the Eq. 6 by plotting ln D eff as a function of 1/T (Oliveira et al., 2021). The Page’s equation (Eq. 7) was used describe the drying kinetics of agricultural products (Page, 1949). $$MR\,=\,\exp \left( { - k{t^n}} \right)$$ 7 Where k is the drying rate [1 / s] ; n is the unit coefficient [dimensionless]. 2.4 Thermodynamic parameters and Energetic Analysis The E a value allowed determination of different thermodynamic parameters such as the enthalpy (ΔH), the entropy (ΔS), and the free energy (ΔG), according to the Equations 8–10 (Jideani & Mpotokwana, 2009). $$\Delta H={E_a} - RT$$ 8 $$\Delta S=R\left( {\ln {D_0} - \ln \left( {\frac{{{k_B}}}{{{h_P}}}} \right) - \ln {\kern 1pt} T} \right)$$ 9 $$\Delta G=\Delta H - T\Delta S$$ 10 where k B indicates the Boltzmann constant (1.38×10 − 23 J/K) and h p represents the Planck constant (6.626×10 − 34 J×s). Assessing energy consumption contributes to the cost-effective operation and advancement of energy-efficient drying systems (Delfiya et al., 2022). The specific energy consumption (SEC) was obtained as the consumed energy [kJ] for the removal of 1.0 kg water from the sample, according to Eq. 11 (Zhang et al., 2021): $$SEC=\frac{{P \times t \times {{10}^{ - 6}}}}{{{m_{ev}}}}$$ 11 where SEC is specific energy consumption [MJ/ kg water ], P is the infrared power [W] and m ev is the total mass of water removal during the drying [kg]. 2.6 Quality analyses All the following analyses were performed in triplicate (at least), in either dried and fresh samples. 2.6.1 Color Parameters Color parameters were measured using a colorimeter (CM-2600D model, Konica Minolta). The parameters recorded L * , a * , and b * were quantified for each sample. These color parameters were used to calculate the total color difference (ΔE) (Eq. 12). Six samples were evaluated for each treatment. $$\Delta E=\sqrt {{{\left( {L - {L_0}} \right)}^2}+{{(a - {a_0})}^2}+{{(b - {b_0})}^2}}$$ 12 where L * indicates the lightness (100 for white to 0 for black), a * indicates red when positive and green when negative, and b * indicates yellow when positive and blue when negative. The subscript ‘0’ denotes the color parameters of the fresh fruit. 2.6.2 Volumetric Shrinkage The volume (V) of the bocaiuva samples was determined by averaging three measurements of the fruit dimensions along the corresponding coordinate axes, using a calibrated digital caliper (Western, DC-6 model, China). Five samples were assessed for each treatment during the drying process. Volumetric shrinkage was calculated as the ratio of the dried fruit volume (V t ) to the initial fruit volume (V 0 ) (Junqueira et al., 2018). 2.6.3 Rehydration The dried fruits were submerged in distilled water at 25°C for 20 hours to determine their rehydration capacity (RC). After the drying, three dehydrated samples were submitted to rehydration (Badwaik et al., 2014). The RC was calculated as the ratio between the weight of the dried sample and the weight of the fresh samples. 2.6.4 Hygroscopicity Approximately 1.0 g of the sample was placed in an airtight desiccator filled with saturated solution of NaCl (75% RH) and stored at 25 ± 1°C for seven days (Ng & Sulaiman, 2018). Subsequently, the samples were weighed, and the absorbed moisture was expressed in grams per 100 grams of dry solids. The difference in weight of dried was calculated to determine its hygroscopicity. 2.7 Statistical analyses The results were analyzed using Statistica software (Statistica 8.0, Statsoft Inc., Tulsa, UK). For the statistical evaluation of the mathematical modeling, the coefficient of determination (R 2 ), root mean square error (RMSE), and reduced chi-square (χ 2 ), were used to determine the quality of the adjustment. Higher R 2 and lower RMSE and χ 2 values indicated better adjustment (Babu et al., 2018). The quality analysis results underwent evaluation through one-way ANOVA at a 95% confidence level. If significant effects were observed (p < 0.05), mean comparisons were conducted using the Tukey test. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Drying kinetics Figure 1 shows the drying kinetics of bocaiuva slices during the IRD. The duration for the samples to attain a final moisture content of 0.150 ± 0.01 kg of water/kg sample (w.b.) ranged from 160 minutes at 80°C to 280 minutes at 60°C. As expected, lower drying time was observed in the treatments at higher temperature (Fig. 1 ). As the drying temperature rises, both internal and external resistance to moisture removal diminishes. This phenomenon is associated with the augmentation of water molecule mobility, an increase in the driving force, and consequently, a heightened vapor pressure that facilitates the evaporation of moisture from the product's interior to its surface (Araújo et al., 2020 ; Elhussein & Şahin, 2018 ; Turan & Firatligil, 2019 ). Similar reports were presented by Rodríguez-Ramos et al. (Rodríguez-Ramos et al., 2021 ) during the convective drying of Salicornia fruticosa . In this study, comparing the treatments at different temperatures, a reduction in drying time of approximately 50% was observed, comparing 70 and 50 ºC. Such a reduction in the drying period at higher temperatures were also reported by Ju et al. (Ju et al., 2020 ) during the convective drying of American ginseng root ( Panax quinquefolium ) at 45–60°C and by Bakhara et al. (Bakhara et al., 2018 ) during osmo-convective of tender jackfruit slices at 50–70°C. Figure 2 - The drying rate of bocaiuva slices versus moisture content in different IRD treatments According to Fig. 2 , maximum drying occurred at the initial stages of the process, characterized by high moisture content in the fruits, leading to elevated drying rates. As the process progressed, the treatments entered the falling rate period, indicating that diffusion mass transfer governs the drying process. During agricultural food drying, the absence of a constant drying rate period has been reported by several authors (Babu et al., 2018 ; Junqueira et al., 2021 ; Ovando-Medina, 2023 ). It was also observed higher drying rates at 80 ºC (Fig. 2 ). Babu et al. (Babu et al., 2018 ) pointed that an elevation in temperature leads to a decrease in drying time. Consequently, a greater gradient in both moisture and heat is achieved, resulting in an increased drying rate. Junqueira et al. (Junqueira et al., 2021 ) observed that taioba leaves dried at higher temperatures presented higher drying rates (lower drying periods). 3.2 Mathematical modeling Table 1 presents the effective diffusivities (Deff) of bocaiuva slices during IRD, calculated based on Fick’s diffusion theory. The D eff values ranged from 4.53 × 10 − 11 to 9.38 × 10 − 11 m 2 /s. The results showed that R 2 values were greater than 0.97, and RMSE and χ 2 values were lower than 0.07 and 0.005, respectively. These values presented analogous magnitude orders than those observed for IRD (Delfiya et al., 2022 ). Table 1 Effective diffusivity of bocaiuva slices during IRD at different temperatures Temperature D eff [m²/s] ×10 11 R² RMSE ×10 2 χ² ×10 3 60 ºC 4.53 0.973 6.46 4.32 70 ºC 6.95 0.971 6.98 5.13 80 ºC 9.38 0.975 6.62 4.64 According to Table 1 , an increase in the temperature process promoted an increase in the D eff . Araujo et al. (Araujo et al., 2021 ) observed similar behavior during IRD of pear slices (50–100 ºC) and pointed that the temperature enhancement leads to alterations in the physical properties of fluids, including viscosity and the molecular vibration of water and air molecules. D eff values of various food products during IRD are reported in many literatures, for example, 2.89–12.23 × 10 − 10 m 2 /s for okra (El-Mesery et al., 2023 ), 1.14–3.08 ×10 − 9 m 2 /s for black mulberry (Doymaz & Kipcak, 2019 ), 6.97–8.96 ×10 − 9 m 2 /s for dill leaves (Tezcan et al., 2021 ), 1.53–3.23 × 10 − 10 m 2 /s for piquin pepper (Ovando-Medina, 2023 ), and 1.15–8.96 ×10 − 9 m 2 /s for pears (Araujo et al., 2021 ). The disparities observed in D eff values are attributed to factors such as material thickness and composition, IR power, drying temperature, distance between the IR heater and the sample, among others (Sakare et al., 2020 ). The commencement of the moisture diffusion from the inside to the outside of bocaiuva slices requires energy, which is expressed as E a . This parameter was calculated using the Arrhenius equation (Eq. 6 ) and was found as 35.69 kJ/mol. This value represents the energy required to achieve the D eff (Balzarini et al., 2018 ; Kamble et al., 2022 ). The determined values of activation energy present the range of many food products during the drying such as lemon basil leaves (32.35 kJ/mol) (Mbegbu et al., 2021 ), piquin pepper (38.81 kJ/mol) (Ovando-Medina, 2023 ), potato slices (25.35–36.17 kJ/mol) (Singh & Talukdar, 2019 ), yam slices (10.59–54.93 kJ/mol) (Ojediran et al., 2020 ) and orange slices (18.64–32.88 kJ/mol) (Bozkir, 2020 ) in different conditions. The statistical results of the modeling with Page’s equation are presented in the Table 3 . Table 2 Effect of drying temperature on Page’ equation regression parameters Temperature k n R 2 RMSE ×10 3 χ² ×10 5 60 ºC 4.82 × 10 − 5 1.12 0.999 3.17 1.08 70 ºC 5.84 × 10 − 5 1.17 0.999 5.59 3.09 80 ºC 7.29 × 10 − 5 1.16 0.999 7.05 5.57 As indicated in Table 2 , the drying constant “k” parameter exhibited an increase with the rise in IRD temperature. This finding aligns with the D eff values, wherein faster drying (Fig. 1 ) corresponded to higher diffusivity (Table 1 ). The adjustment parameter “n” ranged from 1.12 to 1.17, presenting similar values (Table 2 ). No trend was observed. The results showed statistical values of R 2 greater than 0.99 and lower RMSE and χ² values. This suggests the suitability of this equation for depicting the drying behavior. Recently, this model was successfully used for describing the IRD of black mulberry (Doymaz & Kipcak, 2019 ), ginger (Osae et al., 2020 ) and turmeric (Jeevarathinam et al., 2022 ). 3.3 Thermodynamic properties and Energetic Analysis Table 5 shows the thermodynamic functions including enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs free energy, and specific energy consumption under various IRD temperatures. Table 3 Thermodynamic properties and energetic consumption of bocaiuva slices during IRD Temperature ΔH [kJ/mol] ΔS [kJ/mol×K] ΔG [kJ/mol] SEC [MJ/kg water ] 60 ºC 32.93 -336.56 145.05 448.79 70 ºC 32.84 -336.80 148.42 311.42 80 ºC 32.76 -337.04 151.79 243.24 According to Table 3 , minor differences were noted in the thermodynamic properties. Furthermore, enthalpy and entropy decreased with increasing IRD temperature, while the Gibbs free energy showed an increase. The higher enthalpy change (ΔH) value, the stronger the water is attached to the product, and more energy are required to separate water from the product over the course of the drying process (Akhoundzadeh Yamchi et al., 2023 ). Positive enthalpy values indicate endergonic reactions, implying that drying at a higher temperature requires less energy to separate the water attached to the product. Similar magnitude order values were observed during the IRD of bitter melon (28.83–36.06 kJ/mol), without pretreatments (Akhoundzadeh Yamchi et al., 2023 ). The ΔS presented similar behavior of ΔH, with values being reduced with the increase in IRD temperature (Table 3 ). The reduction in the moisture content throughout the drying process, hinders the movement of water molecules. Enhancing the IRD temperature results in an increase in the partial pressure of water vapor within the product, consequently elevating the excitation of water molecules. This, in turn, accelerates the diffusion process rate (El-Mesery et al., 2023 ). According to Silva et al. (E. K. Silva et al., 2014 ), negative ΔS values are attributed to the presence of chemical adsorption and/or structural modifications of the adsorbent occurring during the process. Studying the drying (40–80 ºC) of azuki beans, Almeida et al. (Almeida et al., 2020 ) obtained ΔS ranging from − 339 kJ/mol×K to -340 kJ/mol×K. ΔG showed positive values for all treatments, and increased with increasing IRD temperature, ranging from 145.05 (60°C) to 151.79 kJ/mol (80°C), indicating a non-spontaneous process. Hence, it is essential to supply thermal energy for these processes to occur. The SEC reduced with an increase in IRD temperature (Table 3 ). Such a results are related to the higher temperature gradient, which reduces the total drying time (Fig. 1 ) and favors the energy save, since the energy spent on the evaporation process decreases. According to the Eq. 9 , the higher time process, the higher energy consumption (Çelen, 2019 ; Junqueira et al., 2022 ). The findings of this study was in agreement with Sa-Adchom (Sa-Adchom, 2023 ). He investigated the impact of far-infrared radiation in conjunction with a belt conveyor system during the drying of tamarind foam-mats and observed a decrease in the specific energy consumption (SEC) in treatments with higher power levels (resulting in shorter drying periods). During Mentha spicata IRD, Hazervazifeh et al. (Hazervazifeh & A. Moghaddam, 2024 ) observed that increasing the drying temperature reduces the SEC. The lowest (42.23 MJ/g water ) and the highest (67.19 MJ/g water ) values of SEC were observed at 70 and 50 ºC, respectively. 3.5 Quality parameters The color characteristics of bocaiuva slices during IRD are presented in the Table 4 Table 4 – Color parameters of bocaiuva slices during IRD at different temperatures Temperature L * a * b * ΔE 60 ºC 39.14 ± 2.66 a 11.67 ± 1.58 a 41.23 ± 1.35 a 3.71 ± 0.29 a 70 ºC 48.87 ± 2.46 c 11.27 ± 0.78 a 47.78 ± 1.15 b 9.66 ± 0.39 b 80 ºC 43.70 ± 1.50 b 11.98 ± 1.63 a 47.62 ± 1.78 b 11.09 ± 0.56 b Average value ± standard deviation. Mean followed by different letters in the same column indicate a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05), according to Tukey’s test. The fresh bocaiuva presented the color characteristics: L * = 41.76 ± 1.93; a * = 10.16 ± 1.78; and b * = 46.56 ± 2.86. The parameters L * and b * were significantly affected by the IRD temperature (Table 4 ) (p ≤ 0.05). We observed an increase in L * , b * and ΔE, at higher drying temperature. The samples dried at 60 ºC, presented color characteristics darker and “less yellowness”, which may indicate browning reactions. The higher drying process time (40% higher than 70 ºC and 75% higher than 80 ºC) at this temperature, intensified contact of the sensible compounds, such as pigments (carotenoids), with oxygen and heat occurs, thereby promoting oxidation, which ultimately results in color changes (Macedo et al., 2021 ). As presented in the Table 4 , significative difference (p ≤ 0.05) was observed for the ΔE. Color differences can be categorized as follows: small differences (ΔE < 1.5), distinct differences (1.5 < ΔE 3) (Pathare et al., 2013 ). According to this assessment, all treatments exhibit very distinct color characteristics compared to the fresh fruit. During vacuum drying of yacon, Oliveira et al. (Oliveira et al., 2021 ) observed higher ΔE at higher temperatures. Similar findings were reported during of kiwifruit with/without osmotic dehydration under IRD (Lyu et al., 2017 ). Table 5 shows physical analyses of the bocaiuva slices during IRD. Table 5 – Physical analyses of bocaiuva slices during IRD at different temperatures Temperature Shrinkage [ - ] Rehydration [%] Hygroscopicity [g/100 g − 1 ] 60 ºC 0.620 ± 0.065 a 279 ± 23 a 13.807 ± 0.236 a 70 ºC 0.533 ± 0.055 ab 281 ± 41 a 15.977 ± 1.576 a 80 ºC 0.460 ± 0.010 b 289 ± 43 a 19.407 ± 1.427 b Average value ± standard deviation. Mean followed by different letters in the same column indicate a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05), according to Tukey’s test. According to Table 5 , it was observed significant difference between the treatments on the shrinkage parameter (p ≤ 0.05). The closer the value is to unity, the greater the sample shrinkage, resulting in lower preservation of the physical and structural characteristics of the dried bocaiuva. This phenomenon is associated with changes in cell shape (Junqueira et al., 2017 ). Lower shrinkage was observed at higher temperatures (Table 5 ). IRD induces a reduction in moisture content, thereby decreasing the tension exerted by liquid (water) against the cell wall. This can lead to a pressure imbalance between the interior and exterior of the tissues. It is pressure difference can cause ruptures and collapses to the structure of the material, and, therefore, shrinkage is observed (Rojas & Augusto, 2018 ). Akbarian et al. (Akbarian et al., 2014 ) concluded that shrinkage is increased with increasing drying time. During the convective drying of hawthorn fruit, Aral and Beşe (Aral & Beşe, 2016 ) observed that the shrinkage decreased with increasing air temperature. The ANOVA revealed no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the rehydration of the dried bocaiuva (Table 5 ). The removal of water during IRD results in cell damage, leading to a gradual breakdown in tissue organization. This affects the ability of semi-permeable membranes to act as a barrier to water diffusion (Junqueira et al., 2017 ). The reduced process leads to the creation of a porous structure which increases the ability to absorb the water during the rehydration (Taghian Dinani & Havet, 2015 ). However, in this study, such a difference was not observed for this parameter. Probable the fibrous structure of the bocaiuva (Munhoz et al., 2013 ) aided the water absorption, regardless the temperature treatment. During the drying of lettuce in different drying treatments (hot air, infrared, microwave-assisted hot air and hot air-assisted radio frequency), Roknul et al. (Roknul et al., 2014 ) observed rehydration capacity values ranging from 14.85–18.89%. Those authors reported slight differences in this parameter, although there was a significant difference in the duration of the process. According to Russo et al. (Russo et al., 2013 ), several factors affect the structure of the dried samples, thereby influencing water uptake during rehydration. During the drying of eggplants, those authors observed that samples dried at 40, 50 and 60°C show similar rehydration kinetics with a weight gain of about 500%. Table 5 presents the hygroscopicity of the samples, and a significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) was observed between the treatments. The bocaiuva slices dried at 60 and 70 ºC, presented lower hygroscopicity values (p ≤ 0.05). It is desirable for dried fruits to exhibit low hygroscopicity, indicating minimal water absorption from the environment. (Macedo et al., 2021 ). During the drying of soursop pulp, Cavalcante et al. (Cavalcante et al., 2017 ) observed that higher drying temperatures resulted in powders that exhibited greater ease in adsorbing water. This phenomenon is associated with the increased concentration gradient of water between the samples and the air. During the drying of kinui (mango), in different drying methods, Shuen et al. (Shuen et al., 2021 ) obtained hygroscopicity ranging from 18.66% (convective drying) to 22.41% (spray dryer). 4 CONCLUSION The production and consumption of native fruits from the Cerrado have been experiencing significant growth, contributing to the social development of the State of Mato Grosso do Sul. In this study, we investigated the effects of different IRD temperatures on the drying kinetics, mathematical modeling, thermodynamics, energetic, and physical analyses of dried bocaiuva slices. Higher temperature (80 ºC) leads to shorter drying times, higher drying rate, and effective diffusivity. The Page’s model described the process behavior (R² > 0.999) accurately. Slights differences were observed in the thermodynamics properties. At 80 °C, higher total color difference and hygroscopicity were observed. At 60 ºC, higher specific energy consumption and shrinkage was obtained. Interest in native fruits has surged due to their economic potential for use in various products, thereby adding value and fostering the development of new goods. This supports the advancement of the bioeconomy. Declarations CRediT authorship contribution statement João Renato de Jesus Junqueira: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Juliana Rodrigues do Carmo: Writing – review & editing, Data curation, Investigation. Luciana Miyagusku: Methodology, Data curation. Thaisa Carvalho Volpe Balbinoti: Methodology, Data curation. Reinaldo Farias Paiva de Lucena: Supervision, Project administration. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Acknowledgements This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001. 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Foods , 10 (5). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10050992 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 29 Apr, 2024 Reviews received at journal 29 Apr, 2024 Reviews received at journal 15 Apr, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Apr, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Apr, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 13 Apr, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Apr, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 12 Apr, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 10 Apr, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 10 Apr, 2024 First submitted to journal 27 Mar, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4176196","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":291079717,"identity":"b3fdb173-d1c4-4903-bcd9-0a5e90648901","order_by":0,"name":"João Renato Jesus Junqueira","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYQyQPhHGBgsGFgB4owk6IljYHnAAEt6OAwYS3M7c0PHzDIHM7ju5F88HBFzfnEHrHjD5gL9+BxWM8xYwMGnsPFkjfSEg6eOXY7sUc6x4B5xjM8WmYkmEkAtSRuuJFjcLCB7XbifukcBmaQ63BrSf8G1ZL/4WDDv3NAW9IfENCSA7eF4WBj2wGglgQD/Fp6zhQbJPCkJ84888zgYGNfsjHIL4dn4NFi2N6+8cHHHuvEvuPJjz82fLOTBTrs4eMCfFoagERiDwM4HuEAjwYGBnkw+YOQslEwCkbBKBjRAABRRVtES9hrtwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul/UFMS, FACFAN –, Campo Grande - 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Among these species is the \u003cem\u003eAcrocomia aculeata\u003c/em\u003e (Jacq.) Lodd, a native palm found predominantly in the central region of Brazil, particularly in the Cerrado and Pantanal. The economic significance of this plant stems from the commercialization of its fruits, renowned for their edibility and utility in oil extraction, while also holding cultural and environmental importance (Bortolotto et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Munhoz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferred to as bocaiuva, \u003cem\u003emaca\u0026uacute;ba\u003c/em\u003e, or \u003cem\u003ecoco-de-espinho\u003c/em\u003e, the fruits of this palm exhibit considerable nutritional potential, serving as a natural source of vitamins, minerals, fiber, and bioactive compounds. However, owing to their seasonality and perishable nature, it becomes imperative to employ techniques that prolong the shelf life of bocaiuva fruits while retaining their inherent characteristics. Processes aimed at reducing moisture content in the fruits can yield value-added products and enhance stability (Correia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; V. M. da Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfrared drying (IRD) emerges as a viable method for preserving bocaiuva fruits. This technique offers faster drying rates, improved heat transfer coefficients, and enhanced energy efficiency, resulting in reduced processing times. In IRD, radiation energy within the wavelength range of 0.78 to 1000 \u0026micro;m is converted into heat, facilitating moisture removal from the fruits. Notably, infrared energy is selectively transferred from the heat source to the sample, expediting heating while minimizing heat dispersion to the surroundings (Delfiya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Sakare et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Salehi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the literature, IRD has recently studied in foods and agricultural products such as: ginger (Osae et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), kiwifruit (Lyu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), pears (Araujo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), bitter melon (Akhoundzadeh Yamchi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), okra (El-Mesery et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) among others. To our knowledge, no study was conducted for a native Cerrado fruit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis technology yields promising results; nevertheless, its implementation is confined to pilot scale and laboratory settings, necessitating comprehensive energy and feasibility assessments for its viability on an industrial scale. In this sense, the objective of this study was to analyze the quality of bocaiuva slices submitted to IRD observing the influence of different temperatures with respect to drying kinetics, mathematical modeling, thermodynamics, energetic and physical analyses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Fruit characterization\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe fruits of bocaiuva (\u003cem\u003eAcrocomia aculeata\u003c/em\u003e) were obtained from a local producer (La Lima Village, Miranda, Campo Grande state, Brazil). The fruits were selected, washed, and sanitized, then removing the epicarp and endocarp manually. Samples were prepared with mesocarp slices, that were cut (2.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10 cm length \u0026times; 1.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 cm width \u0026times; 0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 cm thick), with the aid of a stainless steel knife and stored under freezing (-18 \u0026ordm;C\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1 \u0026ordm;C).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrior the experiments, the samples were thawed under refrigeration (4\u0026deg;C\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1 \u0026ordm;C) during 12 h, followed by room temperature until thermal balance (25\u0026deg;C\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1 \u0026ordm;C). The initial moisture content was 0.622\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.012 kg of water/kg sample (wet basis, w.b.), determined by drying in an oven at 105 \u0026ordm;C until constant weight (AOAC, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal soluble solids (Abb\u0026egrave; refractometer, Tecnal RL3, Brazil) pH analysis (HANNA pHmeter pH21, Brazil), and total titratable acidity by volume potentiometric measurements were also performed for the fruit characterization (Instituto Adolfo Lutz, 2008). The soluble solids content was 0.032\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.002 kg solid/kg product, and the pH was 6.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06. The acidity total titratable was 0.313\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.007 g of citric acid/ kg product.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Infrared drying experiments\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe drying process took place using an infrared radiation dryer (Model IV 2500, Gehaka, S\u0026atilde;o Paulo, Brazil). Each batch involved drying 0.020 kg of fresh fruits. The experiments continued until reaching an average final moisture content of 0.150\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 kg of water/kg sample (w.b.).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuring the drying, the mass of the samples was monitored using a digital balance coupled to the equipment (accuracy\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 g). The radiation source (infrared power of 300 W) was located at a fixed distance of approximately 0.10 m from the samples. The moisture content of the samples throughout the drying process was assessed gravimetrically by comparing the initial moisture content of the sample (before the drying) with its mass at each time interval.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Mathematical modeling\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe experimental results obtained were fitted using drying equations. The moisture ratio (MR) of the samples was calculated using the Eq.\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$MR=\\frac{{{X_t}\\; - \\,{X_e}}}{{{X_0}\\; - \\;{X_e}}}\\;$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere MR is the moisture ratio [dimensionless], X\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e is the moisture content at a specific time [kg water/kg], X\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e is the initial moisture content [kg water/kg] and X\u003csub\u003ee\u003c/sub\u003e is the moisture content under equilibrium conditions [kg water/kg].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe drying rate (DR) of the bocaiuva slices was calculated using Eq.\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$DR=\\frac{{{X_{t+dt}}\\; - \\,{X_t}}}{{{d_t}}}\\;$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere DR is drying rate [kg water/ (kg \u0026times; min)], t is time [min] and dt is time increase [min].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe effective diffusivity (D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e) was derived from the analytical solution of Fick\u0026apos;s second law under unsteady-state conditions, as represented by Eq.\u0026nbsp;3:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\frac{{\\partial {X_t}}}{{\\partial t}}\\,=\\,{D_{eff}}{\\nabla ^2}{X_t}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e is the effective diffusivity [m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e /s].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe solution to Eq. 3 is obtained using the Fourier series, assuming: Uniform initial moisture content \u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" style=\"width: 62px; height: 20.5077px;\" width=\"62\" height=\"20.5077\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;moisture concentration symmetry \\(\\left. {{\\raise0.7ex\\hbox{${\\partial {X_t}}$} \\!\\mathord{\\left/ {\\vphantom {{\\partial {X_t}} {\\partial t}}}\\right.\\kern-0pt}\\!\\lower0.7ex\\hbox{${\\partial t}$}}} \\right|{\\,_{_{{\\mathop {_{{z=0}}}\\limits_{{}} }}}}=0\\); equilibrium content at the surface,\\(X(L,t)=\\,{X_e}\\); the samples are infinite slabs, and shrinkage and external resistance to mass transfer are neglected.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConsidering an unidirectional moisture diffusion, the D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e was calculated according to Eq. 4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ4\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$MR\\,=\\,\\left( {\\frac{8}{{{\\pi ^2}}}\\sum\\limits_{{i=0}}^{\\infty } {\\frac{1}{{{{(2i+1)}^2}}}\\,\\exp \\,\\left( { - {{(2i+1)}^2}{\\pi ^2}{D_{eff}}\\frac{t}{{4{L^2}}}} \\right)} } \\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere L is the characteristic length (half of the thickness).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe activation energy, governing the relationship between D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e values and temperature dependence, is characterized by an Arrhenius-type correlation, as expressed by Eq. 5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\\({D_{eff}}={D_0} \\times \\exp \\left( { - \\frac{{{E_a}}}{{RT}}} \\right)\\) (5)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere D\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e is the pre-exponential factor of the Arrhenius equation [m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s]; E\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e is the activation energy [kJ/mol]; R is the universal gas constant [8.314\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e kJ / (mol\u0026times; K)] and T is the IRD temperature [K].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Eq.\u0026nbsp;(5) can be linearized into the form of Eq.\u0026nbsp;(6):\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ5\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ5\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\ln {D_{eff}}=\\ln {D_0} - \\frac{{{E_a}}}{{RT}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e6\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e can be calculated with the slope of the Eq. 6 by plotting ln D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e as a function of 1/T (Oliveira et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Page\u0026rsquo;s equation (Eq.\u0026nbsp;7) was used describe the drying kinetics of agricultural products (Page, 1949).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ6\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ6\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$MR\\,=\\,\\exp \\left( { - k{t^n}} \\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e7\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhere k is the drying rate [1 / s] ; n is the unit coefficient [dimensionless].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Thermodynamic parameters and Energetic Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe E\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e value allowed determination of different thermodynamic parameters such as the enthalpy (\u0026Delta;H), the entropy (\u0026Delta;S), and the free energy (\u0026Delta;G), according to the Equations 8\u0026ndash;10 (Jideani \u0026amp; Mpotokwana, 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ7\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ7\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\Delta H={E_a} - RT$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e8\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ8\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ8\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\Delta S=R\\left( {\\ln {D_0} - \\ln \\left( {\\frac{{{k_B}}}{{{h_P}}}} \\right) - \\ln {\\kern 1pt} T} \\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e9\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ9\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ9\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\Delta G=\\Delta H - T\\Delta S$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e10\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere k\u003csub\u003eB\u003c/sub\u003e indicates the Boltzmann constant (1.38\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;23\u003c/sup\u003e J/K) and h\u003csub\u003ep\u003c/sub\u003e represents the Planck constant (6.626\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;34\u003c/sup\u003e J\u0026times;s).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAssessing energy consumption contributes to the cost-effective operation and advancement of energy-efficient drying systems (Delfiya et al., 2022). The specific energy consumption (SEC) was obtained as the consumed energy [kJ] for the removal of 1.0 kg water from the sample, according to Eq.\u0026nbsp;11 (Zhang et al., 2021):\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ10\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ10\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$SEC=\\frac{{P \\times t \\times {{10}^{ - 6}}}}{{{m_{ev}}}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e11\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere SEC is specific energy consumption [MJ/ kg \u003csub\u003ewater\u003c/sub\u003e], P is the infrared power [W] and m\u003csub\u003eev\u003c/sub\u003e is the total mass of water removal during the drying [kg].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Quality analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll the following analyses were performed in triplicate (at least), in either dried and fresh samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.6.1 Color Parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eColor parameters were measured using a colorimeter (CM-2600D model, Konica Minolta). The parameters recorded L\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e, a\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e, and b\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e were quantified for each sample. These color parameters were used to calculate the total color difference (\u0026Delta;E) (Eq. 12). Six samples were evaluated for each treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equ11\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"FileID_Equ11\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\Delta E=\\sqrt {{{\\left( {L - {L_0}} \\right)}^2}+{{(a - {a_0})}^2}+{{(b - {b_0})}^2}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e12\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ewhere L\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e indicates the lightness (100 for white to 0 for black), a\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e indicates red when positive and green when negative, and b\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e indicates yellow when positive and blue when negative. The subscript \u0026lsquo;0\u0026rsquo; denotes the color parameters of the fresh fruit.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.6.2 Volumetric Shrinkage\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe volume (V) of the bocaiuva samples was determined by averaging three measurements of the fruit dimensions along the corresponding coordinate axes, using a calibrated digital caliper (Western, DC-6 model, China). Five samples were assessed for each treatment during the drying process. Volumetric shrinkage was calculated as the ratio of the dried fruit volume (V\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e) to the initial fruit volume (V\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e) (Junqueira et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.6.3 Rehydration\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe dried fruits were submerged in distilled water at 25\u0026deg;C for 20 hours to determine their rehydration capacity (RC). After the drying, three dehydrated samples were submitted to rehydration (Badwaik et al., 2014). The RC was calculated as the ratio between the weight of the dried sample and the weight of the fresh samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.6.4 Hygroscopicity\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eApproximately 1.0 g of the sample was placed in an airtight desiccator filled with saturated solution of NaCl (75% RH) and stored at 25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1\u0026deg;C for seven days (Ng \u0026amp; Sulaiman, 2018). Subsequently, the samples were weighed, and the absorbed moisture was expressed in grams per 100 grams of dry solids. The difference in weight of dried was calculated to determine its hygroscopicity.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.7 Statistical analyses\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe results were analyzed using Statistica software (Statistica 8.0, Statsoft Inc., Tulsa, UK). For the statistical evaluation of the mathematical modeling, the coefficient of determination (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), root mean square error (RMSE), and reduced chi-square (\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e), were used to determine the quality of the adjustment. Higher R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and lower RMSE and \u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e values indicated better adjustment (Babu et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe quality analysis results underwent evaluation through one-way ANOVA at a 95% confidence level. If significant effects were observed (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), mean comparisons were conducted using the Tukey test.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Drying kinetics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the drying kinetics of bocaiuva slices during the IRD. The duration for the samples to attain a final moisture content of 0.150\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 kg of water/kg sample (w.b.) ranged from 160 minutes at 80\u0026deg;C to 280 minutes at 60\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs expected, lower drying time was observed in the treatments at higher temperature (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). As the drying temperature rises, both internal and external resistance to moisture removal diminishes. This phenomenon is associated with the augmentation of water molecule mobility, an increase in the driving force, and consequently, a heightened vapor pressure that facilitates the evaporation of moisture from the product's interior to its surface (Ara\u0026uacute;jo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Elhussein \u0026amp; Şahin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Turan \u0026amp; Firatligil, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilar reports were presented by Rodr\u0026iacute;guez-Ramos et al. (Rodr\u0026iacute;guez-Ramos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) during the convective drying of \u003cem\u003eSalicornia fruticosa\u003c/em\u003e. In this study, comparing the treatments at different temperatures, a reduction in drying time of approximately 50% was observed, comparing 70 and 50 \u0026ordm;C. Such a reduction in the drying period at higher temperatures were also reported by Ju et al. (Ju et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) during the convective drying of American ginseng root (\u003cem\u003ePanax quinquefolium\u003c/em\u003e) at 45\u0026ndash;60\u0026deg;C and by Bakhara et al. (Bakhara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) during osmo-convective of tender jackfruit slices at 50\u0026ndash;70\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e - The drying rate of bocaiuva slices \u003cem\u003eversus\u003c/em\u003e moisture content in different IRD treatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, maximum drying occurred at the initial stages of the process, characterized by high moisture content in the fruits, leading to elevated drying rates. As the process progressed, the treatments entered the falling rate period, indicating that diffusion mass transfer governs the drying process. During agricultural food drying, the absence of a constant drying rate period has been reported by several authors (Babu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Junqueira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ovando-Medina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt was also observed higher drying rates at 80 \u0026ordm;C (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Babu et al. (Babu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) pointed that an elevation in temperature leads to a decrease in drying time. Consequently, a greater gradient in both moisture and heat is achieved, resulting in an increased drying rate. Junqueira et al. (Junqueira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) observed that taioba leaves dried at higher temperatures presented higher drying rates (lower drying periods).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Mathematical modeling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the effective diffusivities (Deff) of bocaiuva slices during IRD, calculated based on Fick\u0026rsquo;s diffusion theory. The D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e values ranged from 4.53 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/sup\u003e to 9.38 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/sup\u003e m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s. The results showed that R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e values were greater than 0.97, and RMSE and χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e values were lower than 0.07 and 0.005, respectively. These values presented analogous magnitude orders than those observed for IRD (Delfiya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffective diffusivity of bocaiuva slices during IRD at different temperatures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e [m\u0026sup2;/s] \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e11\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMSE \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u0026sup2; \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.973\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.971\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.975\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, an increase in the temperature process promoted an increase in the D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e. Araujo et al. (Araujo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) observed similar behavior during IRD of pear slices (50\u0026ndash;100 \u0026ordm;C) and pointed that the temperature enhancement leads to alterations in the physical properties of fluids, including viscosity and the molecular vibration of water and air molecules.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e values of various food products during IRD are reported in many literatures, for example, 2.89\u0026ndash;12.23 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/sup\u003e m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s for okra (El-Mesery et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), 1.14\u0026ndash;3.08 \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9\u003c/sup\u003e m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s for black mulberry (Doymaz \u0026amp; Kipcak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), 6.97\u0026ndash;8.96 \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9\u003c/sup\u003e m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s for dill leaves (Tezcan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), 1.53\u0026ndash;3.23 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10\u003c/sup\u003e m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s for piquin pepper (Ovando-Medina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), and 1.15\u0026ndash;8.96 \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9\u003c/sup\u003e m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s for pears (Araujo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe disparities observed in D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e values are attributed to factors such as material thickness and composition, IR power, drying temperature, distance between the IR heater and the sample, among others (Sakare et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe commencement of the moisture diffusion from the inside to the outside of bocaiuva slices requires energy, which is expressed as E\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e. This parameter was calculated using the Arrhenius equation (Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) and was found as 35.69 kJ/mol. This value represents the energy required to achieve the D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e (Balzarini et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Kamble et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe determined values of activation energy present the range of many food products during the drying such as lemon basil leaves (32.35 kJ/mol) (Mbegbu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), piquin pepper (38.81 kJ/mol) (Ovando-Medina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), potato slices (25.35\u0026ndash;36.17 kJ/mol) (Singh \u0026amp; Talukdar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), yam slices (10.59\u0026ndash;54.93 kJ/mol) (Ojediran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and orange slices (18.64\u0026ndash;32.88 kJ/mol) (Bozkir, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) in different conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe statistical results of the modeling with Page\u0026rsquo;s equation are presented in the Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of drying temperature on Page\u0026rsquo; equation regression parameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ek\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMSE \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u0026sup2; \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.82 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.84 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026times;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.29 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs indicated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the drying constant \u0026ldquo;k\u0026rdquo; parameter exhibited an increase with the rise in IRD temperature. This finding aligns with the D\u003csub\u003eeff\u003c/sub\u003e values, wherein faster drying (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) corresponded to higher diffusivity (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adjustment parameter \u0026ldquo;n\u0026rdquo; ranged from 1.12 to 1.17, presenting similar values (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). No trend was observed. The results showed statistical values of R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e greater than 0.99 and lower RMSE and χ\u0026sup2; values. This suggests the suitability of this equation for depicting the drying behavior. Recently, this model was successfully used for describing the IRD of black mulberry (Doymaz \u0026amp; Kipcak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), ginger (Osae et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and turmeric (Jeevarathinam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Thermodynamic properties and Energetic Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the thermodynamic functions including enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs free energy, and specific energy consumption under various IRD temperatures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermodynamic properties and energetic consumption of bocaiuva slices during IRD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔH [kJ/mol]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔS [kJ/mol\u0026times;K]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔG [kJ/mol]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEC [MJ/kg\u003csub\u003ewater\u003c/sub\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-336.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e145.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e448.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-336.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e311.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-337.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e243.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, minor differences were noted in the thermodynamic properties. Furthermore, enthalpy and entropy decreased with increasing IRD temperature, while the Gibbs free energy showed an increase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe higher enthalpy change (ΔH) value, the stronger the water is attached to the product, and more energy are required to separate water from the product over the course of the drying process (Akhoundzadeh Yamchi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Positive enthalpy values indicate endergonic reactions, implying that drying at a higher temperature requires less energy to separate the water attached to the product. Similar magnitude order values were observed during the IRD of bitter melon (28.83\u0026ndash;36.06 kJ/mol), without pretreatments (Akhoundzadeh Yamchi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ΔS presented similar behavior of ΔH, with values being reduced with the increase in IRD temperature (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The reduction in the moisture content throughout the drying process, hinders the movement of water molecules. Enhancing the IRD temperature results in an increase in the partial pressure of water vapor within the product, consequently elevating the excitation of water molecules. This, in turn, accelerates the diffusion process rate (El-Mesery et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Silva et al. (E. K. Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), negative ΔS values are attributed to the presence of chemical adsorption and/or structural modifications of the adsorbent occurring during the process. Studying the drying (40\u0026ndash;80 \u0026ordm;C) of \u003cem\u003eazuki\u003c/em\u003e beans, Almeida et al. (Almeida et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) obtained ΔS ranging from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;339 kJ/mol\u0026times;K to -340 kJ/mol\u0026times;K.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔG showed positive values for all treatments, and increased with increasing IRD temperature, ranging from 145.05 (60\u0026deg;C) to 151.79 kJ/mol (80\u0026deg;C), indicating a non-spontaneous process. Hence, it is essential to supply thermal energy for these processes to occur.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SEC reduced with an increase in IRD temperature (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Such a results are related to the higher temperature gradient, which reduces the total drying time (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) and favors the energy save, since the energy spent on the evaporation process decreases. According to the Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, the higher time process, the higher energy consumption (\u0026Ccedil;elen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Junqueira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study was in agreement with Sa-Adchom (Sa-Adchom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). He investigated the impact of far-infrared radiation in conjunction with a belt conveyor system during the drying of tamarind foam-mats and observed a decrease in the specific energy consumption (SEC) in treatments with higher power levels (resulting in shorter drying periods).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring \u003cem\u003eMentha spicata\u003c/em\u003e IRD, Hazervazifeh et al. (Hazervazifeh \u0026amp; A. Moghaddam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) observed that increasing the drying temperature reduces the SEC. The lowest (42.23 MJ/g\u003csub\u003ewater\u003c/sub\u003e) and the highest (67.19 MJ/g\u003csub\u003ewater\u003c/sub\u003e) values of SEC were observed at 70 and 50 \u0026ordm;C, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Quality parameters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe color characteristics of bocaiuva slices during IRD are presented in the Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Color parameters of bocaiuva slices during IRD at different temperatures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eb\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.66\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.35\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.46\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.39\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.50\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.78\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage value\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation. Mean followed by different letters in the same column indicate a significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05), according to Tukey\u0026rsquo;s test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fresh bocaiuva presented the color characteristics: L\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e = 41.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.93; a\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e = 10.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.78; and b\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e = 46.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.86. The parameters L\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e and b\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e were significantly affected by the IRD temperature (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05). We observed an increase in L\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e, b\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e and ΔE, at higher drying temperature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe samples dried at 60 \u0026ordm;C, presented color characteristics darker and \u0026ldquo;less yellowness\u0026rdquo;, which may indicate browning reactions. The higher drying process time (40% higher than 70 \u0026ordm;C and 75% higher than 80 \u0026ordm;C) at this temperature, intensified contact of the sensible compounds, such as pigments (carotenoids), with oxygen and heat occurs, thereby promoting oxidation, which ultimately results in color changes (Macedo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs presented in the Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, significative difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05) was observed for the ΔE.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eColor differences can be categorized as follows: small differences (ΔE\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1.5), distinct differences (1.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;ΔE\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3), and very distinct differences (ΔE\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;3) (Pathare et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). According to this assessment, all treatments exhibit very distinct color characteristics compared to the fresh fruit. During vacuum drying of yacon, Oliveira et al. (Oliveira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) observed higher ΔE at higher temperatures. Similar findings were reported during of kiwifruit with/without osmotic dehydration under IRD (Lyu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows physical analyses of the bocaiuva slices during IRD.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; Physical analyses of bocaiuva slices during IRD at different temperatures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShrinkage\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[ - ]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRehydration\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[%]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHygroscopicity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[g/100 g\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.620\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.065\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e279\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;23\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.807\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.236\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.533\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.055\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e281\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.977\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.576\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80 \u0026ordm;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.460\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.010\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;43\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.407\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.427\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage value\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation. Mean followed by different letters in the same column indicate a significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05), according to Tukey\u0026rsquo;s test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, it was observed significant difference between the treatments on the shrinkage parameter (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The closer the value is to unity, the greater the sample shrinkage, resulting in lower preservation of the physical and structural characteristics of the dried bocaiuva. This phenomenon is associated with changes in cell shape (Junqueira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower shrinkage was observed at higher temperatures (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). IRD induces a reduction in moisture content, thereby decreasing the tension exerted by liquid (water) against the cell wall. This can lead to a pressure imbalance between the interior and exterior of the tissues. It is pressure difference can cause ruptures and collapses to the structure of the material, and, therefore, shrinkage is observed (Rojas \u0026amp; Augusto, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAkbarian et al. (Akbarian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) concluded that shrinkage is increased with increasing drying time. During the convective drying of hawthorn fruit, Aral and Beşe (Aral \u0026amp; Beşe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) observed that the shrinkage decreased with increasing air temperature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ANOVA revealed no significant differences (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the rehydration of the dried bocaiuva (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The removal of water during IRD results in cell damage, leading to a gradual breakdown in tissue organization. This affects the ability of semi-permeable membranes to act as a barrier to water diffusion (Junqueira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe reduced process leads to the creation of a porous structure which increases the ability to absorb the water during the rehydration (Taghian Dinani \u0026amp; Havet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). However, in this study, such a difference was not observed for this parameter. Probable the fibrous structure of the bocaiuva (Munhoz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) aided the water absorption, regardless the temperature treatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the drying of lettuce in different drying treatments (hot air, infrared, microwave-assisted hot air and hot air-assisted radio frequency), Roknul et al. (Roknul et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) observed rehydration capacity values ranging from 14.85\u0026ndash;18.89%. Those authors reported slight differences in this parameter, although there was a significant difference in the duration of the process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Russo et al. (Russo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), several factors affect the structure of the dried samples, thereby influencing water uptake during rehydration. During the drying of eggplants, those authors observed that samples dried at 40, 50 and 60\u0026deg;C show similar rehydration kinetics with a weight gain of about 500%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents the hygroscopicity of the samples, and a significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05) was observed between the treatments. The bocaiuva slices dried at 60 and 70 \u0026ordm;C, presented lower hygroscopicity values (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05). It is desirable for dried fruits to exhibit low hygroscopicity, indicating minimal water absorption from the environment. (Macedo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the drying of soursop pulp, Cavalcante et al. (Cavalcante et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) observed that higher drying temperatures resulted in powders that exhibited greater ease in adsorbing water. This phenomenon is associated with the increased concentration gradient of water between the samples and the air. During the drying of kinui (mango), in different drying methods, Shuen et al. (Shuen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) obtained hygroscopicity ranging from 18.66% (convective drying) to 22.41% (spray dryer).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe production and consumption of native fruits from the Cerrado have been experiencing significant growth, contributing to the social development of the State of Mato Grosso do Sul. In this study, we investigated the effects of different IRD temperatures on the drying kinetics, mathematical modeling, thermodynamics, energetic, and physical analyses of dried bocaiuva slices. Higher temperature (80 \u0026ordm;C) leads to shorter drying times, higher drying rate, and effective diffusivity. The Page\u0026rsquo;s model described the process behavior (R\u0026sup2; \u0026gt; 0.999) accurately. Slights differences were observed in the thermodynamics properties. At 80 \u0026deg;C, higher total color difference and hygroscopicity were observed. At 60 \u0026ordm;C, higher specific energy consumption and shrinkage was obtained. Interest in native fruits has surged due to their economic potential for use in various products, thereby adding value and fostering the development of new goods. This supports the advancement of the bioeconomy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCRediT authorship contribution statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJoão Renato de Jesus Junqueira: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Juliana Rodrigues do Carmo: Writing – review \u0026amp; editing, Data curation, Investigation.\u0026nbsp;Luciana Miyagusku: Methodology, Data curation. Thaisa Carvalho Volpe Balbinoti: Methodology, Data curation. Reinaldo Farias Paiva de Lucena: Supervision, Project administration.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of competing interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be made available on request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors confirm that this article content has no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkbarian, M., Moayedi, F., Ghasemkhani, N., \u0026amp; Ghaseminezhad, A. 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Vacuum and infrared-assisted hot air impingement drying for improving the processing performance and quality of poria cocos (Schw.) wolf cubes. \u003cem\u003eFoods\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10050992\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"food-biophysics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Food Biophysics](https://www.springer.com/journal/11483)","snPcode":"11483","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11483/3","title":"Food Biophysics","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Emerging Technologies, Bioeconomy, Cerrado biome","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4176196/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4176196/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBocaiuva is the fruit of the palm tree \u003cem\u003eAcrocomia aculeata\u003c/em\u003e (Jacq.) Lodd, native to various regions of Brazil, particularly in the Cerrado and Pantanal biomes. However, its commercialization is hindered by its fibrous nature and short shelf life, leading to post-harvest losses. This study aimed to obtain bocaiuva slices at different infrared drying temperatures (60, 70 and 80 \u0026ordm;C). It was found that a shortening in the drying time at 80 \u0026ordm;C caused an increase in the drying rate. Fick\u0026rsquo;s second law and Page\u0026rsquo;s equation were suitable for describing the process behavior. The thermodynamics and energetic analysis demonstrated higher energy efficiency at 80 \u0026ordm;C. Lower temperature (60 \u0026ordm;C) promoted lower total color difference and hygroscopicity, and higher volumetric shrinkage. The results suggested that IRD at 80 \u0026ordm;C was able to produce bocaiuva slices with suitable physical characteristics. Furthermore, the production of dried bocaiuva contributes to the regional development of the Cerrado biome, thereby enhancing the bioeconomy.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Infrared Drying of Bocaiuva (Acrocomia Aculeata) Slices: Drying Kinetics, Energy Consumption, and Quality Characteristics","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-15 04:03:29","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4176196/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-04-29T13:39:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-04-29T04:25:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-04-15T18:50:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"9201564b-e50c-4d79-adcc-077abe539da7","date":"2024-04-15T01:40:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"09d1d105-1e51-4743-b340-c1af1e2a3c3d","date":"2024-04-14T15:47:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"986422b9-5ef2-4a02-895e-4b20d05da0b3_SNPRID","date":"2024-04-13T12:19:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"75bd15f4-a73b-4421-a510-ffc1a7a6df85","date":"2024-04-12T19:11:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-04-12T14:13:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-04-11T01:28:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-04-11T01:28:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Food Biophysics","date":"2024-03-27T12:50:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"food-biophysics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Food Biophysics](https://www.springer.com/journal/11483)","snPcode":"11483","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11483/3","title":"Food Biophysics","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"012b68b0-7f3e-44e2-9809-9834c8018c8a","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 15th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-05-14T13:56:25+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-15 04:03:29","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4176196","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4176196","identity":"rs-4176196","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}