Evolutionary Behaviors of Straw-Reinforced Slurry for Sustainable Management of Dredging Sediment: Rheological and Fertility Properties

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The rice straw was used to reinforce the dredge slurry to realize “treating the wastes with wastes”. The dredge slurry could be relocated with enhanced rheological properties or reclaimed cultivable land by in-situ management. In this framework, the rheological and fertility properties of straw-reinforced dredge slurry were investigated with a 90-day degradation period. The increased liquid limit and fine content were observed regardless of the straw content and degradation time, and a decreased slump flow and increased dynamic viscosity were obtained after the addition of straw. Nutrients, including SOC, TN, P, and K, increase over time after straw reinforcement, suggesting effective land reclamation by straw blending. The increases were abrupt in the first 14 days, followed by a gently increasing rate. Soil pH decreases over time to the range more suitable for planting. Results suggest that effective straw reinforcement enhances the rheological properties for relocating and improves the soil fertility for in-situ tillage. This study supplements the societal image of dredge materials and waste straws in engineering and environmental applications. dredge slurry waste straw rheology soil fertility degradation Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 INTRODUCTION More than one hundred million cubic meters of dredge materials have been produced from dredging in ports, harbors, and waterways each year in China for navigation purposes [ 1 ], necessitating the treatment and/or recycling processes of dredged sediments. The most convenient and frequently used disposal method is to blow the dredge slurry to a built cofferdam on the cultivable land for piling. The piling in the disposal land would make it uncultivable for a certain period since the dredge slurry will occupy the land for a relatively long duration [ 2 , 3 ]and trigger potential pollutants to the environment or even groundwater [ 4 ], resulting in the waste of land resources. An alternative approach is to beneficially use the dredge slurry for earthworks and transportation-related construction in the land reclamation of the coastfront, which could alleviate the problem of wasting land resources while obtaining economic benefits [ 5 – 10 ]. However, slurry from the ports and/or harbors was primarily hydraulic dredged, usually obtained with high water content, high plasticity index, and deficient strength [ 11 , 12 ]. Therefore, the dredge slurry was not appropriate for applying directly in construction or relocating [ 13 ]. Meanwhile, the dredge slurry is usually less permeable and lacks necessary nutrients, e.g. , carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), etc., for plant growth, thus is not suitable for tillage [ 14 ]. These intrinsic characteristics of dredge materials pose challenges to managing dredge material in the long term. The “pressing” need to improve the societal image of dredge material could be achieved by enhancing the rheological properties to facilitate the relocation and/or to improve the fertility properties for tillage on the storage site. In the other scenario, straw as an agricultural byproduct consisting of dry stalks of cereal plants is produced more than 700 million tons per year in China [ 15 ]. It was traditionally used as a raw material for heating and cooking; however, straw burning polluted the environment severely by increasing the contents of PM2.5, PM10, and carbon oxide (CO) [ 16 ]. It is therefore to beneficially use the straw in an environmentally friendly application. Studies have shown satisfactory straw amendment on soil properties on soil pH [ 17 ], microbial community [ 18 ], and emission of greenhouse gases [ 19 , 20 ]. Returning the straw to farming could effectively improve the contents of soil organic matter and soil fertility, considering the nutrients ( e.g. , N, K, P, C) in straw, which supplies and balances the soil nutrients. Additionally, conventional cementitious materials such as high alkali cement and fly ash for dredge material treatment are cost-inefficient and/or in considerable shortage. In this respect, employing the waste straw as a soil agent is a promising alternative for reusing the hydraulically dredged slurry as well as the waste straw without triggering environmental concerns. Using natural fiber to reinforce soil has recently attracted a resurgence in geotechnical engineering [ 21 ]. Compared to synthetic fibers, natural fibers can avoid exerting unknown environmental impacts on the ecosystem. Straw can exert certain performances in flexibility, thermal insulation, and waterproofness, thus being used in some geotechnical applications. As a natural fiber material, straw is cost-efficient in reinforcing the soil to improve the shear strength by enhancing friction between fiber and soil and/or forming a fiber-soil network while being pollution-free. For example, straw-reinforced soil exhibits a higher ductility, minimizing the local tension and cracking and thus increasing the slope stability. Aymerich et al. [ 22 ] found that the marijuana fiber could effectively enhance the peak strength, residual strength, and cracking resistance of the reinforced soil. Chai et al. [ 23 ] stated that the straw could only increase the soil cohesion and shear strength as the axial strain of the reinforced soil reached a threshold. Li et al. [ 24 ] reported an optimum wheat straw content between 0.4% − 0.5% for increasing soil shear strength, where the internal frictional angle increased while the cohesion decreased. Gao et al. [ 25 ] found the beneficial use of plant fiber in soil slope, which could reduce the unit weight and increase the permeability of reinforced soil. Currently, two mechanisms were proposed to explain the strengthened mechanical behaviors of straw-reinforced soil: the enhanced frictional and binding forces between the soil and straw; and the spatial constraints from the soil-straw network [ 26 ]. Although previous research has been conducted on straw-reinforced soils, understanding of the degradation behaviors and mechanisms underlying the enhanced rheological properties of straw-reinforced soil is still limited. Straw is a typical renewable resource composed of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin, rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and some trace elements [ 27 ]. Straw returning can effectively improve soil properties for higher crop productivity, thus increasing waste straw utilization without damaging the ecosystem [ 28 ]. Straw returning, including even incorporation, plowing, mulching, and pelleting with soil [ 29 ], can significantly improve soil structure in recovering the lost nutrients from rainfall and/or increasing the permeability. Blending the straw with soil can effectively increase the proportion of available water to improve the water-holding capacity of the soil, whereas the water content in the soil will be better retained with increasing straw mulching, which limits the evaporation rate of water in soil [ 30 ]. A similar conclusion was stated by Chen et al. [ 31 ] through the measurement of the soil water characteristic curve on a corn straw blended disturbed soil, where the water content of soil increased with an increasing amount of mulched straw at a given suction, suggesting a higher amount of free water hold by soil via straw returning. Straw returning can increase the content of soil organic carbon (SOC), which is an essential component for soil fertility. Previous research indicated that soil composed of macro-aggregates (>250 µm) had a higher organic carbon turnover rate and a higher amount of fresh organic carbon than that composed of micro-aggregates (< 250 µm) [ 32 , 33 ]. More specifically, the SOC was primarily in the encapsulated space of microaggregates within the cluster of macroaggregates, as the decomposition rate of SOC was decelerated by the protection of encapsulated microaggregates [ 34 ]. Meanwhile, the SOC in the encapsulated micro-aggregates has the most stable morphology, which is the basis for forming soil agglomerates [ 35 ]. Generally, soil porosity is inversely correlated with bulk density, where porosity and bulk density are the common indicators of soil physical property. Research indicated that straw returning could increase the porosity, and reduce the bulk density and degree of compaction of soil, thus improving the air and water permeabilities [ 36 – 39 ]. For example, Wen et al. [ 40 ] found that the straw returning significantly reduced the bulk density and degree of compaction of soil by 3.2%-7.0% and 33.6%-42.6%, respectively. The degradation of straw in soil could change the biochemical properties of soil and alter the stability of soil structure by promoting the formation of soil aggregates [ 41 ]. The nutrients will be stored in the soil and then released before the mineralization process, where microorganisms will accelerate the circulation of nutrients and improve the absorption of nutrients by crops. The elements, i.e., C, P, N, etc., in the microorganisms can be regarded as the reservoir of soil nutrients since the microorganism is the indispensable component of farmland soil, driving a vital role in improving soil fertility [ 42 ]. In addition, straw returning contributes to the transformation of organic nitrogen between mineralization and fixation, adjusting the distribution of humus nitrogen in the soil and updating the C to N ratio to accelerate the nitrogen cycle. Also, it increases the content of available potassium in the soil, strengthening the potassium supply capacity of the soil while activating some trace elements [ 43 ]. Straw returning appears to be effective in improving soil fertility by increasing the organic carbon as well as the essential elements for crops. Measurement of quantifying these changes presents decisive indicators for the beneficial use of dredge slurry with straw in soil fertility. This study reuses the rice straw to reinforce the dredge slurry to realize “treating the wastes with wastes” to sustainable material management in the region. After the straw reinforcement, the dredge slurry could be either transported to another site with enhanced rheological properties or reclaimed cultivable land by in situ management. In this framework, the rheological and fertility properties of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry were investigated with a degradation period of 90 days. Two sustainable alternatives for managing the dredged slurry with waste rice straw are employed to develop the potential beneficial use in engineering and agricultural applications. The rheological properties, including physical indexes, flow consistency, and viscosity, of straw-reinforced dredge slurry are studied, followed by an investigation of soil fertility on the essential nutrients (C, N, P, K). MATERIALS AND METHODS Dredge slurry and rice straw The dredge slurry used in this study was obtained from a slurry disposal site in Funing City, Jiangsu Province, China. The basic properties, including the specific gravity plastic limit, liquid limit, and grain size distribution, were measured on the air-dried dredge slurry before the removal of impurities (e.g., root, weed). The liquid limit and plastic limit were 25.1% and 53.2% with a plasticity index of 28.1%, as shown in Table 1 . Figure 1 presents the grain size distribution of the dredge slurry by conducting a combined analysis of the mechanic sieve (0.075–0.25 mm) and hydrometer (< 0.075 mm) according to the GBT50123-2019. The slurry soil was defined as clay of high plasticity. Table 1 Basic properties of the dredge slurry. Specific Gravity Liquid limit (%) Plastic limit (%) Plasticity index (%) Particle contents (%) < 0.005mm 0.005–0.075mm 0.075–2mm 2.684 53.2 25.1 28.1 37.6 58.96 3.4 The rice straw used in this study is a byproduct of rice production at harvest, collected from Yancheng City, Jiangsu Province, China. Straw fibers were shredded and sieved in five different sizes (2.5 mm) prior to air drying. This study employed straw fiber at the size of 0.6–1.0 mm. The water content measurement and the oven-dried straw fiber used in this study were conducted at 65°C. Preparation of straw-reinforced dredge slurry samples The initial water contents of the dredge slurry sample were targeted at 106%, 133%, and 159%, corresponding to 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 times the liquid limit, respectively. The straw fibers were blended with the slurry periodically to ensure a homogeneous straw-slurry mixture at five different contents (mass ratio of straw to dry soil), as summarized in Table 2 . A suite of degradation times (0, 3, 7, 14, 30, 60, and 90 days) was set for the straw-reinforced dredge slurry in the curing room at 20°C and a relative humidity of 95%. All the samples were sealed by the parafilm to avoid water loss by evaporation, thus changing the water content during the degradation process. Table 2 Initial water content of dredge slurry, straw contents, and the degradation time for testing Initial water content of dredge slurry (%) Straw content (%) Degradation time (days) 106 0, 0.5, 1, 3, 5, 8 0, 3, 7, 14, 30, 60, 90 133 Physical index measurements The liquid limit and aggregation stability of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry were assessed. The degree of aggregation was determined by the percentage of fine grain (< 0.005 mm) since the organic matter produced in straw degradation would affect soil aggregation. Sieve analysis was performed for aggregates with larger sizes (0.075–0.25 mm), while a hydrometer analysis was employed to determine the grain size with particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm. It needs to be noted that only the insolvable organic matters are considered for the effect of soil aggregation. The liquid limit of the straw-reinforced slurry was measured by the fall test according to GBT50123-2019. An oedometer was used to accelerate the draining process, where incremental loads were applied to consolidate the straw-reinforced slurry. Since the concentrations of organic matter and hydrolysis products by straw degradation in pore water would be altered by air drying the slurry samples. Flow consistency testing The flow consistency was measured using an open-ended cylinder mold with a diameter of 80 mm and a height of 80 mm per JHS A313-1992 (Fig. 2 a). A thin layer of Vaseline was applied to the inner wall of the mold and set the mold in the center of the plate. The straw-reinforced dredge slurry was poured into the mold by three even tiers to the top. Gently tapping the sidewall to exclude air in the slurry and flattening the surface of the sample with a spatula. Holding the cylindric mold tightly and lifting it quickly to allow the slurry specimen in the mold to slump freely on the bench, which was conducted within 7 seconds to minimize the effect of thixotropic. The slump flow of the slurry specimen was averaged by the minimum and the maximum diameters immediately after the patty slumped (Fig. 2 b). The flow consistency test was completed within 1 minute. The duplicate test was conducted on each slurry specimen, and the error of duplicate tests was within 5%. Viscosity testing A viscosity test was employed to evaluate the rheological properties of straw-reinforced dredge slurry. The viscosity of the slurry mixture was measured using an NXS-11B rotational Viscometer (Chengdu, Sichuan, China). The slurry was filled between the inner and outer cylindrical containers and measured by the bench-scale viscometer at the corresponding shear rate. Duplicate tests were performed on each specimen to obtain the average shear stress at a given shear rate. Prior to the viscosity measurement, a portable mechanical mixer was used to thoroughly mix the specimen to a uniform soil slurry without segregation. Quantitative analysis of soil fertility indicators Selected nutrients Elements that are essential to soil fertility, including soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), phosphate (P), and potassium (K), are quantitatively assessed. The straw-reinforced slurry samples were air-dried and removed impurities before grinding and passing a 2 mm sieve. The sieved soil was mounted to a VarioMAX CNS element analyzer (Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH, Germany) for SOC and TN analysis by a combustion method. P and K were determined by the Varian 720ES ICP-OES (Richmond Scientific, US). Soil pH measurement The air-dried slurry was dissolved in deionized water at the soil-to-water ratio of 1 to 2.5 before stirring by a magnetic bar for 1 min, then sitting still for 30 mins. A pH meter was employed to measure the pH of the stirred slurry. Duplicate measurements were performed on each slurry sample, and the average value was obtained as the pH of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry. RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF STRAW-REINFORCED DREDGE SLURRY Liquid limit and aggregation stability Figure 3 shows the liquid limit of dredge slurry reinforced at various straw contents with degradation time. A generally higher liquid limit was obtained with straw-reinforced dredge slurry compared to that without straw reinforcement regardless of the initial water content, straw content, and degradation time. For slurries reinforced with a low straw content (e.g., 0.5%, 1%), no obvious change in the liquid limit was observed with neither degradation time nor the initial water content, which may be attributed to the small content of straw fibers blended in the slurries that is below the effective straw content for reinforcing the dredge slurry. For slurries reinforced with a higher straw content (e.g., 3%, 5%, 8%), the liquid limit increases until certain days (~ 14 days) and then slightly decreases. The initial increase could be attributed to the enhanced water adsorption by the exposed hydrophilic functional groups of straw due to degradation, as the amino and carbon hydrate compounds in straw fiber would dissolve in the saturated pore water of dredge slurry. It also contributes to the higher liquid limit of dredge slurry reinforced at higher straw content on early degradation time (~ 40 days), where a higher content of hydrophilic functional groups is presented. The slight decrease may be due to the organic matter generated from the degradation of the hemicellulose in straw, which would adsorb on the fine particles. The organic matter will reduce the effective specific surface area and the water-holding capacity of soil [ 44 ], thus affecting the liquid limit of soil. Also, the amount of organic colloid increases with the cumulated organic matter, and the degree of soil agglomeration would increase and thus decrease the plasticity index. Figure 4 presents the fine grains (< 0.005 mm) of straw-reinforced dredge slurry vary with the degradation time. The fine content increases with the straw degrading, especially after 7 days, regardless of the initial water content of the dredge slurry. The fine content increase could result from the particle breakage of the larger grains. The original bonds between soil particles within the aggregation were replaced by the organic matter produced by the straw degradation, which has strong adsorption capacity and high solubility. The alteration of particle-particle bonding to particle-organic matter bonding decreases the soil agglomeration, thus there would be more fine grains presented. However, no consistent trend was observed in the fine content of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry in terms of the straw content in the targeted degradation period. The straw addition was conventionally believed to contribute to improved soil aggregation by cementing microaggregates [ 45 ]. Also, the aliphatic and simple sugars rich in the O-H group from straw decomposition might act as binding agents thus increasing the aggregate stability. The opposite finding in this study could be due to the high initial water content of dredge slurry, impeding the hydrophobicity improvement of the straw-slurry matrix. The microaggregate-within-macroaggregate fraction is a nonnegligible indicator for the SOC change over a longer degradation time (a decade), as indicated by Six and Paustian [ 33 ], determining the sizes of soil grains thus altering the pore size distribution of soil [ 46 ]. Further investigation is needed to systematically study the grain size on a larger scale (e.g., microaggregate, microaggregate-within-macroaggregate) and the pore size distribution of the straw-reinforced slurry with degradation time. Flow consistency Figure 5 shows the slump flow of dredge slurries varies with degradation time at initial water contents of 106% and 133%, respectively. The slump flow was effectively reduced by reinforcing the straw fiber regardless of the initial water content. The slump flow generally decreases with increasing degradation time, at a given initial water content, where a threshold of 14 days is observed. An abrupt decrease in slump flow is presented with degradation time within the threshold, beyond which the decreasing trend gradually levels off. This phenomenon is consistent with that in the liquid limit of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry, ascribed to the enhanced water adsorption capacity of the hydrophilic functional groups from straw degradation. Also, the slump flow decreases with increasing straw content at each degradation time. For example, the slump flow is 13.7, 13.0, 12.1, 10.4, and 9.3 cm, respectively, which decreased by 9%, 12%, 15%, 23%, and 27% prior to degradation for dredge slurry reinforced at straw content of 0.5%, 1%, 3%, 5%, and 8% as degraded for 30 days. The decreased slump flow could be attributed to the fiber-to-fiber interaction impeding the soil particles from moving with the flow. Further, the biomass of straw cells is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [ 31 ], containing a large number of the hydroxyl group (-OH), which is extremely hydrophilic. Thus, the addition of straw adsorbs the free water to some extent, decreasing the amount of available water in the soil and resulting in a reduced slump flow. In addition, the slump flow of dredge slurry at an initial water content of 133% (red) exhibited a generally higher value than that of 106% (black). It indicates that the initial water content, compared to the straw content, may predominate the slump flow of the dredge slurry. The covered area is more significant upon the slumping under the self-weight of dredge slurry, as there is a higher amount of free water in the soil. Compared to reinforcing the dredge slurry at a relatively low initial water content, straw reinforcement is more effective in reducing the slump flow of dredge slurry at higher initial water content (133%), as the red area is larger than the black in Fig. 5 at an identical straw content range and degradation time. Viscosity Figure 6 plots the dynamic viscosity of dredge slurry reinforced at different straw contents with degradation time. The straw addition generally provides a higher flow resistance. The dynamic viscosity increases with increasing degradation time, especially for the dredge slurry reinforced at a straw content greater than 3%. As discussed above, higher straw content would provide a higher hydroxyl group content in the degradation process, where less free water in the straw-dredge slurry matrix would be available. Also, the degree of aggregation is decreased as higher fine content is presented (Fig. 4 ). Consequently, it will be more difficult to shear the straw-dredge slurry matrix at a given shear rate. The dredge slurry at lower initial water content (Fig. 6 a) generally exhibits higher dynamic viscosity than that at high initial water content (Fig. 6 b) regardless of straw content, as more free water is presented in the straw-dredge slurry matrix [ 47 , 48 ]. The result is consistent with that in the slump flow, indicating that the initial water content predominates the rheological behaviors of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry. Geng et al. [ 49 ] reported that the slump flow correlated poorly with the dynamic viscosity of a fiber-reinforced slurry at low fiber efficiency. However, the slump flow exhibited a well-described trend with the dynamic viscosity of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry in this study, as shown in Fig. 7 , where the slump flow can be expressed as a power function of dynamic viscosity with a coefficient of determination at 0.94. The result herein fits that of Xu et al. [ 50 ] for a cement-treated dredge clay. The presented trend suggests that the straw could effectively reinforce the dredge slurry regarding the rheological properties. Effects of straw degrading on the selected nutrients in soil Soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) contents Figure 8 shows the soil organic carbon (a) and total nitrogen content (b) of straw-reinforced dredge slurry degraded over time at different straw contents. The SOC and TN generally increase over time for the reinforced dredge slurry at all straw contents. Specifically, the SOC and TN increase with straw content within a given degradation period. The soil organic content (SOC) level is often considered one of the most essential parameters of the quality of agricultural soil [ 51 ]. The addition of straw to the dredge slurry effectively increases the SOC fraction, as shown in Fig. 8 a. At low straw contents (0.5%, 1%, 3%), the SOC increases over time (~ 14 days) prior to equilibrium; whereas, that keeps increasing at a slower rate at higher straw content (e.g., >5%). Similar trends were observed on the TN of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry (Fig. 8 b). The average C/N ratio in the straw-slurry matrix tends to increase till 14 days, followed by a decrease for the dredge slurry reinforced at all straw contents despite the increases in SOC and TN, as shown in Fig. 9 . The decoupling of C and N after 14 degraded days could be attributed to the soil organic matter fraction. Yan et al. [ 32 ] reported a similar decoupling of C versus N stabilization within the slower turning over silt and clay fraction. As discussed above, a more systematical investigation, isolating microaggregates, macroaggregates, and microaggregates-within-macroaggregates, on the SOC and TN is proposed in the future study. Phosphorus and potassium contents Figure 10 plots the P content (a) and K content (b) of straw-reinforced dredge slurry degraded over time at different straw contents. The increases in P and K contents were observed with time at all straw contents. The increases were abrupt at the first 14 degradation days, followed by a much slower increasing rate, presenting an “L” shape growth. This growth pattern could be due to the intrinsic decomposition pattern of straw, in which the decomposition rates of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and water-soluble polysaccharides in straws are different. In the initial stage of straw degradation, amino acids, soluble polysaccharides, organic acids, and mineral nutrients are released quickly. Over degradation time, only non-decomposable cellulose residues and lignin would be left, as the relatively easily decomposable hemicellulose and cellulose are consumed. Thus, a lower degradation rate would be obtained. In addition, the K content is generally greater with dredge slurry reinforced at higher straw content within a given degradation period; however, the trend is not that consistent in P content. Soil pH The pH of straw-reinforced dredge slurry generally decreases over the degradation time regardless of the initial water content (Fig. 11 ). The decrease in soil pH in reinforced slurry indicated the formation of acidic carboxylic groups during degradation [ 52 ]. Also, the overall pH is lower for slurry at an initial water content of 133% (red area) compared to 106% (black area), suggesting the initial water content of dredge slurry is an essential factor determining the soil properties of straw-reinforced dredge slurry. The straw content did not significantly affect the soil pH in this study; however, the addition of straw adjusted the soil pH to the extent that was more suitable for planting. CONCLUSIONS This study assessed the evolutionary behaviors of two sustainable alternatives for managing dredging sediment with wasted rice straw. The rheological and fertility properties of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry were investigated with a degradation period of 90 days for “treating the wastes with wastes.” A suite of rheological tests, including physical indexes, flow consistency, and viscosity, were conducted on the straw-reinforced dredge slurry at two initial water contents. An evaluation of fertilizer discharge on selected nutrients (SOC, TN, P, K) necessary for soil tillage was also conducted. The following conclusions are drawn based on the findings from the study: A higher liquid limit was obtained with the dredge slurry after straw reinforcement regardless of the straw content and degradation time at both initial water contents. A threshold straw content of approximately 3% was observed in terms of increasing the liquid limit. The fine content increased with degradation time in this study. The slump flow generally decreases with increasing degradation time, though limited reduction could be obtained after a certain degraded period (~ 14 days). The addition of straw could further reduce the slump flow. The dynamic viscosity increases with increasing degradation time, especially for the dredge slurry reinforced at a straw content greater than 3%. It correlated well with the slump flow by a power function. Compared to the straw content, the initial water content is more dominant in controlling the slump flow and dynamic viscosity of the dredge slurry. Nutrients, including SOC, TN, P, and K, increase over time after straw reinforcement, suggesting effective land reclamation by straw blending. The increases were abrupt in the first 14 days, followed by a much slower increase rate. The decoupling of C and N after 14 days could be attributed to the soil organic matter fraction. Soil pH decreases over time as a result of acidic carboxylic group formation, increasing the potential for agricultural productivity. It is suggested that the effective straw reinforcement (at blending content greater than 3%) enhances the rheological properties for relocating and improves the soil fertility for in-situ tillage. Results in this study contribute to the resource recycling of dredged sediment and waste straw in engineering and environmental applications, relieving the vexing problems of dredge sediment management. A more systematic investigation, isolating microaggregates, macroaggregates, and microaggregates-within-macroaggregates, on the pore size distribution and the SOC and TN of the straw-reinforced slurry is proposed in the future study. Declarations Acknowledgements Financial support for this work was provided by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52078449 and 51978597), Water Science and Technology Projects of Jiangsu Province (No. 2020064), and Qinglan Project of Jiangsu. Data Availability The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no confict of interest. References Xu, G., Gao, Y., Hong, Z., Ding, J.: Sedimentation Behavior of Four Dredged Slurries in China. Mar. Georesour Geotec. 30 , 143–156 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2011.602382 Chai, J., Horpibulsuk, S., Shen, S., Carter, J.P.: Consolidation analysis of clayey deposits under vacuum pressure with horizontal drains. Geotext. 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Civil Eng. 34 , 04022347 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004516 Xu, G., Feng, Z., Yin, J., Han, W., Ahmed, S., Miao, Y.: Effect of Salinity on Rheological Behavior of Cement-Treated Dredged Clays as Fills. J. Mater. Civil Eng. 32 , 04020269 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003376 Lal, R.: Challenges and opportunities in soil organic matter research. Eur. J. Soil. Sci. 60 , 158–169 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2389.2008.01114.x Hansen, V., Müller-Stöver, D., Munkholm, L.J., Peltre, C., Hauggaard-Nielsen, H., Jensen, L.S.: The effect of straw and wood gasification biochar on carbon sequestration, selected soil fertility indicators and functional groups in soil: An incubation study. Geoderma. 269 , 99–107 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.01.033 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 30 Oct, 2024 Read the published version in Waste and Biomass Valorization → Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Mar, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 03 Mar, 2024 Editor invited by journal 18 Feb, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 04 Feb, 2024 First submitted to journal 02 Feb, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3924122","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":276034956,"identity":"e7eed258-babb-4b54-966c-4665f1381613","order_by":0,"name":"Chengchun Qiu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yancheng Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chengchun","middleName":"","lastName":"Qiu","suffix":""},{"id":276034957,"identity":"02371437-aeac-4c37-9380-49f467bfccf8","order_by":1,"name":"Liwei Xu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yancheng Institute of 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":74209,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrain size distribution of the dredge slurry and the grain size of straw fibers employed for slurry reinforcement\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/6d73e21508572bfe21d5153d.png"},{"id":52102895,"identity":"a0172793-cecf-46c8-ba7b-9bc226859648","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 19:17:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":424690,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotographs of (a) flow consistency testing mold; and (b) slump flow 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4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":163015,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage fine grain of dredge slurry at the initial water content of 106% (a), 133% (b) reinforced at different straw contents with degradation time\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/a6b7e4d89a33b072a6df39e1.png"},{"id":52102896,"identity":"155b3766-67e9-4795-aaba-42f9e9c8cd00","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 19:17:35","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":57974,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe slump flow of straw-reinforced dredge slurry\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/ec3440a8e29161e35f33692d.png"},{"id":52102903,"identity":"101d24a5-6f43-4f48-bb00-c18654ead387","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 19:17:35","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":165953,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDynamic viscosity of dredge slurry at the initial water content of 106% (a), 133% (b) reinforced at different straw contents with degradation time\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/547e1b3309a461d919ebb494.png"},{"id":52102900,"identity":"8c019e7e-537d-4909-89e0-737f68d97748","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 19:17:35","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":89603,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSlump flow versus dynamic viscosity of straw-reinforced dredge slurry\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/1fa50d708ae4224d674c0282.png"},{"id":52102899,"identity":"5e706c7e-70c1-488b-ab3a-e2d3f1126f16","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 19:17:35","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41187,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) The soil organic carbon, and (b) total nitrogen content with degradation time for the straw-reinforced dredge slurry\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/fc3b1d71e4f41df51f7cee7c.png"},{"id":52102904,"identity":"41d99850-13b2-4d3f-b1e0-0654ce8363f8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 19:17:35","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72602,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe C/N ratio versus degradation time of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/942653cfc0a26f9dae5e2d58.png"},{"id":52102905,"identity":"fa178e8b-ec52-419c-8e96-4405a886824d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 19:17:35","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":155155,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Phosphorus content, and (b) potassium content with degradation time\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/ac673e9d3d5e2d9d1c0d4d0f.png"},{"id":52104665,"identity":"fa022acd-8f70-46a4-b6ba-16e8f087dae6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-06 19:25:35","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44953,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe pH of straw-reinforced dredge slurry with degradation time\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/7843d2fefc93dd6813bd85ca.png"},{"id":68206697,"identity":"58de5338-13e5-4140-81b1-07127124dbc5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-04 16:33:17","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2158932,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3924122/v1/2c52744f-4c30-4e59-bc2d-928b474c8524.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Evolutionary Behaviors of Straw-Reinforced Slurry for Sustainable Management of Dredging Sediment: Rheological and Fertility Properties","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION ","content":"\u003cp\u003eMore than one hundred million cubic meters of dredge materials have been produced from dredging in ports, harbors, and waterways each year in China for navigation purposes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], necessitating the treatment and/or recycling processes of dredged sediments. The most convenient and frequently used disposal method is to blow the dredge slurry to a built cofferdam on the cultivable land for piling. The piling in the disposal land would make it uncultivable for a certain period since the dredge slurry will occupy the land for a relatively long duration [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]and trigger potential pollutants to the environment or even groundwater [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e], resulting in the waste of land resources. An alternative approach is to beneficially use the dredge slurry for earthworks and transportation-related construction in the land reclamation of the coastfront, which could alleviate the problem of wasting land resources while obtaining economic benefits [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6 CR7 CR8 CR9\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. However, slurry from the ports and/or harbors was primarily hydraulic dredged, usually obtained with high water content, high plasticity index, and deficient strength [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, the dredge slurry was not appropriate for applying directly in construction or relocating [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Meanwhile, the dredge slurry is usually less permeable and lacks necessary nutrients, \u003cem\u003ee.g.\u003c/em\u003e, carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), etc., for plant growth, thus is not suitable for tillage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. These intrinsic characteristics of dredge materials pose challenges to managing dredge material in the long term. The \u0026ldquo;pressing\u0026rdquo; need to improve the societal image of dredge material could be achieved by enhancing the rheological properties to facilitate the relocation and/or to improve the fertility properties for tillage on the storage site.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the other scenario, straw as an agricultural byproduct consisting of dry stalks of cereal plants is produced more than 700\u0026nbsp;million tons per year in China [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. It was traditionally used as a raw material for heating and cooking; however, straw burning polluted the environment severely by increasing the contents of PM2.5, PM10, and carbon oxide (CO) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. It is therefore to beneficially use the straw in an environmentally friendly application. Studies have shown satisfactory straw amendment on soil properties on soil pH [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], microbial community [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e], and emission of greenhouse gases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Returning the straw to farming could effectively improve the contents of soil organic matter and soil fertility, considering the nutrients (\u003cem\u003ee.g.\u003c/em\u003e, N, K, P, C) in straw, which supplies and balances the soil nutrients. Additionally, conventional cementitious materials such as high alkali cement and fly ash for dredge material treatment are cost-inefficient and/or in considerable shortage. In this respect, employing the waste straw as a soil agent is a promising alternative for reusing the hydraulically dredged slurry as well as the waste straw without triggering environmental concerns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing natural fiber to reinforce soil has recently attracted a resurgence in geotechnical engineering [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Compared to synthetic fibers, natural fibers can avoid exerting unknown environmental impacts on the ecosystem. Straw can exert certain performances in flexibility, thermal insulation, and waterproofness, thus being used in some geotechnical applications. As a natural fiber material, straw is cost-efficient in reinforcing the soil to improve the shear strength by enhancing friction between fiber and soil and/or forming a fiber-soil network while being pollution-free. For example, straw-reinforced soil exhibits a higher ductility, minimizing the local tension and cracking and thus increasing the slope stability. Aymerich et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e] found that the marijuana fiber could effectively enhance the peak strength, residual strength, and cracking resistance of the reinforced soil. Chai et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e] stated that the straw could only increase the soil cohesion and shear strength as the axial strain of the reinforced soil reached a threshold. Li et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e] reported an optimum wheat straw content between 0.4% \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.5% for increasing soil shear strength, where the internal frictional angle increased while the cohesion decreased. Gao et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] found the beneficial use of plant fiber in soil slope, which could reduce the unit weight and increase the permeability of reinforced soil. Currently, two mechanisms were proposed to explain the strengthened mechanical behaviors of straw-reinforced soil: the enhanced frictional and binding forces between the soil and straw; and the spatial constraints from the soil-straw network [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Although previous research has been conducted on straw-reinforced soils, understanding of the degradation behaviors and mechanisms underlying the enhanced rheological properties of straw-reinforced soil is still limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStraw is a typical renewable resource composed of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin, rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and some trace elements [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Straw returning can effectively improve soil properties for higher crop productivity, thus increasing waste straw utilization without damaging the ecosystem [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Straw returning, including even incorporation, plowing, mulching, and pelleting with soil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], can significantly improve soil structure in recovering the lost nutrients from rainfall and/or increasing the permeability. Blending the straw with soil can effectively increase the proportion of available water to improve the water-holding capacity of the soil, whereas the water content in the soil will be better retained with increasing straw mulching, which limits the evaporation rate of water in soil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. A similar conclusion was stated by Chen et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] through the measurement of the soil water characteristic curve on a corn straw blended disturbed soil, where the water content of soil increased with an increasing amount of mulched straw at a given suction, suggesting a higher amount of free water hold by soil via straw returning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStraw returning can increase the content of soil organic carbon (SOC), which is an essential component for soil fertility. Previous research indicated that soil composed of macro-aggregates (\u0026gt;250 \u0026micro;m) had a higher organic carbon turnover rate and a higher amount of fresh organic carbon than that composed of micro-aggregates (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;250 \u0026micro;m) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. More specifically, the SOC was primarily in the encapsulated space of microaggregates within the cluster of macroaggregates, as the decomposition rate of SOC was decelerated by the protection of encapsulated microaggregates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Meanwhile, the SOC in the encapsulated micro-aggregates has the most stable morphology, which is the basis for forming soil agglomerates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Generally, soil porosity is inversely correlated with bulk density, where porosity and bulk density are the common indicators of soil physical property. Research indicated that straw returning could increase the porosity, and reduce the bulk density and degree of compaction of soil, thus improving the air and water permeabilities [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR37 CR38\" citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, Wen et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e] found that the straw returning significantly reduced the bulk density and degree of compaction of soil by 3.2%-7.0% and 33.6%-42.6%, respectively. The degradation of straw in soil could change the biochemical properties of soil and alter the stability of soil structure by promoting the formation of soil aggregates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. The nutrients will be stored in the soil and then released before the mineralization process, where microorganisms will accelerate the circulation of nutrients and improve the absorption of nutrients by crops. The elements, i.e., C, P, N, etc., in the microorganisms can be regarded as the reservoir of soil nutrients since the microorganism is the indispensable component of farmland soil, driving a vital role in improving soil fertility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, straw returning contributes to the transformation of organic nitrogen between mineralization and fixation, adjusting the distribution of humus nitrogen in the soil and updating the C to N ratio to accelerate the nitrogen cycle. Also, it increases the content of available potassium in the soil, strengthening the potassium supply capacity of the soil while activating some trace elements [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. Straw returning appears to be effective in improving soil fertility by increasing the organic carbon as well as the essential elements for crops. Measurement of quantifying these changes presents decisive indicators for the beneficial use of dredge slurry with straw in soil fertility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study reuses the rice straw to reinforce the dredge slurry to realize \u0026ldquo;treating the wastes with wastes\u0026rdquo; to sustainable material management in the region. After the straw reinforcement, the dredge slurry could be either transported to another site with enhanced rheological properties or reclaimed cultivable land by in situ management. In this framework, the rheological and fertility properties of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry were investigated with a degradation period of 90 days. Two sustainable alternatives for managing the dredged slurry with waste rice straw are employed to develop the potential beneficial use in engineering and agricultural applications. The rheological properties, including physical indexes, flow consistency, and viscosity, of straw-reinforced dredge slurry are studied, followed by an investigation of soil fertility on the essential nutrients (C, N, P, K).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDredge slurry and rice straw\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe dredge slurry used in this study was obtained from a slurry disposal site in Funing City, Jiangsu Province, China. The basic properties, including the specific gravity plastic limit, liquid limit, and grain size distribution, were measured on the air-dried dredge slurry before the removal of impurities (e.g., root, weed). The liquid limit and plastic limit were 25.1% and 53.2% with a plasticity index of 28.1%, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the grain size distribution of the dredge slurry by conducting a combined analysis of the mechanic sieve (0.075–0.25 mm) and hydrometer (\u0026lt; 0.075 mm) according to the GBT50123-2019. The slurry soil was defined as clay of high plasticity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic properties of the dredge slurry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecific Gravity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiquid limit (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlastic limit (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlasticity index (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticle contents (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.005mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005–0.075mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.075–2mm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe rice straw used in this study is a byproduct of rice production at harvest, collected from Yancheng City, Jiangsu Province, China. Straw fibers were shredded and sieved in five different sizes (\u0026lt; 0.075 mm, 0.075–0.6 mm, 0.6–1.0 mm, 1.0–2.5 mm, \u0026gt;2.5 mm) prior to air drying. This study employed straw fiber at the size of 0.6–1.0 mm. The water content measurement and the oven-dried straw fiber used in this study were conducted at 65°C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of straw-reinforced dredge slurry samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initial water contents of the dredge slurry sample were targeted at 106%, 133%, and 159%, corresponding to 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 times the liquid limit, respectively. The straw fibers were blended with the slurry periodically to ensure a homogeneous straw-slurry mixture at five different contents (mass ratio of straw to dry soil), as summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. A suite of degradation times (0, 3, 7, 14, 30, 60, and 90 days) was set for the straw-reinforced dredge slurry in the curing room at 20°C and a relative humidity of 95%. All the samples were sealed by the parafilm to avoid water loss by evaporation, thus changing the water content during the degradation process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitial water content of dredge slurry, straw contents, and the degradation time for testing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitial water content of dredge slurry\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStraw content\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegradation time\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(days)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0, 0.5, 1, 3, 5, 8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0, 3, 7, 14, 30, 60, 90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePhysical index measurements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe liquid limit and aggregation stability of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry were assessed. The degree of aggregation was determined by the percentage of fine grain (\u0026lt; 0.005 mm) since the organic matter produced in straw degradation would affect soil aggregation. Sieve analysis was performed for aggregates with larger sizes (0.075–0.25 mm), while a hydrometer analysis was employed to determine the grain size with particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm. It needs to be noted that only the insolvable organic matters are considered for the effect of soil aggregation. The liquid limit of the straw-reinforced slurry was measured by the fall test according to GBT50123-2019. An oedometer was used to accelerate the draining process, where incremental loads were applied to consolidate the straw-reinforced slurry. Since the concentrations of organic matter and hydrolysis products by straw degradation in pore water would be altered by air drying the slurry samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFlow consistency testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe flow consistency was measured using an open-ended cylinder mold with a diameter of 80 mm and a height of 80 mm per JHS A313-1992 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea). A thin layer of Vaseline was applied to the inner wall of the mold and set the mold in the center of the plate. The straw-reinforced dredge slurry was poured into the mold by three even tiers to the top. Gently tapping the sidewall to exclude air in the slurry and flattening the surface of the sample with a spatula. Holding the cylindric mold tightly and lifting it quickly to allow the slurry specimen in the mold to slump freely on the bench, which was conducted within 7 seconds to minimize the effect of thixotropic. The slump flow of the slurry specimen was averaged by the minimum and the maximum diameters immediately after the patty slumped (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eb). The flow consistency test was completed within 1 minute. The duplicate test was conducted on each slurry specimen, and the error of duplicate tests was within 5%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eViscosity testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA viscosity test was employed to evaluate the rheological properties of straw-reinforced dredge slurry. The viscosity of the slurry mixture was measured using an NXS-11B rotational Viscometer (Chengdu, Sichuan, China). The slurry was filled between the inner and outer cylindrical containers and measured by the bench-scale viscometer at the corresponding shear rate. Duplicate tests were performed on each specimen to obtain the average shear stress at a given shear rate. Prior to the viscosity measurement, a portable mechanical mixer was used to thoroughly mix the specimen to a uniform soil slurry without segregation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eQuantitative analysis of soil fertility indicators\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSelected nutrients\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eElements that are essential to soil fertility, including soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), phosphate (P), and potassium (K), are quantitatively assessed. The straw-reinforced slurry samples were air-dried and removed impurities before grinding and passing a 2 mm sieve. The sieved soil was mounted to a VarioMAX CNS element analyzer (Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH, Germany) for SOC and TN analysis by a combustion method. P and K were determined by the Varian 720ES ICP-OES (Richmond Scientific, US).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil pH measurement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe air-dried slurry was dissolved in deionized water at the soil-to-water ratio of 1 to 2.5 before stirring by a magnetic bar for 1 min, then sitting still for 30 mins. A pH meter was employed to measure the pH of the stirred slurry. Duplicate measurements were performed on each slurry sample, and the average value was obtained as the pH of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF STRAW-REINFORCED DREDGE SLURRY","content":"\u003ch2\u003eLiquid limit and aggregation stability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the liquid limit of dredge slurry reinforced at various straw contents with degradation time. A generally higher liquid limit was obtained with straw-reinforced dredge slurry compared to that without straw reinforcement regardless of the initial water content, straw content, and degradation time. For slurries reinforced with a low straw content (e.g., 0.5%, 1%), no obvious change in the liquid limit was observed with neither degradation time nor the initial water content, which may be attributed to the small content of straw fibers blended in the slurries that is below the effective straw content for reinforcing the dredge slurry. For slurries reinforced with a higher straw content (e.g., 3%, 5%, 8%), the liquid limit increases until certain days (~ 14 days) and then slightly decreases. The initial increase could be attributed to the enhanced water adsorption by the exposed hydrophilic functional groups of straw due to degradation, as the amino and carbon hydrate compounds in straw fiber would dissolve in the saturated pore water of dredge slurry. It also contributes to the higher liquid limit of dredge slurry reinforced at higher straw content on early degradation time (~ 40 days), where a higher content of hydrophilic functional groups is presented. The slight decrease may be due to the organic matter generated from the degradation of the hemicellulose in straw, which would adsorb on the fine particles. The organic matter will reduce the effective specific surface area and the water-holding capacity of soil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e], thus affecting the liquid limit of soil. Also, the amount of organic colloid increases with the cumulated organic matter, and the degree of soil agglomeration would increase and thus decrease the plasticity index.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the fine grains (\u0026lt; 0.005 mm) of straw-reinforced dredge slurry vary with the degradation time. The fine content increases with the straw degrading, especially after 7 days, regardless of the initial water content of the dredge slurry. The fine content increase could result from the particle breakage of the larger grains. The original bonds between soil particles within the aggregation were replaced by the organic matter produced by the straw degradation, which has strong adsorption capacity and high solubility. The alteration of particle-particle bonding to particle-organic matter bonding decreases the soil agglomeration, thus there would be more fine grains presented. However, no consistent trend was observed in the fine content of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry in terms of the straw content in the targeted degradation period. The straw addition was conventionally believed to contribute to improved soil aggregation by cementing microaggregates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, the aliphatic and simple sugars rich in the O-H group from straw decomposition might act as binding agents thus increasing the aggregate stability. The opposite finding in this study could be due to the high initial water content of dredge slurry, impeding the hydrophobicity improvement of the straw-slurry matrix. The microaggregate-within-macroaggregate fraction is a nonnegligible indicator for the SOC change over a longer degradation time (a decade), as indicated by Six and Paustian [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e], determining the sizes of soil grains thus altering the pore size distribution of soil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. Further investigation is needed to systematically study the grain size on a larger scale (e.g., microaggregate, microaggregate-within-macroaggregate) and the pore size distribution of the straw-reinforced slurry with degradation time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFlow consistency\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e shows the slump flow of dredge slurries varies with degradation time at initial water contents of 106% and 133%, respectively. The slump flow was effectively reduced by reinforcing the straw fiber regardless of the initial water content. The slump flow generally decreases with increasing degradation time, at a given initial water content, where a threshold of 14 days is observed. An abrupt decrease in slump flow is presented with degradation time within the threshold, beyond which the decreasing trend gradually levels off. This phenomenon is consistent with that in the liquid limit of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry, ascribed to the enhanced water adsorption capacity of the hydrophilic functional groups from straw degradation. Also, the slump flow decreases with increasing straw content at each degradation time. For example, the slump flow is 13.7, 13.0, 12.1, 10.4, and 9.3 cm, respectively, which decreased by 9%, 12%, 15%, 23%, and 27% prior to degradation for dredge slurry reinforced at straw content of 0.5%, 1%, 3%, 5%, and 8% as degraded for 30 days. The decreased slump flow could be attributed to the fiber-to-fiber interaction impeding the soil particles from moving with the flow. Further, the biomass of straw cells is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], containing a large number of the hydroxyl group (-OH), which is extremely hydrophilic. Thus, the addition of straw adsorbs the free water to some extent, decreasing the amount of available water in the soil and resulting in a reduced slump flow.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, the slump flow of dredge slurry at an initial water content of 133% (red) exhibited a generally higher value than that of 106% (black). It indicates that the initial water content, compared to the straw content, may predominate the slump flow of the dredge slurry. The covered area is more significant upon the slumping under the self-weight of dredge slurry, as there is a higher amount of free water in the soil. Compared to reinforcing the dredge slurry at a relatively low initial water content, straw reinforcement is more effective in reducing the slump flow of dredge slurry at higher initial water content (133%), as the red area is larger than the black in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e at an identical straw content range and degradation time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eViscosity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e plots the dynamic viscosity of dredge slurry reinforced at different straw contents with degradation time. The straw addition generally provides a higher flow resistance. The dynamic viscosity increases with increasing degradation time, especially for the dredge slurry reinforced at a straw content greater than 3%. As discussed above, higher straw content would provide a higher hydroxyl group content in the degradation process, where less free water in the straw-dredge slurry matrix would be available. Also, the degree of aggregation is decreased as higher fine content is presented (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, it will be more difficult to shear the straw-dredge slurry matrix at a given shear rate. The dredge slurry at lower initial water content (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea) generally exhibits higher dynamic viscosity than that at high initial water content (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb) regardless of straw content, as more free water is presented in the straw-dredge slurry matrix [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. The result is consistent with that in the slump flow, indicating that the initial water content predominates the rheological behaviors of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeng et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e] reported that the slump flow correlated poorly with the dynamic viscosity of a fiber-reinforced slurry at low fiber efficiency. However, the slump flow exhibited a well-described trend with the dynamic viscosity of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry in this study, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, where the slump flow can be expressed as a power function of dynamic viscosity with a coefficient of determination at 0.94. The result herein fits that of Xu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e] for a cement-treated dredge clay. The presented trend suggests that the straw could effectively reinforce the dredge slurry regarding the rheological properties.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEffects of straw degrading on the selected nutrients in soil\u003c/h2\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSoil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) contents\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e shows the soil organic carbon (a) and total nitrogen content (b) of straw-reinforced dredge slurry degraded over time at different straw contents. The SOC and TN generally increase over time for the reinforced dredge slurry at all straw contents. Specifically, the SOC and TN increase with straw content within a given degradation period. The soil organic content (SOC) level is often considered one of the most essential parameters of the quality of agricultural soil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. The addition of straw to the dredge slurry effectively increases the SOC fraction, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003ea. At low straw contents (0.5%, 1%, 3%), the SOC increases over time (~ 14 days) prior to equilibrium; whereas, that keeps increasing at a slower rate at higher straw content (e.g., \u0026gt;5%). Similar trends were observed on the TN of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003eb).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe average C/N ratio in the straw-slurry matrix tends to increase till 14 days, followed by a decrease for the dredge slurry reinforced at all straw contents despite the increases in SOC and TN, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e. The decoupling of C and N after 14 degraded days could be attributed to the soil organic matter fraction. Yan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] reported a similar decoupling of C versus N stabilization within the slower turning over silt and clay fraction. As discussed above, a more systematical investigation, isolating microaggregates, macroaggregates, and microaggregates-within-macroaggregates, on the SOC and TN is proposed in the future study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePhosphorus and potassium contents\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e plots the P content (a) and K content (b) of straw-reinforced dredge slurry degraded over time at different straw contents. The increases in P and K contents were observed with time at all straw contents. The increases were abrupt at the first 14 degradation days, followed by a much slower increasing rate, presenting an “L” shape growth. This growth pattern could be due to the intrinsic decomposition pattern of straw, in which the decomposition rates of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and water-soluble polysaccharides in straws are different. In the initial stage of straw degradation, amino acids, soluble polysaccharides, organic acids, and mineral nutrients are released quickly. Over degradation time, only non-decomposable cellulose residues and lignin would be left, as the relatively easily decomposable hemicellulose and cellulose are consumed. Thus, a lower degradation rate would be obtained. In addition, the K content is generally greater with dredge slurry reinforced at higher straw content within a given degradation period; however, the trend is not that consistent in P content.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSoil pH\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe pH of straw-reinforced dredge slurry generally decreases over the degradation time regardless of the initial water content (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). The decrease in soil pH in reinforced slurry indicated the formation of acidic carboxylic groups during degradation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, the overall pH is lower for slurry at an initial water content of 133% (red area) compared to 106% (black area), suggesting the initial water content of dredge slurry is an essential factor determining the soil properties of straw-reinforced dredge slurry. The straw content did not significantly affect the soil pH in this study; however, the addition of straw adjusted the soil pH to the extent that was more suitable for planting.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study assessed the evolutionary behaviors of two sustainable alternatives for managing dredging sediment with wasted rice straw. The rheological and fertility properties of the straw-reinforced dredge slurry were investigated with a degradation period of 90 days for \u0026ldquo;treating the wastes with wastes.\u0026rdquo; A suite of rheological tests, including physical indexes, flow consistency, and viscosity, were conducted on the straw-reinforced dredge slurry at two initial water contents. An evaluation of fertilizer discharge on selected nutrients (SOC, TN, P, K) necessary for soil tillage was also conducted. The following conclusions are drawn based on the findings from the study:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eA higher liquid limit was obtained with the dredge slurry after straw reinforcement regardless of the straw content and degradation time at both initial water contents. A threshold straw content of approximately 3% was observed in terms of increasing the liquid limit. The fine content increased with degradation time in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe slump flow generally decreases with increasing degradation time, though limited reduction could be obtained after a certain degraded period (~\u0026thinsp;14 days). The addition of straw could further reduce the slump flow. The dynamic viscosity increases with increasing degradation time, especially for the dredge slurry reinforced at a straw content greater than 3%. It correlated well with the slump flow by a power function. Compared to the straw content, the initial water content is more dominant in controlling the slump flow and dynamic viscosity of the dredge slurry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eNutrients, including SOC, TN, P, and K, increase over time after straw reinforcement, suggesting effective land reclamation by straw blending. The increases were abrupt in the first 14 days, followed by a much slower increase rate. The decoupling of C and N after 14 days could be attributed to the soil organic matter fraction. Soil pH decreases over time as a result of acidic carboxylic group formation, increasing the potential for agricultural productivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is suggested that the effective straw reinforcement (at blending content greater than 3%) enhances the rheological properties for relocating and improves the soil fertility for in-situ tillage. Results in this study contribute to the resource recycling of dredged sediment and waste straw in engineering and environmental applications, relieving the vexing problems of dredge sediment management. A more systematic investigation, isolating microaggregates, macroaggregates, and microaggregates-within-macroaggregates, on the pore size distribution and the SOC and TN of the straw-reinforced slurry is proposed in the future study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinancial support for this work was provided by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52078449 and 51978597), Water Science and Technology Projects of Jiangsu Province (No. 2020064), and Qinglan Project of Jiangsu.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that they have no confict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu, G., Gao, Y., Hong, Z., Ding, J.: Sedimentation Behavior of Four Dredged Slurries in China. 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Geoderma. \u003cb\u003e269\u003c/b\u003e, 99\u0026ndash;107 (2016). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.01.033\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.01.033\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"waste-and-biomass-valorization","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"wave","sideBox":"Learn more about [Waste and Biomass Valorization](http://link.springer.com/journal/12649)","snPcode":"12649","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12649/3","title":"Waste and Biomass Valorization","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"dredge slurry, waste straw, rheology, soil fertility, degradation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3924122/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3924122/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluates the potential of using rice straw waste as a sustainable alternative for managing the dredge sediment. The rice straw was used to reinforce the dredge slurry to realize “treating the wastes with wastes”. The dredge slurry could be relocated with enhanced rheological properties or reclaimed cultivable land by in-situ management. In this framework, the rheological and fertility properties of straw-reinforced dredge slurry were investigated with a 90-day degradation period. The increased liquid limit and fine content were observed regardless of the straw content and degradation time, and a decreased slump flow and increased dynamic viscosity were obtained after the addition of straw. Nutrients, including SOC, TN, P, and K, increase over time after straw reinforcement, suggesting effective land reclamation by straw blending. The increases were abrupt in the first 14 days, followed by a gently increasing rate. Soil pH decreases over time to the range more suitable for planting. Results suggest that effective straw reinforcement enhances the rheological properties for relocating and improves the soil fertility for in-situ tillage. This study supplements the societal image of dredge materials and waste straws in engineering and environmental applications.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evolutionary Behaviors of Straw-Reinforced Slurry for Sustainable Management of Dredging Sediment: Rheological and Fertility Properties","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-03-06 19:17:29","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3924122/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-03-03T10:11:32+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-03-03T09:54:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Waste and Biomass Valorization","date":"2024-02-18T07:44:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-02-05T03:08:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Waste and Biomass Valorization","date":"2024-02-02T06:26:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"waste-and-biomass-valorization","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"wave","sideBox":"Learn more about [Waste and Biomass Valorization](http://link.springer.com/journal/12649)","snPcode":"12649","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12649/3","title":"Waste and Biomass Valorization","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"12f237ef-495d-40de-b427-2a47a348d405","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 6th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-04T16:23:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-3924122","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-024-02792-x","journal":{"identity":"waste-and-biomass-valorization","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Waste and Biomass Valorization"},"publishedOn":"2024-10-30 16:05:04","publishedOnDateReadable":"October 30th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-03-06 19:17:29","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s12649-024-02792-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-024-02792-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3924122","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3924122","identity":"rs-3924122","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}