From policy to practice: The influence of the legal framework on land use planning on sustainable development in Vietnam

From policy to practice: The influence of the legal framework on land use planning on sustainable development in Vietnam | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article From policy to practice: The influence of the legal framework on land use planning on sustainable development in Vietnam Thanh Luan Nguyen This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6878284/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 May, 2026 Read the published version in Humanities and Social Sciences Communications → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In the context where Vietnam faces numerous challenges from urbanization, industrialization, climate change, and scarcity of land resources, land use planning is a powerful tool for achieving sustainable development goals. The study applies an integrated theoretical framework combining institutional structure analysis and Foucault's discourse-power theory to clarify the drivers and barriers in the implementation of the legal framework on land use planning. Through the analysis of legal documents, policies, and implementation, the study reveals that the gap between policy and practice remains significant due to lack of publicity, transparency, democracy, weak implementation capacity, and concentrated power at various levels of government. Although the current legal framework has improved compared to before, its implementation is still not substantive but largely formalistic. The study concludes that to realize the principles of sustainable development, synchronous amendments and additions to the legal framework are needed, along with increased participation and oversight from the community and social organizations. Social science/Development studies Social science/Social policy Land use planning Sustainable development Policy-practice gap Land policy Vietnam Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction 1.1. Context In the context where the human living environment is under significant pressure, social inequality is becoming more severe, and land resources are increasingly scarce, land use planning has been widely recognized globally as an important tool to guide development towards the goals of sustainable development (Seto & Pandey, 2019 ; World Bank, 2009 ; Wu, 2013 ). Accordingly, if land use planning is effectively formulated and implemented, it will help balance land use for agricultural production, housing construction, industrial development, transportation infrastructure expansion, as well as other human needs, and achieve the goals of protecting the natural environment, preserving ecosystems, and ensuring the quality of life for both present and future generations (Mirzabaev et al., 2015 ; Verburg et al., 2015 ). Vietnam is a nation that has undergone strong socio-economic transformation in recent decades and has become the fastest-growing economy in Southeast Asia, evidenced by the rapid pace of urbanization, industrialization, and transportation infrastructure development (Raihan et al., 2024 ; Van Can & Dang, 2024 ). In this development process, land plays a crucial role not only as a foundation for socio-economic activities but is also considered an essential asset for poverty reduction and optimizing growth capacity. Alongside the achievements, Vietnam is also facing a series of challenges, including increasing pressure from rapid urbanization (UN-Habitat, 2022 ), climate change causing saltwater intrusion, and growing competition in land resource use between economic development and environmental preservation goals (Tuan, 2022 ). While the legal framework on land use planning is a powerful tool to regulate conflicts and ensure equity in land use to achieve sustainable development goals, its implementation in Vietnam still witnesses many shortcomings and limitations. From inconsistent planning and a lack of transparency in land allocation mechanisms to the situation of 'suspended planning' (quy hoạch treo), these challenges not only lead to resource waste but also erode the trust of stakeholders (Do Thanh Huyen, 2020 ). 1.2. Policy - practice gap: Conceptual framework and research gaps Vietnam has demonstrated significant efforts in building and perfecting the legal system regarding planning and land, with a focus on the Land Law 2024 and its implementing documents. However, the implementation of these legal provisions into practice to achieve sustainable development goals still faces many challenges and shortcomings. To systematize and clarify the nature of this core challenge, this study proposes a conceptual framework presented in the diagram below visualizing the policy-practice gap commonly encountered in land management and land use planning in Vietnam through the lens of sustainable development (Fig. 1 ). Caption for Fig. 1 : starting from 'Land use rights law and sustainable development objectives', representing the goals, policies, and principles regarding land use planning and sustainable development institutionalized within the national legal system, with the Land Law at its core. This is the starting point, reflecting the policy's objective. However, the process of bringing policy to life is 'Local Implementation', which is a complex filter strongly influenced by intermediate factors such as institutional capacity, implementation capacity, socio-political context, and the level of stakeholder participation. These factors interact with each other and shape how the legal framework is interpreted and applied in practice. The complexity and barriers in this implementation process lead to the emergence of the 'Policy-Practice Gap'. This is the core of the research problem, representing the mismatch or discrepancy between the initial policy objectives and actual implementation activities. The consequence is the ‘Sustainable Development Outcomes and Impacts'. The final impacts on the three pillars: Economic - Social - Environmental are the product of the implementation process that has been modified by intermediate factors and the policy-practice gap. Therefore, these outcomes can differ significantly, even contradicting the sustainable development goals set forth in the legal framework. As Fig. 1 clarifies, analyzing the policy-practice gap is central to understanding and improving the effectiveness of land management towards sustainable development. However, current studies reveal some gaps: Firstly, there is a lack of systematic analysis integrating the role and interaction of the Land Law 2024 in relation to sustainable development goals. Secondly, there is a need for timely assessment of the potential and challenges of the newly promulgated Land Law 2024 in narrowing the policy-practice gap. Thirdly, there is a need to develop multi-dimensional approaches, going beyond purely legal or economic analyses, to assess the balanced impacts on the economy, society, and environment as well as the role of power-institutions and practical feedback mechanisms. From the above context, this study poses the central question: “How do the current Land Law provisions truly promote sustainable development in Vietnam, and what are the drivers, institutional challenges, and discourse - operational factors that determine the ability to transform policy into effective management practice? Unlike previous studies, this research integrates the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework with Foucault's discourse-power theory, combining qualitative data analysis coded with the support of MAXQDA 24 software, providing a multidimensional perspective from the connection between theory, policy, and ongoing practice regarding the process of land use planning and management towards sustainable development in Vietnam. 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Sustainable development refers to the balanced development among the three pillars: economic, social, and environmental, aiming to ensure that current needs do not harm future generations (Bell & Morse, 2012 ). Land use planning and management play a crucial role in realizing sustainable development through rational spatial and resource allocation, creating a foundation for economic growth, ensuring social equity, and protecting the environment (Hersperger et al., 2018 ). However, there are some studies emphasizing that the objectives of these three pillars often conflict or involve 'trade-offs', such as between rapid industrial and urban development and resource conservation or social welfare (Scherer et al., 2018 ). Particularly, in the context of developing countries like Vietnam, effectively integrating sustainable development goals into land use planning practice faces many challenges, such as ineffective inter-sectoral coordination, lack of transparency in land allocation, as well as the existence of conflicts of interest or institutional barriers (Sachs & Souer, 2016 ; Sterie et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, the gap between legal regulations, policy objectives, and practical outcomes remains large. This phenomenon is referred to as the 'policy-practice gap' (O’Toole, 2000 ; Pattyn, 2019 ). Simultaneously, theories of policy implementation suggest that actual effectiveness is not solely determined by policy design but is also influenced by the multi-level institutional structure, the dynamics and capacity of actors, as well as the application of power and discourse in the management process (Foucault, 1972 ; Hajer, 1997 ; Ostrom, 2009 ). Many studies propose a systemic analytical approach, integrating institutional-discourse-action levels to deeply explain the gap between legal objectives and implementation results, especially in land use planning in transitional countries (Bouwmeester et al., 2023 ; Scherer et al., 2018 ). Based on the overview and theoretical foundation above, this research constructs and applies the integrated IAD - Foucault analytical framework to identify and explain the barriers and drivers in realizing land use planning policy towards sustainable development in Vietnam. Specific applications are presented in the methodology section. 3. RESEARCH METHODS 3.1. Proposed integrated analytical framework The Institutional Analysis and Development framework was used to analyze the multi-level institutional structure, including formal and informal rules and contextual factors such as physical attributes and community characteristics that influence the implementation of the legal framework for land use planning. In addition, the research integrated the discourse-power approach to analyze how language, knowledge, and power impact the process of forming, implementing, and adjusting the legal framework for land use planning. To emphasize the role of power and knowledge in constructing, reinforcing, or changing institutions and the actions of actors, the research applied Foucault's concept of discourse, clarifying how language, concepts, and arguments shape accepted understandings, values, and practices in the field of land management in general and land use planning in particular (Foucault, 1972 ; Hajer, 1997 ; Ostrom, 2009 ). The integration of these two approaches is illustrated in the IAD - Foucault integrated logic framework diagram, which depicts the process moving from multi-level institutions, through discourses - power, to practical actions and outcomes in land management and planning, while emphasizing the reciprocal feedback mechanism between these levels in the practical process in Vietnam (Fig. 2 ). Notes for Fig. 2 . The IAD - Foucault integrated analytical framework includes: (A) Multi-level Institutional Structure: based on the 2013 Constitution, the 2024 Land Law, guiding documents for the implementation of the 2024 Land Law, formal and informal rules, along with contextual factors such as physical attributes, community characteristics, resource conditions, and specific local conditions (National Assembly, 2024 ; Ostrom, 2009 ). (B) Interacting Discourses - Power: encompassing how legal language, arguments, and concepts are employed to establish, legitimize, or debate, thereby influencing the dynamics of action, consensus, critique, and the movement of power among stakeholders involved in land governance (Foucault, 1972 ; Hajer, 1997 ). (C) Management Actions and Practical Outcomes: reflecting the management activities and practical results of Land Use Planning (LUP) in Vietnam, including policy implementation, social responses, institutional adjustments, as well as impacts on sustainable development (Hien, 2021 ; National Assembly, 2024 ). This framework allows for a multi-dimensional analysis, not limited to formal regulations but also delving into underlying power factors and prevailing discourses in governance – elements often not explicitly stated in legal documents but decisive in practice (Frank Fischer, 2013 ). Furthermore, practical outcomes and feedback from society will increasingly adjust and impact back upon discourses as well as the initial institutional structure, forming a dynamic, flexible cycle. To specify the application of the IAD - Foucault integrated analytical framework in practical research, the table below details each analytical variable and helps illuminate the institutional, discourse, and practical aspects within each layer of the land management and planning process in Vietnam. Table 1 Detailed Matrix of the IAD - Foucault Integrated Analytical Framework in Land Use Planning in Vietnam Analytical Component (A) Multi-level Institutional Structure (B) Discourse – Power (C) Management Actions & Practical Outcomes Formal Rules Constitution 2013, Land Law 2024, decrees, circulars issued by competent state agencies Legal Language (sustainable development, environmental protection, national interest, public interest, openness, transparency,…) How to achieve the goal of land protection, sustainable development Informal Rules “Ask-Give” mechanism, local practices, customs, informal agreements Interpretation, re-signification in implementation (hidden, revealed power) Cases of flexibility/deviation, exploitation, gaps, legal loopholes Context Political, economic, social institutions, power structure Actors creating discourse, establishing “reasonable” norms, prioritizing interest groups Impact on land use rights allocation, policy design Actors State agencies, enterprises, social organizations, people How actors apply, misrepresent regulations to achieve goals Institutional innovation, policy response, conflict management Overall Outcomes Flow of rules, context, actions, land use rights implementation outcomes Role of language, power in policy advocacy Policy-practice gap, impact on sustainable development Feedback Practice impacting law, rule amendments Change in political - social discourse Policy adjustment, governance innovation Notes for Table 1 : Presents a detailed matrix of the IAD–Foucault integrated analytical framework in land use planning in Vietnam. The rows represent the main components to be analyzed from the perspective of multi-level institutions (A), discourses–power (B), and (C) management practice - practical outcomes. Each column describes specific content, criteria, and illustrative examples to help identify, evaluate, and compare operational dynamics, policy impacts, as well as feedback mechanisms in the land governance process in Vietnam. 3.2. Data Collection and Analysis This study was conducted based on the IAD–Foucault integrated analytical framework, allowing for a multi-dimensional assessment of the dynamics of institutions and discourses in land management and planning in Vietnam. 3.2.1. Data Collection Data sources include: - Legal documents and policies: the 2013 Constitution, the 2024 Land Law, decrees, circulars, and other legal documents related to land management and planning. - Secondary documents: Reports from state agencies, international organizations, research institutes, research works, land use statistics, as well as aggregated information from press and media. 3.2.2. Data Analysis - Content analysis and discourse analysis were used to identify themes and discourse structures in legal documents, policies, and media materials, based on the following main coding groups: (A) multi-level institutional structure, (B) discourse - power, and (C) management practices and outcomes. - MAXQDA 24 software supported the process of data organization, code system development, coding, and information extraction. The results were visualized by the author using tools (such as coding matrices, keyword diagrams), combined with illustrative citations to clarify the analytical arguments. This approach ensures transparency, logic, and a multi-dimensional perspective in analyzing the interaction between institutions, discourse, and practice in land governance and planning in Vietnam. 3.3. Limitations of the Study This study primarily relies on the analysis of documents and legal texts, policies. Although it has provided an overview and in-depth analysis of the legal framework and discourse, the absence of field data from interviews or case studies may limit the ability to fully capture diverse practical aspects, different perspectives, and variations in implementation at the local level. Furthermore, as the Land Law 2024 has only recently been promulgated, a full assessment of its impact will require longitudinal studies. 4. RESEARCH FINDINGS 4.1. Context and multi-level institutional structure in land use planning: Decoding through the IAD framework Analysis using the IAD framework showed that land use planning and management in Vietnam takes place within a complex "action space," where factors related to rules, actors, power, and information interact to shape development outcomes (CECODES et al., 2025; Dang Hung Vo & Nguyen Van Thang, 2013). This institutional structure is both governed by formal and informal legal norms and closely linked to the specific practical realities of Vietnam during each period of reform, specifically: Firstly, the system of rules Formal rules are legal documents issued by state agencies according to their authority, including the Constitution 2013 (National Assembly, 2013a ), the Land Law 2024, previously the Land Law 2013, guiding decrees, circulars (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2024a , 2024b ), along with a series of multi-level land plans from central to local levels (Government, 2023 ). The Land Law 2024 stipulates the public disclosure of planning maps, land price lists, data transparency, and promotion of community feedback. However, a practical survey showed that out of requests for information on district-level land use plans sent to 561 district-level People's Committees, only 17.5% of agencies provided information, 2.7% refused, 8.2% responded but did not provide information, and up to 71.7% did not respond. Among those that responded, only 53.9% processed the content fully within the legally prescribed time limit (CEPEW & UNDP Vietnam, 2022). This reality reflects a large gap between legal provisions and effective implementation, reducing the effectiveness of ensuring the right to access information, increasing the risk of disputes, and limiting community participation in the land policy-making process. - Informal rules are codes of conduct, social norms, customs, and implicit agreements, particularly common in many localities, such as land boundaries in the Northern Delta region still being based on village conventions or customs, or in the Central Highlands provinces where ethnic minorities practice shifting cultivation, nomadism, and leaving land fallow for a certain period before returning to cultivate it to restore soil fertility - instead of being strictly bound by planning maps (Central Institute for Economic Management et al., 2021; Hanh, 2015 ). In some places, there is a phenomenon of implicit agreements between businesses and local officials, leading to compensation, land acquisition, and project implementation processes that differ significantly from the public legal framework (Nguyen, 2021 ). Second, actors and relationships The main actors involved in the “action space” include: - The State: includes central-level agencies such as the National Assembly, the Government, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, currently the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment, the Ministry of Construction, etc., and state agencies at the local level including: People's Committees, People's Councils at all levels, competent departments and sectors that issue as well as implement regulations on land use planning in the locality. In reality, the power to decide on planning largely rests with the provincial-level People's Committees in shaping spatial development orientation and prioritizing resource allocation for implementation (Lan, 2021 ). - Large investors: these are enterprises, especially those engaged in real estate investment and industrial zone development, who are proactive entities proposing projects, lobbying for policies, and often have significant influence through financial relationships and access to internal information (Luan, 2024 ; Phuc et al., 2014 ). - Civil society organizations, research institutes: play a role in critical review, social monitoring, voicing community opinions, or providing analysis, research, and scientific advice to the planning and adjustment process (World Bank, 2011 ). However, the role of civil society organizations in Vietnam still has limited influence due to a lack of official mechanisms and power imbalance (Parenteau & Thong, 2005 ; Wischermann, 2010 ). - Local communities: are groups directly affected by land use planning, including individuals, households, and residential communities in areas planned for land acquisition or land use planning for public purposes, national defense and security, and economic development (Thanh, 2022 ). Reality shows that people's right to access, consult, and decide on land use planning remains limited and largely formalistic (Hoa et al., 2022 ). Third, resources, power, and motivations Most land use planning decisions are concentrated in provincial-level People's Committees and large enterprises because they hold close relationships with officials, as well as financial resources and planning information (Duchere & Duchere, 2019 ; Hirsch et al., 2015 ). In many cases, the process of planning approval as well as determining compensation prices and land use purpose conversion is characterized by local “specificities” where enterprises have significant influence (Luan, 2024 ; Nguyen, 2021 ; Thanh, 2022 ). Conversely, citizens and civil society organizations often face obstacles regarding resources, lack of transparent information, and insufficient space for substantive critical review – this is the cause of numerous prolonged complaints and protests against land acquisition projects, notably in Duong Noi (Nguyen Hung, 2012 ), Thu Thiem (Minh Quan, 2023 ), and in many localities nationwide (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2022 ; Pham et al., 2021 ). Fourth, interaction characteristics and policy effectiveness The asymmetrical power relationship, lack of coordination between levels and sectors, and limited information transparency have led to the situation of suspended planning, also known as “paper planning,” which is overlapping, conflicting, or suspended for many years, causing resource waste and generating social conflicts. (CEPEW et al., 2025). In many places, the rights of citizens, especially vulnerable groups, are overlooked in development plans, which increases the risk of complaints, reduces trust, and hinders sustainable development goals (Quang, 2015 ). To specifically illustrate the factors within the IAD framework and their manifestation in land use planning practice in Vietnam, the table below summarizes the key components with practical examples (Table 2 ). Table 2 IAD Framework Components in Land Use Planning in Vietnam and Practical Examples IAD - Foucault Components Content of Analysis Formal Rules Informal Rules Discourse – Power Actors Practical Examples Practical Data Sources (A) Multi-level Institutions Legal system for planning, management direction, implementation control Constitution 2013; Land Law 2024; decrees, circulars “Ask-Give”, tacit agreements, local flexibility, local customs Interpretation of “sustainable” goal, decentralization, transparency level National Assembly, Government, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, People's Committees at all levels Adjusting regional planning based on socio-economic changes; purpose conversion in Thu Thiem, Long Thanh Report on the implementation of the Land Law 2013 and orientation for amending the Land Law (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2022 ); Synthesis report on the national master plan for the period 2021–2030, vision to 2050 (Prime Minister, 2023a ); National master plan for the period 2021–2030, vision 2050 (National Assembly, 2023 ) (B) Discourse - Power Value system, policy language, how to guide public opinion, media Openness and transparency clauses, community participation... Guided media, interest groups “speaking for policy”, the integration of “public interest” Use of concepts, information power structure Leaders, enterprises, press, councils, residential communities Community consultation in Long Thành, Thủ Thiêm; social critique of urban projects Index of public disclosure of land use plans, land price lists (CECODES et al., 2025) (C) Management and Implementation, Results Implementation and control process, actual impact effectiveness Coordination mechanism, complaint handling/monitoring, sanctions Prioritizing powerful interest groups, lobbying, flexible implementation Administrative power, transparency barriers Department of Natural Resources and Environment (now Department of Agriculture and Environment), local enterprises, people, associations Prolonged complaints in Thủ Thiêm, Dương Nội; issuing/exchanging Land Use Rights Certificates with "informal payments" Number of land complaints, litigation cases (Minh Quan, 2023 ; Nguyen Hung, 2012 );; rate of required “informal payments” for land certificate issuance (CECODES et al., 2025) Context and Resources Natural-Economic-Social conditions, population structure, resource distribution National overall development master plan, resource use regulations Regional differentiation, vulnerable groups, benefit-sharing mechanism Resource control rights, driving forces for change Government, enterprises, vulnerable groups, community Pressure from land recovery in peri-urban areas, differentiation of resident interests Increasing urbanization rate; allocation of non-agricultural land by region (Prime Minister, 2023a ) Interaction - Feedback Impact loop, policy feedback through practice Critique/feedback mechanism, law amendment; inspection and monitoring, planning supplementation Lobbying, community recommendations, interest group influence Implementation effectiveness, policy-practice gap Entire political-social system, people, press Amendment of the Land Law; amending land price lists, adjusting compensation plans Issuing new Law (National Assembly, 2024 ), survey results of PAPI (CECODES et al., 2025), SDGs indices (Hong Thu et al., 2024 ), status of planning amendments After identifying the main components, the process of movement and interaction among these factors can be generalized through the illustrative diagram below, which visualizes the relationship between rules, actors, resources, and the final outcomes of the land-use planning process in Vietnam. Figure 3 Caption: Diagram illustrates the interaction and transformation among rules, actors, resources, power, and outcomes in the land-use planning process in Vietnam. Transparent rules, effective coordination among actors, and rational resource allocation can increase opportunities for achieving sustainable and equitable development. Conversely, power asymmetry can lead to prolonged conflicts, disputes, and complaints (Quach Du, 2024 ). 4.2. Dominant Discourse and Power Relations in Shaping Policy and Practice To clarify the dominant discourse and power relations in the formulation and implementation of the legal framework on land use in Vietnam, this study applied qualitative content analysis, supported by MAXQDA 24 software. The analysis focused on the provisions of the Land Law 2024 (National Assembly, 2024 ), The analysis focused on the provisions of the Land Law 2024, which are cross-referenced and linked with Vietnam's sustainable development goals as presented in Vietnam's SDG Implementation Roadmap to 2030 (Prime Minister, 2023b ), and Assessing Vietnam’s Progress towards Sustainable Development Goals: A Comprehensive Review (Hong Thu et al., 2024 ). The coding framework was built from themes and main codes derived directly from legal provisions and national SDG indicator groups, focusing on: planning, management, monitoring, access to information, protection of vulnerable groups, environmental protection, anti-corruption, regional development, and land policy processes. The detailed coding framework is presented in the table that follows (Table 3 ): Table 3 Main coding framework for analyzing the Land Law 2024 Main Code Main Content Regulations in the 2024 Land Law Sub-code Link to SDGs goals/2030 Roadmap Land use planning, land use plan Process for preparing, approving, and adjusting land use planning at all levels Article 253, Article 254, transitional provisions, review, integration of environmental factors, climate change adaptation, etc. - Approving authority/entity - Term/Period - Review, adjustment - Community consultation SDG 11.9, 11.10, 13; VN2030 Roadmap, target 92 Information access, digitalization, transparency Information access, public disclosure of land data, building and managing digital databases Article 15, Article 50, Article 64, Article 65, Article 66, Chapter XII (Articles 63–70), Article 256 on responsibility for digitalization of the national land database, providing public data, online public services - Level of disclosure - Digitalization - Percentage of communes achieving legal access standards SDG 16.9, 16.10, 9; National digitalization target Land recovery, compensation, support, resettlement Regulations on cases of land recovery, policies on compensation, support, and resettlement for affected people Chapter VI (Articles 78 - Article 89), Article 254, land recovery, compensation, transition, support for vulnerable groups, handling cases where land recovery decisions have been issued but not yet implemented - Subjects - Conditions - Monitoring - Methods of support SDG 1, 6, 8, 11; Quality support and resettlement indicators Land price, land price determination Principles, process for determining land price, public management and authority to adjust land price list Article 13, Article 19, Article 25, Chapter XI (Articles 155 - Article 162) process for adjusting land price, public disclosure, transparency of price list, handling change of land use purpose - Establishing entity - Process - Public disclosure - Transparency - Auction SDG 15.2, 16.6 Transparency indicator Rights and obligations of land users Rights to use/transfer/inherit land; financial obligations, environmental protection obligations/rights of vulnerable groups Article 5, Article 15, Article 16, Article 17, Chap. 3 (Articles 26 - Article 48), principles of land use, state guarantees, rights and obligations of land users; financial responsibilities,... - Right to transfer - Donation - Inheritance - Environmental responsibility SDG 1, 5, 15, 10; Social Equality Environmental protection, sustainable development Land planning must be linked with environmental protection, climate change adaptation, combating land degradation Article 55, Chapter V (Articles 60 – Article 77), Article 91, Article 190, Article 216 planning, sustainable development, mainstreaming environmental protection, climate change adaptation, sustainable use of special-use forest land,... - Environmental impact assessment - Climate change adaptation - Monitoring green index SDG 13, 15, 11, VN2030; Green index, target 94 Monitoring, complaints, dispute resolution Procedures for monitoring implementation, receiving and handling complaints/resolving land disputes Article 230, Article 231, Article 235, Article 237, citizen monitoring, state agency monitoring, Vietnam Fatherland Front, complaint procedures, dispute resolution procedures, handling complaints and denunciations, land dispute resolution - Resolving authority - Time limit - Order, procedures SDG 16.5, 16.9; Legal Justice Ensuring rights of vulnerable groups Priority policies, support for vulnerable groups (women, ethnic minorities, poor households...), equitable resettlement Article 16, Article 181, assistance provisions for vulnerable groups; legal support, land access, livelihood support, resettlement - Legal support - Access to information - Gender equality SDG 1, 5, 10, VN2030; Land access target Preventing and handling corruption and group interests Controlling transparency, public land auctions, sanctions for violating officials, preventing policy profiteering in land matters Article 229, Article 240 on land auction, sanctions for handling officials, public transparency of planning and land allocation - Auction - Transparency - Handling officials - Group interests SDG 16.5, 16.6, 16.9; CPI index, national transparency Management of national defense and security land and special-use land Management, transition, coordinated use of national defense and security land, process for converting special land types Article 68, Article 84, Article 200, Article 201 on national defense land, Article 243 on national defense and security land use planning with specific transitional provisions - Inter-sectoral - Purpose conversion - Handling overlap SDG 16, 17; Management of sensitive areas Regional linkage, development cooperation Regional linkage mechanism for planning, coordination of resources across multiple localities, integrated development policies, reducing overlap Article 65, Article 73 on integrated inter-provincial planning; regulations on policy synchronization, handling inter-regional conflicts of interest - Planning synchronization - Handling overlap - Ministry/sector coordination SDG 6.5, 9.1, 9.5, 11.9, 11.10 inter-regional linkages The illustrative diagram below (Fig. 4 ) visualizes the relationship between the main code groups in the Land Law 2024, compared and linked with Vietnam's sustainable development goals as presented in Vietnam's Roadmap for Implementing SDGs until 2030 and Assessing Vietnam’s Progress towards Sustainable Development Goals: A Comprehensive Review. The diagram below (Fig. 4 ) visualizes the relationship between the main code groups in the Land Law 2024, which are cross-referenced and linked with Vietnam's SDGs as presented in Vietnam's SDG Implementation Roadmap to 2030 and Assessing Vietnam’s Progress towards Sustainable Development Goals: A Comprehensive Review Analysis of the coding matrix and typical practical cases demonstrated that legal power and the dominant discourse in land-use planning in Vietnam continue to be strongly concentrated in state administrative agencies and investors. This is clearly illustrated through both the framework diagram (the main axis is “Policy Formulation & Implementation Process”, and the planning, land price, compensation, rights and obligations functions all originate from/lead to People's Committees at various levels, with consulting organizations and investors playing a decisive role), as well as the coding table: the actual power holders have the right to formulate, approve, and adjust planning, clear land, and determine land prices (Government, 2023 ; National Assembly, 2023 , 2024 ). Factors such as protection of vulnerable groups, information transparency, and environmental protection, although more clearly legalized, still primarily play a supplementary role. The role of the public, vulnerable groups, and sustainable development values in planning formulation and implementation remains limited due to: very low actual public access to land information, only 13.9% of people knew about district-level land use plans - according to a 2021 survey (CEPEW et al., 2025); community consultation often being formalistic and non-binding, lacking independent critique; and the decision-making process still being concentrated within state power blocks and businesses with direct interests (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2022 ). Transparency, digitalization, promoting access to information, protection of vulnerable groups, and environmental protection, although present in major blocks within the encoding scheme as well as new regulations, have not yet become the central focus for the distribution of decisive power over space, benefits, and land resources. International reports and studies on SDGs in Vietnam consistently agreed that the gap between legalizing SDGs and sustainable development criteria and the practical operational power remains a major challenge: actual power still resides with the administrative block and investors, while values related to the environment, transparency, and social equity are merely directional, not yet transformed into practical control or critique power (CEPEW et al., 2025; Hong Thu et al., 2024 ). Consequently, many real-world cases such as Thu Thiem, Long Thanh, or ethnic minority areas continue to record conflicts of interest, information inequality, and a lack of fair debate and negotiation mechanisms – even though these rights have theoretically been legalized and linked to national SDG indicators. This gap shows that legalizing SDGs is a significant step forward in the policy framework, but to truly transform into enforcement power, Vietnam needs to increase independent oversight power, enhance the substantive participation rights, and elevate the actual negotiation position of vulnerable groups, communities, and social organizations in the land decision-making process (Hong Thu et al., 2024 ; Prime Minister, 2023a ). 4.3. Drivers, barriers, and conditions for transforming land use planning policy in Vietnam 4.3.1. Key transformation drivers As analyzed, land use planning in Vietnam is currently influenced by a series of multi-dimensional drivers, notably the pressure of socio-economic development, international integration, and the need to attract investment for infrastructure modernization (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2025 ; Prime Minister, 2023a ). Particularly, following the promulgation of the 2024 Land Law and the national land use planning, localities are compelled to strongly promote public disclosure, transparency, and professionalization of the process for developing, publicizing, and implementing land use planning. Another important highlight is the promotion of information technology application and digital transformation in management, digitalization of planning data, and improvement of information access and oversight capabilities for citizens and social organizations (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2023 ). The increasingly active participation of civil society organizations contributes to building a culture of dialogue and social monitoring, and gradually promotes community rights, equitable access to and use of land, supporting sustainable development goals (Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2023 ). Moreover, the orientations for urban-rural development, regional linkage, emphasis on environmental protection, focus on climate change adaptation, and sustainable development identified in the national land use planning also create impetus, compelling land governance power to move towards a more sustainable and transparent direction (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2025 ). 4.3.2. Barriers to the transformation process Alongside the drivers, numerous obstacles to substantive transformation exist. Regarding the power structure, a portion of decision-making power remains concentrated at local government levels and with major investors, forming a “power axis” that dominates most land use planning decisions, rendering the role of communities, vulnerable groups, and social consultation activities largely formalistic. Reality shows that consultation and information access rights, although legalized, are mostly focused on administrative procedures, and citizens' opinions have not truly become decisive principles (CEPEW et al., 2025). Furthermore, many inadequacies in governance capacity, lack of technological synchronization, and uneven digitalization among localities lead to a lack of transparency, resulting in significant consequences such as prolonged complaints and loss of social trust (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2022 , 2025 ). Civil society organizations are currently weak in resources, lack legal space, professional capacity, and necessary protection, limiting their impact in critique and protecting vulnerable groups. Asymmetry in economic, information, and legal access continues to be a “bottleneck” causing significant difficulties for citizens – especially women, ethnic minorities, and vulnerable groups – in participating in negotiations and protecting their land rights (Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2023 ). 4.3.3. Conditions for substantive transformation To transform the legal framework on land use planning into practice in a sustainable, equitable, and truly people-centered manner, the following important conditions need to be ensured: Firstly, increase decentralization, clarify the accountability of management levels, and at the same time truly expand the monitoring and critical feedback role of the community and civil society organizations (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2025 ). Secondly, promote transparency and digitalization of the land planning information system and ensure wide accessibility, especially for vulnerable groups and people in remote areas (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2022 ). Thirdly, develop programs to enhance negotiation capacity and legal support for land users, especially women and ethnic minorities (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2023 ; Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2023 ). Fourthly, synchronize formal legal rules with local norms and customs, ensuring both equity and preserving community identity (Hong Thu et al., 2024 ). Fifthly, increase inter-sectoral cooperation and learn from international experience regarding transparency, protection of community rights, and modern land management (CEPEW et al., 2025). 4.4. Mechanism for feedback and adjustment of the land use planning legal framework from Practice The mechanism for feedback and adjustment of the legal framework on land use planning in Vietnam is increasingly emphasized to ensure that the proposed policies and orientations are consistent with practical life, ensuring transparency, equity, and sustainability. Viewed from the practical implementation of the legal framework, independent survey results, as well as the requirements of national development strategies, this mechanism is becoming more diverse and plays an important role in the process of amending and improving policies. This process can be identified through the following aspects: Firstly, the practical feedback mechanism in the 2024 Land Law. Accordingly, Article 70 stipulates that before deciding to approve the plan, the planning agency must solicit opinions from relevant individuals, households, communities, and organizations and must fully and objectively receive and explain them. This is a mandatory step to ensure two-way information flow and the right of people to give opinions and feedback. Secondly, in terms of implementation, empirical evidence from PAPI surveys and independent reports indicates that community consultation tends to improve but still has many limitations. People are allowed to contribute opinions; however, the response rate from competent authorities remains low, specifically: the rate of responding to land-related requests or recommendations on time nationwide in 2022 was only about 17.5%. The main reasons are barriers to technology access, lack of transparent information, or publicly available documents on websites being inadequate in format, timeliness, and completeness (CECODES et al., 2025). Thirdly, feedback channels are not limited to local consultation but also extend to social monitoring, media, social networks, and the role of civil society organizations. Pressure from public opinion, the media, as well as critical feedback from social organizations play a role in detecting, recommending, and promoting policy adjustments that are closer to reality, especially when disputes or planning projects causing public concern or social instability occur (CECODES et al., 2025; CEPEW & UNDP Vietnam, 2022). Fourthly, the National Master Plan for the period 2021–2030 emphasizes the requirement for flexible spatial and population organization, focusing on practical needs, encouraging the application of technology and digital transformation to increase the level of interaction and responsiveness of both the government and the people, ensuring that "no one is left behind" (Prime Minister, 2023a ). Fifth, feedback from practice plays a crucial role in identifying inadequacies in regional planning and adaptability to natural disasters and climate change, thereby adjusting development policies, resource allocation, and ensuring the integration of sustainable development goals (Ministry of Planning and Investment, 2023 ) as presented in the Report on the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goals and the National Environmental Status Report each year (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2023 ). Sixth, the Land Law 2024 and its guiding implementation documents clearly stipulate accountability, disclosure obligations, and require state agencies to receive, respond to, and handle opinions, recommendations, and complaints related to land planning within the prescribed timeframe (Government, 2024 ; Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2024b ; National Assembly, 2024 ). Special attention is given to independent inspection and monitoring of the level of disclosure and the quality of responses at each locality, aiming to ensure the transparency, equity, and effectiveness of land use planning (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2025 ). 5. DISCUSSION The research findings have clarified the operational mechanism, strengths, and limitations in the design and implementation of the legal framework for land use planning in Vietnam, contributing to bridging the knowledge gap regarding power relations, dynamics, and conditions for substantive transformation related to sustainable development. First, the application of the IAD institutional analysis framework and discourse-power theory has provided a solid basis for identifying the power structure and the operation of various actors from central to local levels, businesses, communities, and civil society organizations in land use planning in Vietnam. The results have shown that centralized power remains the dominant axis, specifically: state management agencies and large investors largely control land use planning decisions, land valuation, and land allocation. The dominant discourse emphasizing economic development, infrastructure modernization, and international integration continues to shape policy priorities, as well as the development and refinement of the legal framework, while principles of social equity, environmental protection, or vulnerable groups are only at a “supplementary” or integrated level. Second, compared to the Land Law 2013 (National Assembly, 2013b ), the Land Law 2024 has added many provisions on transparency, consultation, and protection of the rights of citizens and vulnerable groups, but practice shows that these additions are only on paper and have not been realized. The matrix coding analysis results show that the opinions of the community, social organizations, and vulnerable groups are still weak, and social monitoring is not substantive but largely formalistic. Community consultation remains procedural, lacking mechanisms for incorporating valuable feedback on important policies, which means the goals of transparency and social consensus have not met expectations. Third, the drivers of transforming the legal framework into practice, including pressure from land-related complaints, integration requirements, media pressure, public opinion, technological innovation, and the activities of civil society organizations, have contributed to improving the process of drafting and consulting the opinions of citizens and residential communities, as well as the disclosure and transparency of land use planning. However, barriers such as centralized power, information asymmetry, regional disparities in governance capacity, professional expertise, and limitations in civil society resources continue to restrict the conditions for substantive transformation in many localities (UNDP Vietnam, 2013 ). Fourth, the feedback mechanism from practice and the role of media, the internet, and civil society organizations have shown positive signs: policies have been adjusted more flexibly and appropriately to reality when receiving social pressure, especially through incidents that caused public outcry such as Thu Thiem, Long Thanh... However, this result is uneven and not systemic; in many disadvantaged and remote areas, people still have great difficulty accessing information and lack the legal-technical foundation to protect their rights. In summary, this study demonstrated that the IAD theoretical framework combined with discourse-power critique is an effective tool for clarifying complex relationships and dynamics in the implementation of the legal framework on land use planning; it also indicated that substantive transformation can only occur with simultaneous changes in the legal framework, enhanced transparency, openness, democracy, increased community participation rights and negotiation capacity, especially for vulnerable groups, as well as strengthened capacity for policy feedback from practice. The current legal framework on land use planning, if it is to transform into a driver for sustainable development, needs to implement these conditions synchronously, rather than merely changing on paper. 6. CONCLUSION This research paper has provided a comprehensive perspective on the mechanism for formulating, implementing, and transforming the legal framework on land use planning in Vietnam, placed in relation to the goal of sustainable development. Based on the institutional analysis framework and discourse-power theory, the analyses have clarified not only the power structure dominating the planning process but also the drivers, barriers, and practical conditions affecting the effectiveness and equity of the legal framework. Firstly, the study indicated that, although the legal framework on land use planning has become increasingly complete with the promulgation of the Land Law 2024, actual power remains primarily concentrated in state agencies and large investors. The substantive participation of the community, vulnerable groups, and civil society organizations remains formal, not truly creating a sufficiently strong counterbalance to important decisions regarding land use planning. Secondly, the gap between policy and practice remains large due to power asymmetries, barriers to transparency and openness, access to information, governance capacity, and a lack of effective feedback mechanisms. New dynamics such as public opinion, the requirement for digital transformation, the development of civil society organizations, media, and social networks have contributed to promoting transparency and adjusting the legal framework applicable nationwide and regulations in some localities. However, the unevenness in practice shows the need for continued amendment, supplementation, and updating of the legal framework on land use planning. This should include attention to increasing community participation rights and ensuring synchronous implementation from the central to local levels. Thirdly, towards the goal of sustainable development, the legal framework on land use planning in Vietnam needs profound transformation in the following aspects: (1) strengthening decentralization, delegation of authority, and accountability among management levels, (2) enhancing social capacity for critical ability, and oversight and creating substantive conditions for vulnerable groups to participate, and (3) promoting transparency, openness, democratization, digitalization, and process synchronization between the legal framework and implementation. In conclusion, the realization of progressive legal principles can only succeed if guaranteed by substantive innovation in the legal framework, governance methods, participation mechanisms, and social feedback. The contribution of this study is to provide academic and practical arguments for continued amendment and supplementation of the legal framework on land use planning to create a foundation for transparent, equitable, and sustainable land governance in Vietnam in the future. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Ethical approval This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by the Informed Consent Not applicable. This study is a secondary analysis of publicly available, anonymized data. Therefore, informed consent was not required. identity of the respondent. All sources used by this study have been considered and cited. Additional information Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to author. Author Contribution Dr. NTL wrote this entire article. Acknowledgement The author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions. This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Data Availability This study uses publicly available documents and secondary sources. No new primary data were collected. Some elements (for example, detailed MAXQDA coding matrices, coding schemes, and data extraction tables derived from legal texts and media sources) are not publicly available in full due to confidentiality and sensitivity. The coding framework and results are described in the manuscript; non-identifiable summaries can be shared on request to protect confidentiality. A restricted supplementary file with non-identifiable coding framework elements may be provided, subject to the journal’s policy. Access to the full coding matrix would require a data access agreement with the corresponding author. References Bell S, Morse S (2012) Sustainability indicators: Measuring the immeasurable? Second edition. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6878284","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":502108971,"identity":"fe8c6190-2104-4cfe-b9ce-0358e8c42228","order_by":0,"name":"Thanh Luan Nguyen","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCQYGZoYCMMOMgaECyGBmbsCrgwesxQCm5QxICyMpWhjbQGIEtNhLNz97XGBwWN5cunnb48J5tdH87UAtPyq24bZF5pi58QyDw4Y75xwrN5657XjujMOMDYw9Z27jcViCmTSPwWHGDTdyzKR5tx3LbQBqYWZsw6cl/RtIiz1Ey5xjufMJa8kB25II0dJQk7uBoJYbOWVALenJG+4A/TLj2IHcjUAtB/H5hX1G+jZpngpr2w23gSFWUFOXO+/84YMPflTg1oICmBkYDoMZB4hTD9FSR7TiUTAKRsEoGDkAAFavWDyUNx8FAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND JUDICIAL SUPPLEMENT (IS JUSU)","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Thanh","middleName":"Luan","lastName":"Nguyen","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-12 08:38:34","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6878284/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6878284/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-026-07439-x","type":"published","date":"2026-05-02T15:58:26+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89349035,"identity":"2b46bf24-d748-47fd-afee-8b5549bff995","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 05:40:50","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25052,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConceptual Framework illustrating the Policy-Practice Gap in Land Use Planning and Sustainable Development in Vietnam\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6878284/v1/d5c87efe7165e250838a4dde.png"},{"id":89348296,"identity":"b654b951-ddcf-45bd-b016-e858492f9bbc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 05:32:50","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51648,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntegrated Analytical Framework (IAD–Foucault) for Land Management and Planning in Vietnam\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6878284/v1/eaa25ca78d59f402f6bbea63.png"},{"id":89348297,"identity":"dd5b954a-4f05-487c-ae19-b2ca80d49e84","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 05:32:50","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41459,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOperation of the IAD framework in practical land-use planning in Vietnam\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6878284/v1/64cf11371c33e4a04e92d6d9.png"},{"id":89348300,"identity":"ad2715ac-f6d9-497a-8f48-59740326da0c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 05:32:50","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":139428,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMain code group diagram\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6878284/v1/241fbc4069f588ef8815db89.png"},{"id":108804440,"identity":"9e602b4b-c0b6-48b9-89b3-c2cfdf5e41f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:20:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":772861,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6878284/v1/8ad8c5d5-013e-45ca-bbeb-f7b8a169da67.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"From policy to practice: The influence of the legal framework on land use planning on sustainable development in Vietnam","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.1. Context\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the context where the human living environment is under significant pressure, social inequality is becoming more severe, and land resources are increasingly scarce, land use planning has been widely recognized globally as an important tool to guide development towards the goals of sustainable development (Seto \u0026amp; Pandey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Wu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Accordingly, if land use planning is effectively formulated and implemented, it will help balance land use for agricultural production, housing construction, industrial development, transportation infrastructure expansion, as well as other human needs, and achieve the goals of protecting the natural environment, preserving ecosystems, and ensuring the quality of life for both present and future generations (Mirzabaev et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Verburg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Vietnam is a nation that has undergone strong socio-economic transformation in recent decades and has become the fastest-growing economy in Southeast Asia, evidenced by the rapid pace of urbanization, industrialization, and transportation infrastructure development (Raihan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Van Can \u0026amp; Dang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In this development process, land plays a crucial role not only as a foundation for socio-economic activities but is also considered an essential asset for poverty reduction and optimizing growth capacity. Alongside the achievements, Vietnam is also facing a series of challenges, including increasing pressure from rapid urbanization (UN-Habitat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), climate change causing saltwater intrusion, and growing competition in land resource use between economic development and environmental preservation goals (Tuan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). While the legal framework on land use planning is a powerful tool to regulate conflicts and ensure equity in land use to achieve sustainable development goals, its implementation in Vietnam still witnesses many shortcomings and limitations. From inconsistent planning and a lack of transparency in land allocation mechanisms to the situation of 'suspended planning' (quy hoạch treo), these challenges not only lead to resource waste but also erode the trust of stakeholders (Do Thanh Huyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e1.2. Policy - practice gap: Conceptual framework and research gaps\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eVietnam has demonstrated significant efforts in building and perfecting the legal system regarding planning and land, with a focus on the Land Law 2024 and its implementing documents. However, the implementation of these legal provisions into practice to achieve sustainable development goals still faces many challenges and shortcomings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo systematize and clarify the nature of this core challenge, this study proposes a conceptual framework presented in the diagram below visualizing the policy-practice gap commonly encountered in land management and land use planning in Vietnam through the lens of sustainable development (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaption for Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e: starting from 'Land use rights law and sustainable development objectives', representing the goals, policies, and principles regarding land use planning and sustainable development institutionalized within the national legal system, with the Land Law at its core. This is the starting point, reflecting the policy's objective. However, the process of bringing policy to life is 'Local Implementation', which is a complex filter strongly influenced by intermediate factors such as institutional capacity, implementation capacity, socio-political context, and the level of stakeholder participation. These factors interact with each other and shape how the legal framework is interpreted and applied in practice. The complexity and barriers in this implementation process lead to the emergence of the 'Policy-Practice Gap'. This is the core of the research problem, representing the mismatch or discrepancy between the initial policy objectives and actual implementation activities. The consequence is the \u0026lsquo;Sustainable Development Outcomes and Impacts'. The final impacts on the three pillars: Economic - Social - Environmental are the product of the implementation process that has been modified by intermediate factors and the policy-practice gap. Therefore, these outcomes can differ significantly, even contradicting the sustainable development goals set forth in the legal framework.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e clarifies, analyzing the policy-practice gap is central to understanding and improving the effectiveness of land management towards sustainable development. However, current studies reveal some gaps:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirstly, there is a lack of systematic analysis integrating the role and interaction of the Land Law 2024 in relation to sustainable development goals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, there is a need for timely assessment of the potential and challenges of the newly promulgated Land Law 2024 in narrowing the policy-practice gap.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThirdly, there is a need to develop multi-dimensional approaches, going beyond purely legal or economic analyses, to assess the balanced impacts on the economy, society, and environment as well as the role of power-institutions and practical feedback mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom the above context, this study poses the central question: \u0026ldquo;How do the current Land Law provisions truly promote sustainable development in Vietnam, and what are the drivers, institutional challenges, and discourse - operational factors that determine the ability to transform policy into effective management practice?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnlike previous studies, this research integrates the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework with Foucault's discourse-power theory, combining qualitative data analysis coded with the support of MAXQDA 24 software, providing a multidimensional perspective from the connection between theory, policy, and ongoing practice regarding the process of land use planning and management towards sustainable development in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK","content":"\u003cp\u003eSustainable development refers to the balanced development among the three pillars: economic, social, and environmental, aiming to ensure that current needs do not harm future generations (Bell \u0026amp; Morse, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Land use planning and management play a crucial role in realizing sustainable development through rational spatial and resource allocation, creating a foundation for economic growth, ensuring social equity, and protecting the environment (Hersperger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, there are some studies emphasizing that the objectives of these three pillars often conflict or involve 'trade-offs', such as between rapid industrial and urban development and resource conservation or social welfare (Scherer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Particularly, in the context of developing countries like Vietnam, effectively integrating sustainable development goals into land use planning practice faces many challenges, such as ineffective inter-sectoral coordination, lack of transparency in land allocation, as well as the existence of conflicts of interest or institutional barriers (Sachs \u0026amp; Souer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Sterie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the gap between legal regulations, policy objectives, and practical outcomes remains large. This phenomenon is referred to as the 'policy-practice gap' (O\u0026rsquo;Toole, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Pattyn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimultaneously, theories of policy implementation suggest that actual effectiveness is not solely determined by policy design but is also influenced by the multi-level institutional structure, the dynamics and capacity of actors, as well as the application of power and discourse in the management process (Foucault, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e; Hajer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Ostrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Many studies propose a systemic analytical approach, integrating institutional-discourse-action levels to deeply explain the gap between legal objectives and implementation results, especially in land use planning in transitional countries (Bouwmeester et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Scherer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the overview and theoretical foundation above, this research constructs and applies the integrated IAD - Foucault analytical framework to identify and explain the barriers and drivers in realizing land use planning policy towards sustainable development in Vietnam. Specific applications are presented in the methodology section.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESEARCH METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Proposed integrated analytical framework\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Institutional Analysis and Development framework was used to analyze the multi-level institutional structure, including formal and informal rules and contextual factors such as physical attributes and community characteristics that influence the implementation of the legal framework for land use planning. In addition, the research integrated the discourse-power approach to analyze how language, knowledge, and power impact the process of forming, implementing, and adjusting the legal framework for land use planning. To emphasize the role of power and knowledge in constructing, reinforcing, or changing institutions and the actions of actors, the research applied Foucault's concept of discourse, clarifying how language, concepts, and arguments shape accepted understandings, values, and practices in the field of land management in general and land use planning in particular (Foucault, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e; Hajer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Ostrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe integration of these two approaches is illustrated in the IAD - Foucault integrated logic framework diagram, which depicts the process moving from multi-level institutions, through discourses - power, to practical actions and outcomes in land management and planning, while emphasizing the reciprocal feedback mechanism between these levels in the practical process in Vietnam (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNotes for Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The IAD - Foucault integrated analytical framework includes:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e(A) Multi-level Institutional Structure: based on the 2013 Constitution, the 2024 Land Law, guiding documents for the implementation of the 2024 Land Law, formal and informal rules, along with contextual factors such as physical attributes, community characteristics, resource conditions, and specific local conditions (National Assembly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Ostrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e(B) Interacting Discourses - Power: encompassing how legal language, arguments, and concepts are employed to establish, legitimize, or debate, thereby influencing the dynamics of action, consensus, critique, and the movement of power among stakeholders involved in land governance (Foucault, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e; Hajer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e(C) Management Actions and Practical Outcomes: reflecting the management activities and practical results of Land Use Planning (LUP) in Vietnam, including policy implementation, social responses, institutional adjustments, as well as impacts on sustainable development (Hien, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; National Assembly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis framework allows for a multi-dimensional analysis, not limited to formal regulations but also delving into underlying power factors and prevailing discourses in governance \u0026ndash; elements often not explicitly stated in legal documents but decisive in practice (Frank Fischer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, practical outcomes and feedback from society will increasingly adjust and impact back upon discourses as well as the initial institutional structure, forming a dynamic, flexible cycle.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo specify the application of the IAD - Foucault integrated analytical framework in practical research, the table below details each analytical variable and helps illuminate the institutional, discourse, and practical aspects within each layer of the land management and planning process in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetailed Matrix of the IAD - Foucault Integrated Analytical Framework in Land Use Planning in Vietnam\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalytical Component\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(A)\u0026nbsp;Multi-level Institutional Structure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(B)\u0026nbsp;Discourse \u0026ndash; Power\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(C)\u0026nbsp;Management Actions \u0026amp; Practical Outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFormal Rules\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstitution 2013, Land Law 2024, decrees, circulars issued by competent state agencies\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLegal Language (sustainable development, environmental protection, national interest, public interest, openness, transparency,\u0026hellip;)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow to achieve the goal of land protection, sustainable development\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInformal Rules\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Ask-Give\u0026rdquo; mechanism, local practices, customs, informal agreements\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterpretation, re-signification in implementation (hidden, revealed power)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCases of flexibility/deviation, exploitation, gaps, legal loopholes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eContext\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolitical, economic, social institutions, power structure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActors creating discourse, establishing \u0026ldquo;reasonable\u0026rdquo; norms, prioritizing interest groups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImpact on land use rights allocation, policy design\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eActors\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eState agencies, enterprises, social organizations, people\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow actors apply, misrepresent regulations to achieve goals\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstitutional innovation, policy response, conflict management\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOverall Outcomes\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlow of rules, context, actions, land use rights implementation outcomes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRole of language, power in policy advocacy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolicy-practice gap, impact on sustainable development\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFeedback\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePractice impacting law, rule amendments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChange in political - social discourse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolicy adjustment, governance innovation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNotes for Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e: Presents a detailed matrix of the IAD\u0026ndash;Foucault integrated analytical framework in land use planning in Vietnam. The rows represent the main components to be analyzed from the perspective of multi-level institutions (A), discourses\u0026ndash;power (B), and (C) management practice - practical outcomes. Each column describes specific content, criteria, and illustrative examples to help identify, evaluate, and compare operational dynamics, policy impacts, as well as feedback mechanisms in the land governance process in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Data Collection and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted based on the IAD\u0026ndash;Foucault integrated analytical framework, allowing for a multi-dimensional assessment of the dynamics of institutions and discourses in land management and planning in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData sources include:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Legal documents and policies: the 2013 Constitution, the 2024 Land Law, decrees, circulars, and other legal documents related to land management and planning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Secondary documents: Reports from state agencies, international organizations, research institutes, research works, land use statistics, as well as aggregated information from press and media.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Content analysis and discourse analysis were used to identify themes and discourse structures in legal documents, policies, and media materials, based on the following main coding groups: (A) multi-level institutional structure, (B) discourse - power, and (C) management practices and outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e- MAXQDA 24 software supported the process of data organization, code system development, coding, and information extraction. The results were visualized by the author using tools (such as coding matrices, keyword diagrams), combined with illustrative citations to clarify the analytical arguments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis approach ensures transparency, logic, and a multi-dimensional perspective in analyzing the interaction between institutions, discourse, and practice in land governance and planning in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Limitations of the Study\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study primarily relies on the analysis of documents and legal texts, policies. Although it has provided an overview and in-depth analysis of the legal framework and discourse, the absence of field data from interviews or case studies may limit the ability to fully capture diverse practical aspects, different perspectives, and variations in implementation at the local level. Furthermore, as the Land Law 2024 has only recently been promulgated, a full assessment of its impact will require longitudinal studies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. RESEARCH FINDINGS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1. Context and multi-level institutional structure in land use planning: Decoding through the IAD framework\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalysis using the IAD framework showed that land use planning and management in Vietnam takes place within a complex \"action space,\" where factors related to rules, actors, power, and information interact to shape development outcomes (CECODES et al., 2025; Dang Hung Vo \u0026amp; Nguyen Van Thang, 2013). This institutional structure is both governed by formal and informal legal norms and closely linked to the specific practical realities of Vietnam during each period of reform, specifically:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirstly, the system of rules\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormal rules are legal documents issued by state agencies according to their authority, including the Constitution 2013 (National Assembly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013a\u003c/span\u003e), the Land Law 2024, previously the Land Law 2013, guiding decrees, circulars (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024b\u003c/span\u003e), along with a series of multi-level land plans from central to local levels (Government, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The Land Law 2024 stipulates the public disclosure of planning maps, land price lists, data transparency, and promotion of community feedback. However, a practical survey showed that out of requests for information on district-level land use plans sent to 561 district-level People's Committees, only 17.5% of agencies provided information, 2.7% refused, 8.2% responded but did not provide information, and up to 71.7% did not respond. Among those that responded, only 53.9% processed the content fully within the legally prescribed time limit (CEPEW \u0026amp; UNDP Vietnam, 2022). This reality reflects a large gap between legal provisions and effective implementation, reducing the effectiveness of ensuring the right to access information, increasing the risk of disputes, and limiting community participation in the land policy-making process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Informal rules are codes of conduct, social norms, customs, and implicit agreements, particularly common in many localities, such as land boundaries in the Northern Delta region still being based on village conventions or customs, or in the Central Highlands provinces where ethnic minorities practice shifting cultivation, nomadism, and leaving land fallow for a certain period before returning to cultivate it to restore soil fertility - instead of being strictly bound by planning maps (Central Institute for Economic Management et al., 2021; Hanh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In some places, there is a phenomenon of implicit agreements between businesses and local officials, leading to compensation, land acquisition, and project implementation processes that differ significantly from the public legal framework (Nguyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond, actors and relationships\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe main actors involved in the \u0026ldquo;action space\u0026rdquo; include:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e- The State: includes central-level agencies such as the National Assembly, the Government, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, currently the Ministry of Agriculture and Environment, the Ministry of Construction, etc., and state agencies at the local level including: People's Committees, People's Councils at all levels, competent departments and sectors that issue as well as implement regulations on land use planning in the locality. In reality, the power to decide on planning largely rests with the provincial-level People's Committees in shaping spatial development orientation and prioritizing resource allocation for implementation (Lan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Large investors: these are enterprises, especially those engaged in real estate investment and industrial zone development, who are proactive entities proposing projects, lobbying for policies, and often have significant influence through financial relationships and access to internal information (Luan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Phuc et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Civil society organizations, research institutes: play a role in critical review, social monitoring, voicing community opinions, or providing analysis, research, and scientific advice to the planning and adjustment process (World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). However, the role of civil society organizations in Vietnam still has limited influence due to a lack of official mechanisms and power imbalance (Parenteau \u0026amp; Thong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Wischermann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Local communities: are groups directly affected by land use planning, including individuals, households, and residential communities in areas planned for land acquisition or land use planning for public purposes, national defense and security, and economic development (Thanh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Reality shows that people's right to access, consult, and decide on land use planning remains limited and largely formalistic (Hoa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThird, resources, power, and motivations\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost land use planning decisions are concentrated in provincial-level People's Committees and large enterprises because they hold close relationships with officials, as well as financial resources and planning information (Duchere \u0026amp; Duchere, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Hirsch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In many cases, the process of planning approval as well as determining compensation prices and land use purpose conversion is characterized by local \u0026ldquo;specificities\u0026rdquo; where enterprises have significant influence (Luan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Nguyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Thanh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, citizens and civil society organizations often face obstacles regarding resources, lack of transparent information, and insufficient space for substantive critical review \u0026ndash; this is the cause of numerous prolonged complaints and protests against land acquisition projects, notably in Duong Noi (Nguyen Hung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), Thu Thiem (Minh Quan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), and in many localities nationwide (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Pham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFourth, interaction characteristics and policy effectiveness\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe asymmetrical power relationship, lack of coordination between levels and sectors, and limited information transparency have led to the situation of suspended planning, also known as \u0026ldquo;paper planning,\u0026rdquo; which is overlapping, conflicting, or suspended for many years, causing resource waste and generating social conflicts. (CEPEW et al., 2025). In many places, the rights of citizens, especially vulnerable groups, are overlooked in development plans, which increases the risk of complaints, reduces trust, and hinders sustainable development goals (Quang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo specifically illustrate the factors within the IAD framework and their manifestation in land use planning practice in Vietnam, the table below summarizes the key components with practical examples (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIAD Framework Components in Land Use Planning in Vietnam and Practical Examples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIAD - Foucault Components\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent of Analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormal Rules\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformal Rules\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiscourse \u0026ndash; Power\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePractical Examples\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePractical Data Sources\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(A) Multi-level Institutions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLegal system for planning, management direction, implementation control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConstitution 2013; Land Law 2024; decrees, circulars\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Ask-Give\u0026rdquo;, tacit agreements, local flexibility, local customs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterpretation of \u0026ldquo;sustainable\u0026rdquo; goal, decentralization, transparency level\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational Assembly, Government, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, People's Committees at all levels\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdjusting regional planning based on socio-economic changes; purpose conversion in Thu Thiem, Long Thanh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReport on the implementation of the Land Law 2013 and orientation for amending the Land Law (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSynthesis report on the national master plan for the period 2021\u0026ndash;2030, vision to 2050\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Prime Minister, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e);\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational master plan for the period 2021\u0026ndash;2030, vision 2050\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(National Assembly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(B) Discourse - Power\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eValue system, policy language, how to guide public opinion, media\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOpenness and transparency clauses, community participation...\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGuided media, interest groups \u0026ldquo;speaking for policy\u0026rdquo;, the integration of \u0026ldquo;public interest\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse of concepts, information power structure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeaders, enterprises, press, councils, residential communities\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommunity consultation in Long Th\u0026agrave;nh, Thủ Thi\u0026ecirc;m; social critique of urban projects\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndex of public disclosure of land use plans, land price lists\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(CECODES et al., 2025)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(C) Management and Implementation, Results\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImplementation and control process, actual impact effectiveness\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoordination mechanism, complaint handling/monitoring, sanctions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrioritizing powerful interest groups, lobbying, flexible implementation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdministrative power, transparency barriers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDepartment of Natural Resources and Environment (now Department of Agriculture and Environment), local enterprises, people, associations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProlonged complaints in Thủ Thi\u0026ecirc;m, Dương Nội; issuing/exchanging Land Use Rights Certificates with \"informal payments\"\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of land complaints, litigation cases (Minh Quan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Nguyen Hung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e);; rate of required \u0026ldquo;informal payments\u0026rdquo; for land certificate issuance\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(CECODES et al., 2025)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eContext and Resources\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNatural-Economic-Social conditions, population structure, resource distribution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNational overall development master plan, resource use regulations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegional differentiation, vulnerable groups, benefit-sharing mechanism\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResource control rights, driving forces for change\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGovernment, enterprises, vulnerable groups, community\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePressure from land recovery in peri-urban areas, differentiation of resident interests\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncreasing urbanization rate; allocation of non-agricultural land by region\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Prime Minister, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInteraction - Feedback\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImpact loop, policy feedback through practice\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCritique/feedback mechanism, law amendment; inspection and monitoring, planning supplementation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLobbying, community recommendations, interest group influence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImplementation effectiveness, policy-practice gap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEntire political-social system, people, press\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmendment of the Land Law; amending land price lists, adjusting compensation plans\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIssuing new Law (National Assembly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), survey results of PAPI (CECODES et al., 2025), SDGs indices (Hong Thu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), status of planning amendments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter identifying the main components, the process of movement and interaction among these factors can be generalized through the illustrative diagram below, which visualizes the relationship between rules, actors, resources, and the final outcomes of the land-use planning process in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e Caption: Diagram illustrates the interaction and transformation among rules, actors, resources, power, and outcomes in the land-use planning process in Vietnam. Transparent rules, effective coordination among actors, and rational resource allocation can increase opportunities for achieving sustainable and equitable development. Conversely, power asymmetry can lead to prolonged conflicts, disputes, and complaints (Quach Du, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2. Dominant Discourse and Power Relations in Shaping Policy and Practice\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo clarify the dominant discourse and power relations in the formulation and implementation of the legal framework on land use in Vietnam, this study applied qualitative content analysis, supported by MAXQDA 24 software. The analysis focused on the provisions of the Land Law 2024 (National Assembly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), The analysis focused on the provisions of the Land Law 2024, which are cross-referenced and linked with Vietnam's sustainable development goals as presented in Vietnam's SDG Implementation Roadmap to 2030 (Prime Minister, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023b\u003c/span\u003e), and Assessing Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s Progress towards Sustainable Development Goals: A Comprehensive Review (Hong Thu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe coding framework was built from themes and main codes derived directly from legal provisions and national SDG indicator groups, focusing on: planning, management, monitoring, access to information, protection of vulnerable groups, environmental protection, anti-corruption, regional development, and land policy processes. The detailed coding framework is presented in the table that follows (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain coding framework for analyzing the Land Law 2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain Code\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMain Content\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegulations in the 2024 Land Law\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSub-code\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLink to SDGs goals/2030 Roadmap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLand use planning, land use plan\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProcess for preparing, approving, and adjusting land use planning at all levels\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 253, Article 254, transitional provisions, review, integration of environmental factors, climate change adaptation, etc.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Approving authority/entity\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Term/Period\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Review, adjustment\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Community consultation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 11.9, 11.10, 13; VN2030 Roadmap, target 92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInformation access, digitalization, transparency\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformation access, public disclosure of land data, building and managing digital databases\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 15, Article 50, Article 64, Article 65, Article 66, Chapter XII (Articles 63\u0026ndash;70), Article 256 on responsibility for digitalization of the national land database, providing public data, online public services\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Level of disclosure\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Digitalization\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Percentage of communes achieving legal access standards\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 16.9, 16.10, 9; National digitalization target\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLand recovery, compensation, support, resettlement\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegulations on cases of land recovery, policies on compensation, support, and resettlement for affected people\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChapter VI (Articles 78 - Article 89), Article 254, land recovery, compensation, transition, support for vulnerable groups, handling cases where land recovery decisions have been issued but not yet implemented\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Subjects\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Conditions\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Monitoring\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Methods of support\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 1, 6, 8, 11; Quality support and resettlement indicators\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLand price, land price determination\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrinciples, process for determining land price, public management and authority to adjust land price list\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 13, Article 19, Article 25, Chapter XI (Articles 155 - Article 162) process for adjusting land price, public disclosure, transparency of price list, handling change of land use purpose\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Establishing entity\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Process\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Public disclosure\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Transparency\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Auction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 15.2, 16.6 Transparency indicator\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRights and obligations of land users\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRights to use/transfer/inherit land; financial obligations, environmental protection obligations/rights of vulnerable groups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 5, Article 15, Article 16, Article 17, Chap.\u0026nbsp;3 (Articles 26 - Article 48), principles of land use, state guarantees, rights and obligations of land users; financial responsibilities,...\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Right to transfer\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Donation\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Inheritance\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Environmental responsibility\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 1, 5, 15, 10; Social Equality\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEnvironmental protection, sustainable development\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLand planning must be linked with environmental protection, climate change adaptation, combating land degradation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 55, Chapter V (Articles 60 \u0026ndash; Article 77), Article 91, Article 190, Article 216 planning, sustainable development, mainstreaming environmental protection, climate change adaptation, sustainable use of special-use forest land,...\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Environmental impact assessment\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Climate change adaptation\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Monitoring green index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 13, 15, 11, VN2030; Green index, target 94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMonitoring, complaints, dispute resolution\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProcedures for monitoring implementation, receiving and handling complaints/resolving land disputes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 230, Article 231, Article 235, Article 237, citizen monitoring, state agency monitoring, Vietnam Fatherland Front, complaint procedures, dispute resolution procedures, handling complaints and denunciations, land dispute resolution\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Resolving authority\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Time limit\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Order, procedures\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 16.5, 16.9; Legal Justice\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEnsuring rights of vulnerable groups\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePriority policies, support for vulnerable groups (women, ethnic minorities, poor households...), equitable resettlement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 16, Article 181, assistance provisions for vulnerable groups; legal support, land access, livelihood support, resettlement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Legal support\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Access to information\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Gender equality\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 1, 5, 10, VN2030; Land access target\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePreventing and handling corruption and group interests\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControlling transparency, public land auctions, sanctions for violating officials, preventing policy profiteering in land matters\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 229, Article 240 on land auction, sanctions for handling officials, public transparency of planning and land allocation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Auction\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Transparency\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Handling officials\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Group interests\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 16.5, 16.6, 16.9; CPI index, national transparency\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eManagement of national defense and security land and special-use land\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManagement, transition, coordinated use of national defense and security land, process for converting special land types\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 68, Article 84, Article 200, Article 201 on national defense land, Article 243 on national defense and security land use planning with specific transitional provisions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Inter-sectoral\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Purpose conversion\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Handling overlap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 16, 17; Management of sensitive areas\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegional linkage, development cooperation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegional linkage mechanism for planning, coordination of resources across multiple localities, integrated development policies, reducing overlap\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArticle 65, Article 73 on integrated inter-provincial planning; regulations on policy synchronization, handling inter-regional conflicts of interest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Planning synchronization\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Handling overlap\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e- Ministry/sector coordination\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG 6.5, 9.1, 9.5, 11.9, 11.10 inter-regional linkages\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe illustrative diagram below (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) visualizes the relationship between the main code groups in the Land Law 2024, compared and linked with Vietnam's sustainable development goals as presented in Vietnam's Roadmap for Implementing SDGs until 2030 and Assessing Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s Progress towards Sustainable Development Goals: A Comprehensive Review.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe diagram below (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) visualizes the relationship between the main code groups in the Land Law 2024, which are cross-referenced and linked with Vietnam's SDGs as presented in Vietnam's SDG Implementation Roadmap to 2030 and Assessing Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s Progress towards Sustainable Development Goals: A Comprehensive Review\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of the coding matrix and typical practical cases demonstrated that legal power and the dominant discourse in land-use planning in Vietnam continue to be strongly concentrated in state administrative agencies and investors. This is clearly illustrated through both the framework diagram (the main axis is \u0026ldquo;Policy Formulation \u0026amp; Implementation Process\u0026rdquo;, and the planning, land price, compensation, rights and obligations functions all originate from/lead to People's Committees at various levels, with consulting organizations and investors playing a decisive role), as well as the coding table: the actual power holders have the right to formulate, approve, and adjust planning, clear land, and determine land prices (Government, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; National Assembly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactors such as protection of vulnerable groups, information transparency, and environmental protection, although more clearly legalized, still primarily play a supplementary role. The role of the public, vulnerable groups, and sustainable development values in planning formulation and implementation remains limited due to: very low actual public access to land information, only 13.9% of people knew about district-level land use plans - according to a 2021 survey (CEPEW et al., 2025); community consultation often being formalistic and non-binding, lacking independent critique; and the decision-making process still being concentrated within state power blocks and businesses with direct interests (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTransparency, digitalization, promoting access to information, protection of vulnerable groups, and environmental protection, although present in major blocks within the encoding scheme as well as new regulations, have not yet become the central focus for the distribution of decisive power over space, benefits, and land resources. International reports and studies on SDGs in Vietnam consistently agreed that the gap between legalizing SDGs and sustainable development criteria and the practical operational power remains a major challenge: actual power still resides with the administrative block and investors, while values related to the environment, transparency, and social equity are merely directional, not yet transformed into practical control or critique power (CEPEW et al., 2025; Hong Thu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsequently, many real-world cases such as Thu Thiem, Long Thanh, or ethnic minority areas continue to record conflicts of interest, information inequality, and a lack of fair debate and negotiation mechanisms \u0026ndash; even though these rights have theoretically been legalized and linked to national SDG indicators. This gap shows that legalizing SDGs is a significant step forward in the policy framework, but to truly transform into enforcement power, Vietnam needs to increase independent oversight power, enhance the substantive participation rights, and elevate the actual negotiation position of vulnerable groups, communities, and social organizations in the land decision-making process (Hong Thu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Prime Minister, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3. Drivers, barriers, and conditions for transforming land use planning policy in Vietnam\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3.1. Key transformation drivers\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs analyzed, land use planning in Vietnam is currently influenced by a series of multi-dimensional drivers, notably the pressure of socio-economic development, international integration, and the need to attract investment for infrastructure modernization (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Prime Minister, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticularly, following the promulgation of the 2024 Land Law and the national land use planning, localities are compelled to strongly promote public disclosure, transparency, and professionalization of the process for developing, publicizing, and implementing land use planning. Another important highlight is the promotion of information technology application and digital transformation in management, digitalization of planning data, and improvement of information access and oversight capabilities for citizens and social organizations (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The increasingly active participation of civil society organizations contributes to building a culture of dialogue and social monitoring, and gradually promotes community rights, equitable access to and use of land, supporting sustainable development goals (Ministry of Planning and Investment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the orientations for urban-rural development, regional linkage, emphasis on environmental protection, focus on climate change adaptation, and sustainable development identified in the national land use planning also create impetus, compelling land governance power to move towards a more sustainable and transparent direction (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3.2. Barriers to the transformation process\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlongside the drivers, numerous obstacles to substantive transformation exist. Regarding the power structure, a portion of decision-making power remains concentrated at local government levels and with major investors, forming a \u0026ldquo;power axis\u0026rdquo; that dominates most land use planning decisions, rendering the role of communities, vulnerable groups, and social consultation activities largely formalistic. Reality shows that consultation and information access rights, although legalized, are mostly focused on administrative procedures, and citizens' opinions have not truly become decisive principles (CEPEW et al., 2025). Furthermore, many inadequacies in governance capacity, lack of technological synchronization, and uneven digitalization among localities lead to a lack of transparency, resulting in significant consequences such as prolonged complaints and loss of social trust (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Civil society organizations are currently weak in resources, lack legal space, professional capacity, and necessary protection, limiting their impact in critique and protecting vulnerable groups. Asymmetry in economic, information, and legal access continues to be a \u0026ldquo;bottleneck\u0026rdquo; causing significant difficulties for citizens \u0026ndash; especially women, ethnic minorities, and vulnerable groups \u0026ndash; in participating in negotiations and protecting their land rights (Ministry of Planning and Investment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3.3. Conditions for substantive transformation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo transform the legal framework on land use planning into practice in a sustainable, equitable, and truly people-centered manner, the following important conditions need to be ensured:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirstly, increase decentralization, clarify the accountability of management levels, and at the same time truly expand the monitoring and critical feedback role of the community and civil society organizations (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, promote transparency and digitalization of the land planning information system and ensure wide accessibility, especially for vulnerable groups and people in remote areas (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThirdly, develop programs to enhance negotiation capacity and legal support for land users, especially women and ethnic minorities (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ministry of Planning and Investment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFourthly, synchronize formal legal rules with local norms and customs, ensuring both equity and preserving community identity (Hong Thu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFifthly, increase inter-sectoral cooperation and learn from international experience regarding transparency, protection of community rights, and modern land management (CEPEW et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.4. Mechanism for feedback and adjustment of the land use planning legal framework from Practice\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mechanism for feedback and adjustment of the legal framework on land use planning in Vietnam is increasingly emphasized to ensure that the proposed policies and orientations are consistent with practical life, ensuring transparency, equity, and sustainability. Viewed from the practical implementation of the legal framework, independent survey results, as well as the requirements of national development strategies, this mechanism is becoming more diverse and plays an important role in the process of amending and improving policies. This process can be identified through the following aspects:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirstly, the practical feedback mechanism in the 2024 Land Law. Accordingly, Article 70 stipulates that before deciding to approve the plan, the planning agency must solicit opinions from relevant individuals, households, communities, and organizations and must fully and objectively receive and explain them. This is a mandatory step to ensure two-way information flow and the right of people to give opinions and feedback.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, in terms of implementation, empirical evidence from PAPI surveys and independent reports indicates that community consultation tends to improve but still has many limitations. People are allowed to contribute opinions; however, the response rate from competent authorities remains low, specifically: the rate of responding to land-related requests or recommendations on time nationwide in 2022 was only about 17.5%. The main reasons are barriers to technology access, lack of transparent information, or publicly available documents on websites being inadequate in format, timeliness, and completeness (CECODES et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThirdly, feedback channels are not limited to local consultation but also extend to social monitoring, media, social networks, and the role of civil society organizations. Pressure from public opinion, the media, as well as critical feedback from social organizations play a role in detecting, recommending, and promoting policy adjustments that are closer to reality, especially when disputes or planning projects causing public concern or social instability occur (CECODES et al., 2025; CEPEW \u0026amp; UNDP Vietnam, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFourthly, the National Master Plan for the period 2021\u0026ndash;2030 emphasizes the requirement for flexible spatial and population organization, focusing on practical needs, encouraging the application of technology and digital transformation to increase the level of interaction and responsiveness of both the government and the people, ensuring that \"no one is left behind\" (Prime Minister, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFifth, feedback from practice plays a crucial role in identifying inadequacies in regional planning and adaptability to natural disasters and climate change, thereby adjusting development policies, resource allocation, and ensuring the integration of sustainable development goals (Ministry of Planning and Investment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) as presented in the Report on the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goals and the National Environmental Status Report each year (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSixth, the Land Law 2024 and its guiding implementation documents clearly stipulate accountability, disclosure obligations, and require state agencies to receive, respond to, and handle opinions, recommendations, and complaints related to land planning within the prescribed timeframe (Government, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024b\u003c/span\u003e; National Assembly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecial attention is given to independent inspection and monitoring of the level of disclosure and the quality of responses at each locality, aiming to ensure the transparency, equity, and effectiveness of land use planning (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe research findings have clarified the operational mechanism, strengths, and limitations in the design and implementation of the legal framework for land use planning in Vietnam, contributing to bridging the knowledge gap regarding power relations, dynamics, and conditions for substantive transformation related to sustainable development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, the application of the IAD institutional analysis framework and discourse-power theory has provided a solid basis for identifying the power structure and the operation of various actors from central to local levels, businesses, communities, and civil society organizations in land use planning in Vietnam. The results have shown that centralized power remains the dominant axis, specifically: state management agencies and large investors largely control land use planning decisions, land valuation, and land allocation. The dominant discourse emphasizing economic development, infrastructure modernization, and international integration continues to shape policy priorities, as well as the development and refinement of the legal framework, while principles of social equity, environmental protection, or vulnerable groups are only at a \u0026ldquo;supplementary\u0026rdquo; or integrated level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond, compared to the Land Law 2013 (National Assembly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013b\u003c/span\u003e), the Land Law 2024 has added many provisions on transparency, consultation, and protection of the rights of citizens and vulnerable groups, but practice shows that these additions are only on paper and have not been realized. The matrix coding analysis results show that the opinions of the community, social organizations, and vulnerable groups are still weak, and social monitoring is not substantive but largely formalistic. Community consultation remains procedural, lacking mechanisms for incorporating valuable feedback on important policies, which means the goals of transparency and social consensus have not met expectations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThird, the drivers of transforming the legal framework into practice, including pressure from land-related complaints, integration requirements, media pressure, public opinion, technological innovation, and the activities of civil society organizations, have contributed to improving the process of drafting and consulting the opinions of citizens and residential communities, as well as the disclosure and transparency of land use planning. However, barriers such as centralized power, information asymmetry, regional disparities in governance capacity, professional expertise, and limitations in civil society resources continue to restrict the conditions for substantive transformation in many localities (UNDP Vietnam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFourth, the feedback mechanism from practice and the role of media, the internet, and civil society organizations have shown positive signs: policies have been adjusted more flexibly and appropriately to reality when receiving social pressure, especially through incidents that caused public outcry such as Thu Thiem, Long Thanh... However, this result is uneven and not systemic; in many disadvantaged and remote areas, people still have great difficulty accessing information and lack the legal-technical foundation to protect their rights.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study demonstrated that the IAD theoretical framework combined with discourse-power critique is an effective tool for clarifying complex relationships and dynamics in the implementation of the legal framework on land use planning; it also indicated that substantive transformation can only occur with simultaneous changes in the legal framework, enhanced transparency, openness, democracy, increased community participation rights and negotiation capacity, especially for vulnerable groups, as well as strengthened capacity for policy feedback from practice. The current legal framework on land use planning, if it is to transform into a driver for sustainable development, needs to implement these conditions synchronously, rather than merely changing on paper.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research paper has provided a comprehensive perspective on the mechanism for formulating, implementing, and transforming the legal framework on land use planning in Vietnam, placed in relation to the goal of sustainable development. Based on the institutional analysis framework and discourse-power theory, the analyses have clarified not only the power structure dominating the planning process but also the drivers, barriers, and practical conditions affecting the effectiveness and equity of the legal framework.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirstly, the study indicated that, although the legal framework on land use planning has become increasingly complete with the promulgation of the Land Law 2024, actual power remains primarily concentrated in state agencies and large investors. The substantive participation of the community, vulnerable groups, and civil society organizations remains formal, not truly creating a sufficiently strong counterbalance to important decisions regarding land use planning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, the gap between policy and practice remains large due to power asymmetries, barriers to transparency and openness, access to information, governance capacity, and a lack of effective feedback mechanisms. New dynamics such as public opinion, the requirement for digital transformation, the development of civil society organizations, media, and social networks have contributed to promoting transparency and adjusting the legal framework applicable nationwide and regulations in some localities. However, the unevenness in practice shows the need for continued amendment, supplementation, and updating of the legal framework on land use planning. This should include attention to increasing community participation rights and ensuring synchronous implementation from the central to local levels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThirdly, towards the goal of sustainable development, the legal framework on land use planning in Vietnam needs profound transformation in the following aspects: (1) strengthening decentralization, delegation of authority, and accountability among management levels, (2) enhancing social capacity for critical ability, and oversight and creating substantive conditions for vulnerable groups to participate, and (3) promoting transparency, openness, democratization, digitalization, and process synchronization between the legal framework and implementation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the realization of progressive legal principles can only succeed if guaranteed by substantive innovation in the legal framework, governance methods, participation mechanisms, and social feedback. The contribution of this study is to provide academic and practical arguments for continued amendment and supplementation of the legal framework on land use planning to create a foundation for transparent, equitable, and sustainable land governance in Vietnam in the future.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by the\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable. This study is a secondary analysis of publicly available, anonymized data. Therefore, informed consent was not required. identity of the respondent. All sources used by this study have been considered and cited.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAdditional information\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrespondence and requests for materials should be addressed to author.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDr. NTL wrote this entire article.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe author would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions. This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study uses publicly available documents and secondary sources. No new primary data were collected. Some elements (for example, detailed MAXQDA coding matrices, coding schemes, and data extraction tables derived from legal texts and media sources) are not publicly available in full due to confidentiality and sensitivity. The coding framework and results are described in the manuscript; non-identifiable summaries can be shared on request to protect confidentiality. A restricted supplementary file with non-identifiable coding framework elements may be provided, subject to the journal\u0026rsquo;s policy. Access to the full coding matrix would require a data access agreement with the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBell S, Morse S (2012) Sustainability indicators: Measuring the immeasurable? Second edition. \u003cem\u003eSustainability Indicators: Measuring the Immeasurable? 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Landscape Ecol 28(6):999\u0026ndash;1023. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/S10980-013-9894-9/METRICS\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S10980-013-9894-9/METRICS\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Land use planning, Sustainable development, Policy-practice gap, Land policy, Vietnam","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6878284/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6878284/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn the context where Vietnam faces numerous challenges from urbanization, industrialization,\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eclimate change, and scarcity of land resources, land use planning is a powerful tool for achieving sustainable development goals. The study applies an integrated theoretical framework combining institutional structure analysis and Foucault's discourse-power theory to clarify the drivers and barriers in the implementation of the legal framework on land use planning. Through the analysis of legal documents, policies, and implementation, the study reveals that the gap between policy and practice remains significant due to lack of publicity, transparency, democracy, weak implementation capacity, and concentrated power at various levels of government. Although the current legal framework has improved compared to before, its implementation is still not substantive but largely formalistic. The study concludes that to realize the principles of sustainable development, synchronous amendments and additions to the legal framework are needed, along with increased participation and oversight from the community and social organizations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"From policy to practice: The influence of the legal framework on land use planning on sustainable development in Vietnam","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-19 05:32:45","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6878284/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-11-06T15:57:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-17T04:04:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-12T16:40:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"185395616594944830913726788713389406139","date":"2025-09-01T15:40:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"22722076221956133616507905268832988229","date":"2025-08-25T07:48:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-21T13:16:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-21T13:13:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-21T08:50:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-16T04:36:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","date":"2025-08-16T04:33:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"60b7df05-424a-430e-92a1-643e53f5d97a","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":53332134,"name":"Social science/Development studies"},{"id":53332135,"name":"Social science/Social policy"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-05T10:01:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6878284","link":"https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-026-07439-x","journal":{"identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications"},"publishedOn":"2026-05-02 15:58:26","publishedOnDateReadable":"May 2nd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-19 05:32:45","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1057/s41599-026-07439-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-026-07439-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6878284","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6878284","identity":"rs-6878284","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}