Exploring Gender-Based Leadership Styles in Higher Education: A Comparative Analysis of Female and Male Leaders in Tertiary Institutions in Eswatini

Exploring Gender-Based Leadership Styles in Higher Education: A Comparative Analysis of Female and Male Leaders in Tertiary Institutions in Eswatini | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Exploring Gender-Based Leadership Styles in Higher Education: A Comparative Analysis of Female and Male Leaders in Tertiary Institutions in Eswatini Gibson Makamure, Vimbi P Mahlangu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8101507/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 19 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This qualitative study explored how gendered leadership styles influence institutional culture and decision-making processes in Eswatini's universities. The main objective of the study was to explore how gendered leadership styles affect the institutional culture and decision-making procedures in the tertiary institutions of Eswatini and examine the differences and similarities between the leadership philosophies of men and women in Eswatini's higher education institutions. Using a narrative inquiry, data were gathered through semi-structured individual interviews and focus group discussions with 18 leaders (n=18). The sample comprised nine males and nine females from three tertiary institutions in Eswatini. The selection criteria used for the study were based on purposive sampling. The study found significant differences in leadership styles: female leaders tended to take transformational approaches, emphasising collaboration, empathy, and relationship-building, whereas male leaders tended to take transactional approaches, which emphasise individualism and quick decision-making. These findings imply that embracing and fostering gender diversity in leadership can lead to more inclusive and successful organisational cultures, eventually improving institutional performance. This study emphasises the importance of enacting gender equity policies to enable varied leadership that can face the challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and contribute to more equal educational environments in Eswatini. The study recommends that higher education institutions in Eswatini should create formal mentorship programmes that connect female leaders to experienced leaders. Also, the Ministry of Education and Training should encourage higher education institutions to prioritise and execute gender equity policies. Social science/Education Social science/Social policy gender leadership patriarchal transformational leadership transactional leadership Introduction In the context of higher education, gender and leadership dynamics are important topics of study, especially in a patriarchal nation like Eswatini. It is becoming more widely acknowledged that promoting diversity and enhancing institutional performance require gender equality in leadership positions. Using a qualitative narrative inquiry method, this study looked at the gendered leadership styles of male and female leaders in a few Eswatini universities. It focused on individual experiences, perceived difficulties, and institutional culture, and the fluidity of leadership styles across a spectrum of approaches, including transformational and transactional models. It also looked at how gender affected leadership practices and what effects these differences had on creating fair environments in higher education institutions. The knowledge gained from this study may be useful in guiding practices and policies that support inclusive leadership in Eswatini's academic environment. Background of Study Higher education institutions play a pivotal role in shaping societal progress, fostering innovation, and promoting social equity. In Eswatini, a country characterised by deeply rooted patriarchal norms and traditional gender roles, leadership within tertiary institutions is influenced significantly by societal expectations and cultural beliefs (Nkambule & Perumal, 2024 ). Historically, leadership positions have been predominantly occupied by men, owing to systemic gender biases and cultural stereotypes that associate authority and decision-making with masculinity (Nkosi & Maphalala, 2025 ). This gendered distribution of leadership roles not only perpetuates gender inequalities but also impacts organisational culture, decision-making processes, and institutional development. Recent global and regional movements advocating for gender equality have begun to challenge these traditional norms, emphasising the importance of diverse leadership for enhancing organisational effectiveness and inclusivity (Smith, 2025 ). In the context of Eswatini's higher education sector, increasing participation of women in leadership roles presents both opportunities and challenges. Female leaders often adopt transformational leadership styles characterised by collaboration, empathy, and relationship-building, which can foster inclusive and innovative organisational cultures. Conversely, male leaders tend to employ transactional leadership approaches that prioritise efficiency, hierarchy, and quick decision-making. Understanding how these gendered leadership styles influence institutional culture and decision-making in Eswatini's higher education institutions is crucial for fostering environments that support gender equity and harness the full potential of diverse leadership. This study aims to explore these dynamics through a comparative analysis of female and male leaders, providing insights that can inform policy formulation, leadership development programmes, and institutional strategies geared toward promoting inclusive and effective leadership in Eswatini's tertiary education landscape. Definition of Technical Terms Gender refers to the social, psychological, and cultural characteristics and roles that societies deem appropriate for people who identify as male, female, or non-binary. It distinguishes itself from biological sex, which relates to physical and physiological differences (Lindqvist et al., 2020 ). Leadership is persuading and guiding people or organisations to achieve common goals. It takes various methods and tactics, including the capacity to motivate, direct, and support team dynamics (Northouse, 2022 ). Patriarchal is a social system or structure characterised by male dominance, with men wielding primary power and control responsibilities in leadership, influence, and authority. This structure frequently shapes norms, beliefs, and behaviours in both the public and private sectors (Kimmel, 2018 ). Transformational leadership is a leadership style that aims to inspire and motivate followers to go above and beyond their own self-interests for the sake of the organisation or a greater cause. This leadership style focuses on creating an environment conducive to cooperation, innovation, and change (Lei et al., 2024 ). Transactional leadership is an approach to leadership in which leaders encourage conformity through rewards and penalties. This approach is largely concerned with preserving the usual flow of operations and completing short-term tasks using set policies and explicit expectations (Dong, 2023 ). Statement of the Problem Within the framework of higher education in Eswatini, a country with deeply ingrained patriarchal norms, the study "Gendered Leadership Styles in Higher Education: A Comparative Study of Female and Male Leaders in Eswatini's Tertiary Institutions" tackles a crucial research question. Understanding the effects of gendered leadership styles is crucial for creating equitable institutional cultures and enhancing overall organisational performance as worldwide conversations increasingly centre on the value of diversity and inclusivity in leadership. It is important to recognise that leadership behaviours are not strictly dichotomous; many leaders employ a blend of transformational and transactional styles, often shifting along a spectrum depending on contextual demands and organisational needs (Avolio et al., 1999 ). Exploring how gendered leadership styles, which are characterised by the differences between transformational and transactional approaches, affect institutional culture and decision-making procedures in higher education contexts is the main research question. This study highlights the diverse experiences and difficulties faced by both male and female leaders, acknowledging that leadership is not a neutral profession but rather is socially constructed through dominant gender norms. Male leaders display transactional traits, frequently placing a higher value on efficiency and quick decision-making, whereas female leaders typically embrace transformational leadership attributes like teamwork, empathy, and relationship-building. The study reveals the subtleties of these leadership philosophies and their consequent impacts on the dynamics of Eswatini's higher institutions through qualitative research using narrative inquiry. The significant nature of this study problem is found in both its immediate relevance to the Eswatini environment and its wider ramifications for regional and international higher education institutions. The results highlight the need for implementing gender equity policies, which have been demonstrated to stimulate inclusive leadership and create settings that encourage creativity and adaptability in the face of modern issues, such as those brought on by the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Theoretical Framework The Gendered Leadership Framework serves as the most appropriate theoretical lens for this study. This framework posits that leadership is socially constructed through gendered norms and values that influence the behaviour and perceptions of leaders (Zhong, 2024 ; Fox-Kirk et al., 2024). Moreover, integrating the Full-Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999 ) allows for an understanding of how leaders may adopt a combination of transformational and transactional behaviours, with the capacity for fluidity and adaptation over time. By exploring the ways in which female and male leaders embody and enact their leadership styles, this study sheds light on the underlying societal structures that inform their experiences. The focus was on identifying how traditional gender roles shape leadership attributes such as communication style, decision-making processes, and conflict resolution. Moreover, this framework allows for the examination of intersectionality, recognising how race, class, and culture intersect with gender to shape leadership experiences in Eswatini's higher educational context (Crenshaw et al., 2024 ). Geographical and Socio-Economic Context The landlocked nation of Eswatini in southern Africa is distinguished by its monoethnic community and rich cultural legacy. The administrative hub of the nation is the capital, Mbabane. Even though the country is divided into four regions, the focus of this study was on educational establishments in the largest two, Manzini and Hhohho, which are distinguished by their varied urbanisation levels and varied socioeconomic environments. The patriarchal culture of Eswatini, which has its roots in religious and cultural traditions, frequently prevents women from assuming leadership roles. Traditional gender norms are enforced by this largely Christian-based social structure, which can impede women's advancement in the workplace and their ability to hold positions of power (Fielding-Miller et al. 2024 ). The study's chosen institutions, two of which are in Hhohho and one in Manzini, offer a distinctive setting for investigating leadership dynamics in the context of higher education in Eswatini. In addition to highlighting the complexity of gender roles within the educational system, the differing levels of urbanisation in various areas will have an impact on the opportunities and challenges faced by male and female leaders. Study Methodology and Data Collection Methods Research Approach The methodological framework of the study was qualitative in nature. A research sample of eighteen participants was adequate because, according to Lim ( 2024 ), qualitative research often examines a small, distinct group of participants to obtain a thorough grasp of the topic. Researchers using qualitative methods can capture the rich insights of leaders that quantitative methods may overlook. Braun and Clarke ( 2024 ) claim that qualitative research provides rich, contextual data that can show the sociocultural influences on leadership styles as well as the leadership styles employed by male and female leaders. Sociocultural issues often influence gendered leadership. Organisational culture, gender norms, and leadership expectations can all be evaluated using qualitative approaches in the study of higher education in a particular setting, like Eswatini. According to Usman et al. ( 2025 ), qualitative narratives are essential for a thorough understanding since the cultural context significantly affects how leadership is seen and applied. Research Design The research adopted a narrative inquiry design, focusing on gathering in-depth personal stories from participants to understand their lived experiences as leaders in higher education. This qualitative approach allowed for a rich exploration of the complexities surrounding gender and leadership (Creswell & Inoue, 2025 ). Data collection involved semi-structured interviews, which encouraged open dialogue and provided an environment conducive to storytelling. The interviews were recorded and transcribed for thematic analysis. The narrative inquiry allowed for flexibility and depth, enabling researchers to uncover the subtleties of gendered experiences and leadership approaches in the context of Eswatini (Caine et al., 2021 ). A narrative design enables the incorporation of personal experiences into the larger socio-political and cultural contexts in which these leaders’ function. This integration is critical for understanding how systemic issues influence individual leadership styles, as illustrated in the writings of Abukalusa and Oosthuizen ( 2025 ). Researchers’ Positionality This qualitative research adopted a reflective stance to address researcher positionality and cultural sensitivity. The researchers acknowledge that their backgrounds, cultural understandings, and inherent biases influence data interpretation and analysis. Engaging in reflexivity, the researchers maintained awareness of their influence on the research process and actively sought to minimise bias through member checking and triangulation. Reflexivity statements were incorporated to clarify how the researchers' perspectives and cultural context may shape the construction of meaning, especially given the culturally sensitive environment of Eswatini. Data Generation Methods The study included 9 female leaders and 9 male leaders from three tertiary institutions, all of whom were between the ages of 38 and 52. Focus group discussions and face-to-face individual interviews were the data generation methods employed in this study. The focus groups allowed the researcher to corroborate the comments offered by participants during individual interviews, which aided in data triangulation (Meydan & Akkas, 2024). The researchers urged the participants to have spontaneous, unstructured, natural, and open talks. As a result, the participants directed their enquiries at one another and responded to each other's comments. Considering group dynamics, each member was provided the opportunity to respond to the questions and issues addressed. The researchers employed individual interviews to gather data from the study's selected sample. The researchers used three focus groups, coded A, B, and C, and interviewed two individual participants per research site. An affirmation is given by Barnwell ( 2023 ) that interviewing individuals allows them to speak about what is on their minds and to give themselves to a profound investigation, especially when it comes to personal accounts of their feelings together with experiences. The researchers made sure their study was authentic by recording voices and taking brief notes as they were gathering data. Participants were able to express themselves in both SiSwati and English. Data Analysis Procedure This study employed thematic analysis. Braun and Clarke ( 2023 ) say that thematic analysis is a method that is systematic and utilised to classify, analyse and report data in a detailed manner with minimal organisation. The researcher was actively involved in collecting the data using semi-structured focus group interviews and individual interviews as primary instruments in data generation. To comprehend the concerns and thoughts that were surfacing, the researcher listened to the voice recordings several times and read the documents. He transcribed the interviews while listening to the voice recordings over and over. This interaction with the data aided the researcher in absorbing the information and making sense of the meanings and patterns that emerged. Reading through these written categories formed themes, organised them, and connected them to the research. Limitations Of the Study While qualitative methods produce detailed data, they are prone to biases such as researcher interpretation and participant variety in narratives. This subjectivity can influence the results and restrict the study's reproducibility (Braun & Clarke, 2024 ). Future research should use mixed- methods approaches, incorporating qualitative and quantitative data. This triangulation can provide a more complete picture and improve the trustworthiness of findings (Meydan & Akkaş, 2024 ). The study's emphasis on a specific cultural setting (patriarchal culture in Eswatini) may introduce biases that influence the participants' perceptions and reactions. According to Heilman et al. ( 2024 ) and Brownell et al. ( 2024 ), cultural norms around gender roles may influence individuals to produce socially desirable responses rather than their actual views. Researchers can study cross-cultural comparisons to investigate how different sociocultural environments influence gendered leadership approaches. This method would allow for a more sophisticated understanding of leadership dynamics across different cultures. Ethical Statement We conducted this study with ethical issues at its core. We strictly adhered to a number of ethical standards in addition to securing the Director of Education's letter of permission. All participants were fully informed about the study's objectives, procedures, and possible effects on their personal and professional lives to give their informed consent. Before taking part, participants must provide their informed consent, guaranteeing that they can leave at any moment without incurring any costs (Dahal, 2024). Confidentiality and Anonymity: Participants' identities were anonymised to protect their privacy. Data was securely stored, and access was limited to the researchers. The study findings will not share any identifying information (Braun & Clarke, 2024). The research design included mechanisms to prevent psychological or emotional distress, ensuring participants could narrate their experiences comfortably. If discussing their experiences proved distressing, we provided participants with resources for counseling (Alessi & Kahn, 2023). Findings And Discussions Based on study questions on gendered leadership styles in HEIs in Eswatini, the following themes emerged as participants expounded on their lived experiences as leaders in Eswatini’s institutions of higher learning. Women leaders are represented by LW1 to LW9, while men leaders are represented by LM10 to LM18. The narratives reveal "blurred lines" and fluidity between traditional gender binaries, where leadership behaviors often transcend stereotypical gender roles. For instance, some male leaders display transformational traits, and some women adopt transactional behaviors depending on organisational needs—a reflection of the full-range leadership spectrum (Avolio et al, 1999). Comparative Analysis of Leadership The viewpoints expressed by participants in various focus groups draw attention to important differences between the ways in which male and female leaders’ function in organisations, especially in higher learning institutions. The qualitative data illuminates decision-making procedures, collaborative versus individualistic approaches, and the general leadership styles of men and women. From focus group A, participant LW1 said: Women leadership want to form relationships and work with others collaboratively, unlike male leaders who are more individualistic, however, there are individual differences among the women. The women, listen to others, are empathetic, while males make quick decisions without consulting so that they achieve their goals . Focus group B, participant LM12 opined that “men are robust and fast in decision-making. Consulting is scantly done but very fast. Women are transformational leaders while men are amore transactional. They want to achieve stated goals (LW7, focus group C). In contrast to male leaders' more autonomous approach, Focus Group A participant LW1 highlights the value of fostering relationships and teamwork in female leadership styles in tertiary institutions in Eswatini. This is in line with recent research showing that women in leadership roles frequently place a higher value on group cohesiveness and shared objectives than on individual ambition (Liu et al, 2024). A study by Johnson and Lee (2024) backs up these findings, pointing out that female leaders are excellent at creating friendly environments that encourage team members to support one another and be creative. According to LW1, female leaders also demonstrate traits like empathy and listening. This supports the idea that transformational leadership styles, which emphasise inspiring and motivating people while being attentive to their needs, are more frequently employed by female leaders (Hsu et al., 2022). A real illustration of this influence may be found at the University of Eswatini, where female leadership posts have increased as a result of recent legislative measures focused on gender equality. Female university leaders have created mentorship programs to help both male and female students succeed academically and professionally, establishing an inclusive atmosphere (Maguire et al, 2025). This strategy is consistent with Warner and Roush's (2021) discovery that transformational leadership can dramatically improve institutional culture by promoting shared values and encouraging collaboration across various stakeholder groups. LM12's assessment indicates a more transactional and possibly less consultative approach, often prioritizing efficiency over emotional engagement in men's decision-making. Ok and Eniola (2024) research highlights that female leaders' sympathetic inclinations have a good impact on workplace culture and employee satisfaction, whereas male leaders' authoritative and speedier decisions may produce faster results but may ignore stakeholder input. As observed by participants LM12 and LW7, male leaders' speed and decisiveness underscore a trait frequently associated with transactional leadership styles, which prioritise achieving goals and achieving results quickly. While this may compromise thoroughness and inclusivity in the decision-making process, it can yield positive short-term outcomes (Marie et al., 2024). To further explain this dynamic, Elbers (2025) notes that whereas transactional leaders, who are frequently men, are focused on reaching short-term goals, they may unintentionally foster high stress levels and employee burnout by preventing staff members from participating in decision-making. Barriers and Challenges As Eswatini navigates the complexity of the twenty-first century and the Fourth Industrial Revolution, women's leadership roles, particularly in higher education, present considerable hurdles. Focus group participants' insights emphasise the multiple challenges that women leaders face in this patriarchal society. This debate critically explored the obstacles stated by participants and other impediments that women face in Eswatini's academic environments. When asked about the specific challenges female leaders face in navigating their roles compared to male leaders and how they address them, the following submissions were recorded: LM 10 (individual interview) elaborated that: Women, especially from a background of the patriarchal society of Eswatini, once in leadership where there are many men, tend to be rude so that they want to be seen to be in charge and become controlling. The impact is creating a charged environment in our institution. LW6 (focus group B) submitted that: The challenge for women is that women feel overwhelmed trying to strike a balance between the new job and family duties, especially when married. This will affect how the institution works. Participant LM10 observes that women in positions of leadership may exhibit harsh or domineering behaviour because of their upbringing in a patriarchal society, where they feel the need to demonstrate dominance in male-dominated environments. This mirrors a tendency known as the "Queen Bee Syndrome," in which powerful women may separate themselves from other women in order to fit into a male-dominated leadership culture (Andayani, 2024). Mdhlalose’s (2025) research shows that such behaviours might generate a toxic work atmosphere, causing greater stress among teams. Female leaders may feel obliged to adopt stereotypically masculine methods of leadership, overshadowing their inherent relational skills, which are often advantageous in collaborative educational situations. LW6 recognises the immense pressure that women endure when balancing work obligations with home responsibilities, particularly married women. This combined burden frequently causes stress and possibly burnout, which can impair performance and decision-making skills (Harry et al., 2021). According to research conducted by Dlamini et al (2024), many women in Eswatini struggle to balance conventional gender responsibilities with professional goals. The lack of supportive legislation, such as flexible work arrangements or childcare services, exacerbates the problem, making it difficult for women to succeed in leadership positions. Further, women in leadership in higher educational institutions of learning in Eswatini in the 21st century face the challenge of lacking mentorship. LW9 (focus group C) commented that: |We don’t get mentors to help us in these higher positions we occupy. We are on our own. Kumatima (it’s difficult). Women frequently confront a lack of mentorship from established leaders, which can impede their professional growth and development. Patriarchal culture may exacerbate this disparity by restricting women's opportunities for networking and mentorship (Nkosi, 2024). According to research, mentoring is critical for moving women into leadership positions. In Eswatini, where traditional conventions favour male leadership, women may find it difficult to interact with and learn from males in positions of authority. Research has constantly emphasised the relevance of mentorship for women's advancement into leadership positions. Edaño et al. (2025) found that mentorship can help women advance their careers by giving direction, support, and networking opportunities, all of which are important for women, especially in male-dominated sectors. Women frequently confront specific job impediments, and mentorship can assist them in overcoming these challenges. In Eswatini, societal expectations based on patriarchal standards frequently marginalise women in professional roles. Nkambule and Perumal (2024) discovered that cultural beliefs have a substantial impact on the career paths of women in Eswatini, limiting their access to mentors who can advocate for them. Male leaders' unwillingness to connect with female mentees can stem from traditional gender stereotypes, creating an environment in which women struggle to receive the mentorship required for leadership positions. LM13, during the individual interview, said that: Remember, this is Eswatini; men are in charge. We do not accept women to lead. It is not in our culture, my brother. How can the institution take more women in leadership when ‘tsine emadvodza sikhona’ (when us men are there)? Many of Eswatini's higher education institutions have a rigid organisational culture. Traditional gender stereotypes may hinder women's leadership ability and assertiveness. Gender bias in promotion processes and decision-making hierarchies are structural impediments that prevent women from advancing to senior positions (Thelma & Ngulube, 2024). Keddie and Wilkinson (2025) found that institutional strategies frequently fail to address gender gaps, leaving women leaders feeling marginalised and unsupported. Impact on Organisational Culture Gendered leadership styles in higher education have a considerable impact on institutional culture, especially in Eswatini, where traditional gender norms are generally dominant. Serafimova et al. (2025) found that female executives usually use transformational leadership styles that emphasise teamwork, emotional intelligence, and stakeholder engagement. This contrasts with more traditional, transactional leadership approaches commonly associated with male executives, which frequently prioritise hierarchy and authority. In Eswatini, where patriarchal frameworks may prevail, transformational leadership can break preconceptions and build a more inclusive institutional culture (Nkambule & Perumal, 2024). LW4 (focus group B) averred that: Look at departments that are led by women at this institution; they are better organized and have greater output than those run by men. There is inclusivity in how we do things here. No doubt, women do best. LM18 (focus group C) explained that: The best in leadership is when we have an equal number of males and females in leadership. This results in implementing programs that satisfy our students. Integrating leadership styles is best for the institution during this 4IR. LW2 (focus group A) said: Having policies that promote gender equity results in institutions that are innovative in 4IR and have levels of student satisfaction. The findings from focus groups conducted in higher education institutions in Eswatini provide critical insights into how gender dynamics in leadership influence organisational culture, especially considering the difficulties and opportunities posed by the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). Both female (LW) and male (LM) leaders emphasise the importance of inclusive leadership in supporting organisational performance and creativity. The remark by LW4 gives important insight about the outcomes of female-led departments. The argument that female-led departments are "better organised and have greater output" highlights the revolutionary potential of women's leadership styles. According to research, female executives frequently use collaborative and participative ways to improve organisational communication, teamwork, and morale (Rodriguez & Rodriguez, 2024). This finding is consistent with current opinions on leadership effectiveness, such as those offered by Ly (2024), who believes that inclusive leadership styles increase organisational commitment and employee engagement. In 4IR, where institutions increasingly rely on collaboration and interdisciplinary approaches to problem-solving, the organisational culture under female leadership may be more conducive to innovation and flexibility. LM18 emphasises the benefits of having an equal representation of men and women in leadership. This argument acknowledges that incorporating various leadership styles and characteristics common to both male and female leaders can result in a more dynamic and responsive institutional environment. This viewpoint is reinforced by Górska and Burlakova’s (2025) research, which shows that gender-balanced leadership leads to more thorough decision-making processes that better reflect and address the requirements of various student groups. The value of cooperative leadership models in the fourth industrial revolution cannot be overstated. According to González and Hurst (2023), organisations that appreciate varied leadership inputs tend to generate more innovative and student-focused policies. This collaborative approach can improve program creation and integrate educational offers with industry demands, resulting in higher student satisfaction and employability. LW2's comments on measures that encourage gender equity highlight an important component of institutional culture that fosters creativity. The claim that gender equity leads to innovative outcomes in the context of 4IR is consistent with the frameworks presented by Oosthuizen and Motsatsi (2025), who emphasise that organisations committed to equity and diversity are often perceived as more progressive and desirable to students. Gender equity policies can act as a catalyst for cultural change inside higher education organisations. Such policies can establish inclusion as a core principle, creating workplaces in which all persons feel encouraged to contribute (Maheshwari et al. (2025). By fostering a supportive environment, universities not only improve internal culture but also exhibit a commitment to social justice and equity, which is becoming increasingly crucial in securing students from diverse backgrounds in today's globalised world. Navigating Gender Expectations in Higher Education Institutions Gender expectations have a significant impact on how male and female leaders navigate their jobs in Eswatini, as they do in many other nations, particularly in higher education institutions. Male and female academic leaders' experiences and leadership styles are shaped by the dynamic interaction of societal norms, institutional frameworks, and individual agency. Traditional societal institutions, often reflecting patriarchal beliefs, distinguish Eswatini. Gender roles are highly ingrained, with men supposed to be forceful, authoritative, and decision-makers, while women are frequently consigned to supporting positions or expected to demonstrate nurturing tendencies. These standards can create a difficult atmosphere for female leaders in higher education, who may receive criticism for their leadership styles and decisions. To understand how male and female academic leaders navigate gendered expectations in their roles, here are insights from other leaders: LW3 (individual interview) If you are to check, the number of women who occupy higher positions like deans, vice chancellors, and department chairs in tertiary institutions is fewer compared to men. Why? We are a patriarchal society. Policies are there, but there is no implementation. LW5 (focus group 2). We are expected to be assertive, but not to be perceived as aggressive because that is not a trait women in this country should possess. LW8 (focus group C). We almost lack mentorship in these positions; we network informally, so we have to look for support systems to navigate the male-dominated spaces . The disparity in higher positions held by males against women at higher learning institutions is a significant concern, as indicated by the first contribution from LW3. This finding emphasises the structural obstacles that prevent women from assuming leadership positions. Research shows how patriarchal structures and ingrained gender norms prevent women from advancing in a variety of fields, including education (Simon & Hasan2025). A cycle of male dominance in higher education, which ought to ideally foster equality and representational diversity, is sustained by society's assumption that males hold leadership positions. In comparison to their male counterparts, women are still underrepresented in leadership roles in HEIs in Eswatini. As of 2023, the number of women in top leadership roles, such as deans or vice chancellors, has decreased. This gender disparity contributes to a loop in which female leadership is frequently questioned or undercut while male leadership is normalised (Nkambule & Perumal, 2024). LW5 highlights the crucial aspect of women's expected balance between assertiveness and social acceptability. Women are frequently required to exhibit leadership characteristics while avoiding behaviours that could be labeled as 'aggressive.' This paradox reflects broader gender stereotypes that dictate acceptable behavior for women in leadership, often compromising their authenticity and effectiveness in their professions. According to Thelma and Ngulube (2024), women leaders must carefully navigate societal expectations that can impede their boldness. One such sensitive endeavour is striking a balance between authority and niceness. Women frequently find themselves in a difficult situation where they have to balance being forceful without coming across as hostile. Self-censorship or a hesitancy to exercise authority may result from this balancing act (Radu and Provo, 2025). The third contribution (LW8) draws attention to a crucial problem: the absence of official assistance and mentorship in negotiating male-dominated settings. Although useful, informal networking might not offer the same degree of support and direction as official mentorship programs. According to research, mentoring is essential for women's professional growth since it increases their visibility and provides them with access to resources (Ntshongwana, 2024). Women could find it difficult to locate chances for leadership and career advancement in the absence of formal support networks. To boost their self-esteem and leadership abilities, female leaders frequently turn to unofficial networks and mentorship initiatives. Due to the male-dominated leadership environment, a lot of women use peer support systems to exchange experiences and methods for dealing with institutional difficulties (Khan et al., 2025). In Eswatini's HEIs, male leaders frequently follow established paradigms of authority to circumvent gender expectations. LM10 (individual interview). I am a male leader; I need to be assertive, and I can’t behave like a woman. I make quick decisions so that I achieve my goals. I have to work in such a way that I am never questioned on my leadership style. I should lead like a man as the society expects. LM13 (focus group A) There are policies that speak of gender equity, but you know we are not keen on supporting such. Men should always be seen as leading so that society does not question much when they see that many of our leaders are women. LM14 (focus group B). I always make sure that I am careful when dealing with other women leaders. We should just accept that women are as capable as us men. They are intelligent leaders; in this 4IR we should accept that women are capable. We live harmoniously with them. The LM10 statement emphasises a strong commitment to conventional ideas of masculinity in leadership. The gender dichotomy that frequently marginalises female leadership is reinforced by LM10's assertion that he "can't behave like a woman" and his emphasis on assertiveness as a crucial leadership quality. His emphasis on making "fast decisions" to avoid examination is a prime example of a reactionary style of leadership, in which a performance of hyper-masculinity is the result of an underlying dread of being questioned. This is consistent with important research that demonstrates how deeply ingrained gender stereotypes influence leadership behaviours at HEIs, frequently causing men to shun cooperative or sympathetic leadership philosophies that are typically associated with women (Zhong, 2024). LM13's response reveals a troubling attitude toward institutional practices that promote gender parity. The rejection of such regulations as a formality reveals a strong reluctance on the part of male leadership to address the difficulties that women in HEIs face. By asserting that "men should always be considered leading," LM13 subtly promotes a status quo that maintains gender gaps in leadership in addition to upholding traditional gender roles. According to research, these kinds of attitudes are common among male leaders, which frequently results in structural obstacles that women must overcome to advance to leadership roles (Ghundol & Muthanna, 2025). This feeling contradicts perceived support for equity and reinforces structures that hinder meaningful change. LM14, on the other hand, presents a more progressive viewpoint by recognising the potential of female leaders. Considering the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), which prioritises ability and abilities over gender, his remark that "women are as capable as us men" demonstrates a changing perception of gender roles in leadership. His warning to exercise caution "when dealing with other women leaders," however, suggests a deeper conflict. This implies that even if he acknowledges women's abilities, he still needs to carefully manage the power dynamics, possibly due to concerns about maintaining professional boundaries and perceptions. This conflicting position is consistent with research that showed although female leadership is becoming more accepted, male leaders' relationships with female counterparts are still influenced by unconscious biases and traditional hierarchies (Noman et al., 2025). Such reluctance can impede genuine chances for mentorship and collaboration between the sexes, which are essential for creating an inclusive learning environment. Based on the chapter's data analysis, here are two tables illustrating gendered leadership styles, decision-making techniques, and organisational influence in Eswatini's higher education institutions. Table 1: Leadership Styles and Decision-Making Approaches by Gender Leadership Style Gender Characteristics Examples from Participants Transformational Female Collaborative, empathetic, relationship-focused LW1: “Women form relationships, listen, and empathise.” Inspires teamwork and shared goals LW4: “Departments led by women are better organized.” Transactional Male Quick decisions, efficiency-oriented, authoritative LM12: “Men make fast decisions, less consultation.” Hierarchical, result-focused LM10: "I need to be assertive and lead like a man" Table 2: Challenges and Opportunities in Gendered Leadership Aspect Gender Challenges/Opportunities Examples form participants Mentorship and Support Female Lack of formal mentorship programs, cultural restrictions LW9: "We don’t get mentors to help us in these positions” Work-Life Balance Female Overwhelm balancing family and work, societal expectations LW6: "Women feel overwhelmed trying to balance duties" Cultural Norms and Stereotypes Male Upholding traditional masculinity, resistance to gender policies LM13: "Men are in charge; women can't lead in our culture" Leadership Perception Male Emphasis on assertiveness, reluctance to adopt transformational styles LM10: "I must lead like a man" Recommendations of the study The Ministry of Education and Training should create structured mentorship programmes that connect female leaders to experienced leaders (both male and female) in higher education. These programmes should focus on offering women guidance, support, and networking opportunities as they navigate leadership roles and overcome obstacles. Additionally, institutions should consider leadership development programmes that emphasise the full-range leadership spectrum, encouraging leaders to adopt both transformational and transactional behaviours fluidly based on situational demands (Avolio et al., 1999). As the parent ministry, it should encourage higher education institutions to prioritise and execute gender equity policies for leadership. This includes setting targets for women's appointment and promotion to leadership roles, as well as ensuring that these rules are enforced through accountability methods. Conclusion In conclusion, this empirical study of gendered leadership styles at Eswatini's higher education institutions not only uncovers important insights into the intersection of gender and leadership, but it also demonstrates the transformative potential of more inclusive leadership practices. Institutions may create inclusive, cooperative, and creative cultures that are in line with the needs of the Fourth Industrial Revolution by adopting the transformational leadership traits linked to female leaders. Recognising the fluidity of leadership styles, aligned with the Gendered Leadership Framework and Full-Range Leadership Theory can help institutions cultivate leadership environments that are more responsive to the challenges of the 21st century and the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Such an approach supports the achievement of SDGs related to gender equality and inclusive quality education, emphasizing that leadership development must be context-sensitive, fluid, and inclusive to foster sustainable progress. Given the favourable effects on institutional culture and 21st-century educational achievements, this change calls for comprehensive policies that promote gender equity in leadership. Declarations Data Access Statement This article/supplementary material contains the original contributions given in this work; for further information, please contact the corresponding author. Ethical approval The study was conducted with the permission of the Director of Education in the Ministry of Education and Training of the Kingdom of Eswatini. The official authorisation was granted on 21 February 2025. A formal permission letter was issued by the Ministry, as it is the sole authority responsible for approving research requests of this nature within the Kingdom of Eswatini. Informed Consent In this study, informed consent was obtained through a written process. The consent form was completed on the 31st of January; however, we had to wait for ethical clearance from the Ministry of Education and Training before seeking consent from participants. Since there were three institutions involved, consent was sought from 26th of February to the 7th of March 2025. Prior to data collection, all participants received an information sheet detailing the purpose of the research, their rights, and how their data would be used. The consent was obtained in writing through signed consent forms, which participants completed voluntarily. The process took place after the Director granted permission for the study, and the consent forms were signed by each participant in the presence of the researcher. The forms serve as proof of informed and voluntary participation Funding Statement This study was personally funded by the author and did not receive any external funding. Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this research study. Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge all the participants who voluntarily participated in this study. References Abukalusa, K., & Oosthuizen, R. (2025). An adaptive organisational leadership framework through systems thinking. International Journal of Organizational Analysis . https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-07-2024-4635. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2022.2107967 Alessi, E. J., & Kahn, S. (2023). Toward a trauma-informed qualitative research approach: Guidelines for ensuring the safety and promoting the resilience of research participants. Qualitative Research in Psychology , 20 (1), 121-154. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2022.2107967 Andayani, F., & Volz, Y. (2024). 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It is becoming more widely acknowledged that promoting diversity and enhancing institutional performance require gender equality in leadership positions. Using a qualitative narrative inquiry method, this study looked at the gendered leadership styles of male and female leaders in a few Eswatini universities. It focused on individual experiences, perceived difficulties, and institutional culture, and the fluidity of leadership styles across a spectrum of approaches, including transformational and transactional models. It also looked at how gender affected leadership practices and what effects these differences had on creating fair environments in higher education institutions. The knowledge gained from this study may be useful in guiding practices and policies that support inclusive leadership in Eswatini\u0026apos;s academic environment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Background of Study","content":"\u003cp\u003eHigher education institutions play a pivotal role in shaping societal progress, fostering innovation, and promoting social equity. In Eswatini, a country characterised by deeply rooted patriarchal norms and traditional gender roles, leadership within tertiary institutions is influenced significantly by societal expectations and cultural beliefs (Nkambule \u0026amp; Perumal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Historically, leadership positions have been predominantly occupied by men, owing to systemic gender biases and cultural stereotypes that associate authority and decision-making with masculinity (Nkosi \u0026amp; Maphalala, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). This gendered distribution of leadership roles not only perpetuates gender inequalities but also impacts organisational culture, decision-making processes, and institutional development. Recent global and regional movements advocating for gender equality have begun to challenge these traditional norms, emphasising the importance of diverse leadership for enhancing organisational effectiveness and inclusivity (Smith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In the context of Eswatini's higher education sector, increasing participation of women in leadership roles presents both opportunities and challenges. Female leaders often adopt transformational leadership styles characterised by collaboration, empathy, and relationship-building, which can foster inclusive and innovative organisational cultures. Conversely, male leaders tend to employ transactional leadership approaches that prioritise efficiency, hierarchy, and quick decision-making.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding how these gendered leadership styles influence institutional culture and decision-making in Eswatini's higher education institutions is crucial for fostering environments that support gender equity and harness the full potential of diverse leadership. This study aims to explore these dynamics through a comparative analysis of female and male leaders, providing insights that can inform policy formulation, leadership development programmes, and institutional strategies geared toward promoting inclusive and effective leadership in Eswatini's tertiary education landscape.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDefinition of Technical Terms\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGender refers to the social, psychological, and cultural characteristics and roles that societies deem appropriate for people who identify as male, female, or non-binary. It distinguishes itself from biological sex, which relates to physical and physiological differences (Lindqvist et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeadership is persuading and guiding people or organisations to achieve common goals. It takes various methods and tactics, including the capacity to motivate, direct, and support team dynamics (Northouse, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePatriarchal is a social system or structure characterised by male dominance, with men wielding primary power and control responsibilities in leadership, influence, and authority. This structure frequently shapes norms, beliefs, and behaviours in both the public and private sectors (Kimmel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransformational leadership is a leadership style that aims to inspire and motivate followers to go above and beyond their own self-interests for the sake of the organisation or a greater cause. This leadership style focuses on creating an environment conducive to cooperation, innovation, and change (Lei et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransactional leadership is an approach to leadership in which leaders encourage conformity through rewards and penalties. This approach is largely concerned with preserving the usual flow of operations and completing short-term tasks using set policies and explicit expectations (Dong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatement of the Problem\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the framework of higher education in Eswatini, a country with deeply ingrained patriarchal norms, the study \"Gendered Leadership Styles in Higher Education: A Comparative Study of Female and Male Leaders in Eswatini's Tertiary Institutions\" tackles a crucial research question. Understanding the effects of gendered leadership styles is crucial for creating equitable institutional cultures and enhancing overall organisational performance as worldwide conversations increasingly centre on the value of diversity and inclusivity in leadership. It is important to recognise that leadership behaviours are not strictly dichotomous; many leaders employ a blend of transformational and transactional styles, often shifting along a spectrum depending on contextual demands and organisational needs (Avolio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). Exploring how gendered leadership styles, which are characterised by the differences between transformational and transactional approaches, affect institutional culture and decision-making procedures in higher education contexts is the main research question. This study highlights the diverse experiences and difficulties faced by both male and female leaders, acknowledging that leadership is not a neutral profession but rather is socially constructed through dominant gender norms. Male leaders display transactional traits, frequently placing a higher value on efficiency and quick decision-making, whereas female leaders typically embrace transformational leadership attributes like teamwork, empathy, and relationship-building. The study reveals the subtleties of these leadership philosophies and their consequent impacts on the dynamics of Eswatini's higher institutions through qualitative research using narrative inquiry. The significant nature of this study problem is found in both its immediate relevance to the Eswatini environment and its wider ramifications for regional and international higher education institutions. The results highlight the need for implementing gender equity policies, which have been demonstrated to stimulate inclusive leadership and create settings that encourage creativity and adaptability in the face of modern issues, such as those brought on by the Fourth Industrial Revolution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Gendered Leadership Framework serves as the most appropriate theoretical lens for this study. This framework posits that leadership is socially constructed through gendered norms and values that influence the behaviour and perceptions of leaders (Zhong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Fox-Kirk et al., 2024). Moreover, integrating the Full-Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) allows for an understanding of how leaders may adopt a combination of transformational and transactional behaviours, with the capacity for fluidity and adaptation over time. By exploring the ways in which female and male leaders embody and enact their leadership styles, this study sheds light on the underlying societal structures that inform their experiences. The focus was on identifying how traditional gender roles shape leadership attributes such as communication style, decision-making processes, and conflict resolution. Moreover, this framework allows for the examination of intersectionality, recognising how race, class, and culture intersect with gender to shape leadership experiences in Eswatini's higher educational context (Crenshaw et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGeographical and Socio-Economic Context\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe landlocked nation of Eswatini in southern Africa is distinguished by its monoethnic community and rich cultural legacy. The administrative hub of the nation is the capital, Mbabane. Even though the country is divided into four regions, the focus of this study was on educational establishments in the largest two, Manzini and Hhohho, which are distinguished by their varied urbanisation levels and varied socioeconomic environments. The patriarchal culture of Eswatini, which has its roots in religious and cultural traditions, frequently prevents women from assuming leadership roles. Traditional gender norms are enforced by this largely Christian-based social structure, which can impede women's advancement in the workplace and their ability to hold positions of power (Fielding-Miller et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The study's chosen institutions, two of which are in Hhohho and one in Manzini, offer a distinctive setting for investigating leadership dynamics in the context of higher education in Eswatini. In addition to highlighting the complexity of gender roles within the educational system, the differing levels of urbanisation in various areas will have an impact on the opportunities and challenges faced by male and female leaders.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Study Methodology and Data Collection Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eResearch Approach\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe methodological framework of the study was qualitative in nature. A research sample of eighteen participants was adequate because, according to Lim (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), qualitative research often examines a small, distinct group of participants to obtain a thorough grasp of the topic. Researchers using qualitative methods can capture the rich insights of leaders that quantitative methods may overlook. Braun and Clarke (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) claim that qualitative research provides rich, contextual data that can show the sociocultural influences on leadership styles as well as the leadership styles employed by male and female leaders. Sociocultural issues often influence gendered leadership. Organisational culture, gender norms, and leadership expectations can all be evaluated using qualitative approaches in the study of higher education in a particular setting, like Eswatini. According to Usman et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), qualitative narratives are essential for a thorough understanding since the cultural context significantly affects how leadership is seen and applied.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eResearch Design\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe research adopted a narrative inquiry design, focusing on gathering in-depth personal stories from participants to understand their lived experiences as leaders in higher education. This qualitative approach allowed for a rich exploration of the complexities surrounding gender and leadership (Creswell \u0026amp; Inoue, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Data collection involved semi-structured interviews, which encouraged open dialogue and provided an environment conducive to storytelling. The interviews were recorded and transcribed for thematic analysis. The narrative inquiry allowed for flexibility and depth, enabling researchers to uncover the subtleties of gendered experiences and leadership approaches in the context of Eswatini (Caine et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). A narrative design enables the incorporation of personal experiences into the larger socio-political and cultural contexts in which these leaders\u0026rsquo; function. This integration is critical for understanding how systemic issues influence individual leadership styles, as illustrated in the writings of Abukalusa and Oosthuizen (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eResearchers\u0026rsquo; Positionality\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis qualitative research adopted a reflective stance to address researcher positionality and cultural sensitivity. The researchers acknowledge that their backgrounds, cultural understandings, and inherent biases influence data interpretation and analysis. Engaging in reflexivity, the researchers maintained awareness of their influence on the research process and actively sought to minimise bias through member checking and triangulation. Reflexivity statements were incorporated to clarify how the researchers\u0026apos; perspectives and cultural context may shape the construction of meaning, especially given the culturally sensitive environment of Eswatini.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Generation Methods\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study included 9 female leaders and 9 male leaders from three tertiary institutions, all of whom were between the ages of 38 and 52. Focus group discussions and face-to-face individual interviews were the data generation methods employed in this study. The focus groups allowed the researcher to corroborate the comments offered by participants during individual interviews, which aided in data triangulation (Meydan \u0026amp; Akkas, 2024). The researchers urged the participants to have spontaneous, unstructured, natural, and open talks. As a result, the participants directed their enquiries at one another and responded to each other\u0026apos;s comments. Considering group dynamics, each member was provided the opportunity to respond to the questions and issues addressed. The researchers employed individual interviews to gather data from the study\u0026apos;s selected sample. The researchers used three focus groups, coded A, B, and C, and interviewed two individual participants per research site. An affirmation is given by Barnwell (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) that interviewing individuals allows them to speak about what is on their minds and to give themselves to a profound investigation, especially when it comes to personal accounts of their feelings together with experiences. The researchers made sure their study was authentic by recording voices and taking brief notes as they were gathering data. Participants were able to express themselves in both SiSwati and English.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study employed thematic analysis. Braun and Clarke (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) say that thematic analysis is a method that is systematic and utilised to classify, analyse and report data in a detailed manner with minimal organisation. The researcher was actively involved in collecting the data using semi-structured focus group interviews and individual interviews as primary instruments in data generation. To comprehend the concerns and thoughts that were surfacing, the researcher listened to the voice recordings several times and read the documents. He transcribed the interviews while listening to the voice recordings over and over. This interaction with the data aided the researcher in absorbing the information and making sense of the meanings and patterns that emerged. Reading through these written categories formed themes, organised them, and connected them to the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eLimitations Of the Study\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhile qualitative methods produce detailed data, they are prone to biases such as researcher interpretation and participant variety in narratives. This subjectivity can influence the results and restrict the study\u0026apos;s reproducibility (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Future research should use mixed- methods approaches, incorporating qualitative and quantitative data. This triangulation can provide a more complete picture and improve the trustworthiness of findings (Meydan \u0026amp; Akkaş, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The study\u0026apos;s emphasis on a specific cultural setting (patriarchal culture in Eswatini) may introduce biases that influence the participants\u0026apos; perceptions and reactions. According to Heilman et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) and Brownell et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), cultural norms around gender roles may influence individuals to produce socially desirable responses rather than their actual views. Researchers can study cross-cultural comparisons to investigate how different sociocultural environments influence gendered leadership approaches. This method would allow for a more sophisticated understanding of leadership dynamics across different cultures.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWe conducted this study with ethical issues at its core. We strictly adhered to a number of ethical standards in addition to securing the Director of Education\u0026apos;s letter of permission. All participants were fully informed about the study\u0026apos;s objectives, procedures, and possible effects on their personal and professional lives to give their informed consent. Before taking part, participants must provide their informed consent, guaranteeing that they can leave at any moment without incurring any costs (Dahal, 2024). Confidentiality and Anonymity: Participants\u0026apos; identities were anonymised to protect their privacy. Data was securely stored, and access was limited to the researchers. The study findings will not share any identifying information (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, 2024). The research design included mechanisms to prevent psychological or emotional distress, ensuring participants could narrate their experiences comfortably. If discussing their experiences proved distressing, we provided participants with resources for counseling (Alessi \u0026amp; Kahn, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Findings And Discussions","content":"\u003cp\u003eBased on study questions on gendered leadership styles in HEIs in Eswatini, the following themes emerged as participants expounded on their lived experiences as leaders in Eswatini\u0026rsquo;s institutions of higher learning. Women leaders are represented by LW1 to LW9, while men leaders are represented by LM10 to LM18.\u0026nbsp;The narratives reveal \u0026quot;blurred lines\u0026quot; and fluidity between traditional gender binaries, where leadership behaviors often transcend stereotypical gender roles. For instance, some male leaders display transformational traits, and some women adopt transactional behaviors depending on organisational needs\u0026mdash;a reflection of the full-range leadership spectrum (Avolio et al, 1999).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComparative Analysis of Leadership\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe viewpoints expressed by participants in various focus groups draw attention to important differences between the ways in which male and female leaders\u0026rsquo; function in organisations, especially in higher learning institutions. The qualitative data illuminates decision-making procedures, collaborative versus individualistic approaches, and the general leadership styles of men and women.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom focus group A, participant LW1 said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWomen leadership want to form relationships and work with others collaboratively, unlike male leaders who are more individualistic, however, there are individual differences among the women. The women, listen to others, are empathetic, while males make quick decisions without consulting so that they achieve their goals\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFocus group B, participant LM12 opined that \u0026ldquo;men are robust and fast in decision-making. Consulting is scantly done but very fast.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWomen are transformational leaders while men are amore transactional. They want to achieve stated goals (LW7, focus group C).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn contrast to male leaders\u0026apos; more autonomous approach, Focus Group A participant LW1 highlights the value of fostering relationships and teamwork in female leadership styles in tertiary institutions in Eswatini. This is in line with recent research showing that women in leadership roles frequently place a higher value on group cohesiveness and shared objectives than on individual ambition (Liu et al, 2024). A study by Johnson and Lee (2024) backs up these findings, pointing out that female leaders are excellent at creating friendly environments that encourage team members to support one another and be creative. According to LW1, female leaders also demonstrate traits like empathy and listening. This supports the idea that transformational leadership styles, which emphasise inspiring and motivating people while being attentive to their needs, are more frequently employed by female leaders (Hsu et al., 2022). A real illustration of this influence may be found at the University of Eswatini, where female leadership posts have increased as a result of recent legislative measures focused on gender equality. Female university leaders have created mentorship programs to help both male and female students succeed academically and professionally, establishing an inclusive atmosphere (Maguire et al, 2025). This strategy is consistent with Warner and Roush\u0026apos;s (2021) discovery that transformational leadership can dramatically improve institutional culture by promoting shared values and encouraging collaboration across various stakeholder groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLM12\u0026apos;s assessment indicates a more transactional and possibly less consultative approach, often prioritizing efficiency over emotional engagement in men\u0026apos;s decision-making. Ok and Eniola (2024) research highlights that female leaders\u0026apos; sympathetic inclinations have a good impact on workplace culture and employee satisfaction, whereas male leaders\u0026apos; authoritative and speedier decisions may produce faster results but may ignore stakeholder input.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs observed by participants LM12 and LW7, male leaders\u0026apos; speed and decisiveness underscore a trait frequently associated with transactional leadership styles, which prioritise achieving goals and achieving results quickly. While this may compromise thoroughness and inclusivity in the decision-making process, it can yield positive short-term outcomes (Marie et al., 2024). To further explain this dynamic, Elbers (2025) notes that whereas transactional leaders, who are frequently men, are focused on reaching short-term goals, they may unintentionally foster high stress levels and employee burnout by preventing staff members from participating in decision-making.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBarriers and Challenges\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs Eswatini navigates the complexity of the twenty-first century and the Fourth Industrial Revolution, women\u0026apos;s leadership roles, particularly in higher education, present considerable hurdles. Focus group participants\u0026apos; insights emphasise the multiple challenges that women leaders face in this patriarchal society. This debate critically explored the obstacles stated by participants and other impediments that women face in Eswatini\u0026apos;s academic environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen asked about the specific challenges female leaders face in navigating their roles compared to male leaders and how they address them, the following submissions were recorded:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLM 10 (individual interview) elaborated that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWomen, especially from a background of the patriarchal society of Eswatini, once in leadership where there are many men, tend to be rude so that they want to be seen to be in charge and become controlling. The impact is creating a charged environment in our institution.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLW6 (focus group B) submitted that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe challenge for women is that women feel overwhelmed trying to strike a balance between the new job and family duties, especially when married. This will affect how the institution works.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipant LM10 observes that women in positions of leadership may exhibit harsh or domineering behaviour because of their upbringing in a patriarchal society, where they feel the need to demonstrate dominance in male-dominated environments. This mirrors a tendency known as the \u0026quot;Queen Bee Syndrome,\u0026quot; in which powerful women may separate themselves from other women in order to fit into a male-dominated leadership culture (Andayani, 2024). Mdhlalose\u0026rsquo;s (2025) research shows that such behaviours might generate a toxic work atmosphere, causing greater stress among teams. Female leaders may feel obliged to adopt stereotypically masculine methods of leadership, overshadowing their inherent relational skills, which are often advantageous in collaborative educational situations. LW6 recognises the immense pressure that women endure when balancing work obligations with home responsibilities, particularly married women. This combined burden frequently causes stress and possibly burnout, which can impair performance and decision-making skills (Harry et al., 2021). According to research conducted by Dlamini et al\u0026nbsp;(2024), many women in Eswatini struggle to balance conventional gender responsibilities with professional goals. The lack of supportive legislation, such as flexible work arrangements or childcare services, exacerbates the problem, making it difficult for women to succeed in leadership positions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurther, women in leadership in higher educational institutions of learning in Eswatini in the 21st century face the challenge of lacking mentorship. LW9 (focus group C) commented that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e|We don\u0026rsquo;t get mentors to help us in these higher positions we occupy. We are on our own. Kumatima (it\u0026rsquo;s difficult).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWomen frequently confront a lack of mentorship from established leaders, which can impede their professional growth and development. Patriarchal culture may exacerbate this disparity by restricting women\u0026apos;s opportunities for networking and mentorship (Nkosi, 2024). According to research, mentoring is critical for moving women into leadership positions. In Eswatini, where traditional conventions favour male leadership, women may find it difficult to interact with and learn from males in positions of authority. Research has constantly emphasised the relevance of mentorship for women\u0026apos;s advancement into leadership positions. Eda\u0026ntilde;o et al. (2025) found that mentorship can help women advance their careers by giving direction, support, and networking opportunities, all of which are important for women, especially in male-dominated sectors. Women frequently confront specific job impediments, and mentorship can assist them in overcoming these challenges. In Eswatini, societal expectations based on patriarchal standards frequently marginalise women in professional roles. Nkambule and Perumal (2024) discovered that cultural beliefs have a substantial impact on the career paths of women in Eswatini, limiting their access to mentors who can advocate for them. Male leaders\u0026apos; unwillingness to connect with female mentees can stem from traditional gender stereotypes, creating an environment in which women struggle to receive the mentorship required for leadership positions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLM13, during the individual interview, said that:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRemember, this is Eswatini; men are in charge. We do not accept women to lead. It is not in our culture, my brother. How can the institution take more women in leadership when \u0026lsquo;tsine emadvodza sikhona\u0026rsquo; (when us men are there)?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMany of Eswatini\u0026apos;s higher education institutions have a rigid organisational culture. Traditional gender stereotypes may hinder women\u0026apos;s leadership ability and assertiveness. Gender bias in promotion processes and decision-making hierarchies are structural impediments that prevent women from advancing to senior positions (Thelma \u0026amp; Ngulube, 2024). Keddie and Wilkinson (2025) found that institutional strategies frequently fail to address gender gaps, leaving women leaders feeling marginalised and unsupported.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImpact on Organisational Culture\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGendered leadership styles in higher education have a considerable impact on institutional culture, especially in Eswatini, where traditional gender norms are generally dominant. Serafimova et al.\u0026nbsp;(2025) found that female executives usually use transformational leadership styles that emphasise teamwork, emotional intelligence, and stakeholder engagement. This contrasts with more traditional, transactional leadership approaches commonly associated with male executives, which frequently prioritise hierarchy and authority. In Eswatini, where patriarchal frameworks may prevail, transformational leadership can break preconceptions and build a more inclusive institutional culture (Nkambule \u0026amp; Perumal, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLW4 (focus group B) averred that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLook at departments that are led by women at this institution; they are better organized and have greater output than those run by men. There is inclusivity in how we do things here. No doubt, women do best.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLM18 (focus group C) explained that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe best in leadership is when we have an equal number of males and females in leadership. This results in implementing programs that satisfy our students. Integrating leadership styles is best for the institution during this 4IR.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLW2 (focus group A) said:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHaving policies that promote gender equity results in institutions that are innovative in 4IR and have levels of student satisfaction.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings from focus groups conducted in higher education institutions in Eswatini provide critical insights into how gender dynamics in leadership influence organisational culture, especially considering the difficulties and opportunities posed by the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). Both female (LW) and male (LM) leaders emphasise the importance of inclusive leadership in supporting organisational performance and creativity. The remark by LW4 gives important insight about the outcomes of female-led departments. The argument that female-led departments are \u0026quot;better organised and have greater output\u0026quot; highlights the revolutionary potential of women\u0026apos;s leadership styles. According to research, female executives frequently use collaborative and participative ways to improve organisational communication, teamwork, and morale (Rodriguez \u0026amp; Rodriguez, 2024). This finding is consistent with current opinions on leadership effectiveness, such as those offered by Ly (2024), who believes that inclusive leadership styles increase organisational commitment and employee engagement. In 4IR, where institutions increasingly rely on collaboration and interdisciplinary approaches to problem-solving, the organisational culture under female leadership may be more conducive to innovation and flexibility.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLM18 emphasises the benefits of having an equal representation of men and women in leadership. This argument acknowledges that incorporating various leadership styles and characteristics common to both male and female leaders can result in a more dynamic and responsive institutional environment. This viewpoint is reinforced by G\u0026oacute;rska and Burlakova\u0026rsquo;s (2025) research, which shows that gender-balanced leadership leads to more thorough decision-making processes that better reflect and address the requirements of various student groups. The value of cooperative leadership models in the fourth industrial revolution cannot be overstated. According to Gonz\u0026aacute;lez and Hurst (2023), organisations that appreciate varied leadership inputs tend to generate more innovative and student-focused policies. This collaborative approach can improve program creation and integrate educational offers with industry demands, resulting in higher student satisfaction and employability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLW2\u0026apos;s comments on measures that encourage gender equity highlight an important component of institutional culture that fosters creativity. The claim that gender equity leads to innovative outcomes in the context of 4IR is consistent with the frameworks presented by Oosthuizen and Motsatsi (2025), who emphasise that organisations committed to equity and diversity are often perceived as more progressive and desirable to students. Gender equity policies can act as a catalyst for cultural change inside higher education organisations. Such policies can establish inclusion as a core principle, creating workplaces in which all persons feel encouraged to contribute (Maheshwari et al.\u0026nbsp;(2025). By fostering a supportive environment, universities not only improve internal culture but also exhibit a commitment to social justice and equity, which is becoming increasingly crucial in securing students from diverse backgrounds in today\u0026apos;s globalised world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNavigating Gender Expectations in Higher Education Institutions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGender expectations have a significant impact on how male and female leaders navigate their jobs in Eswatini, as they do in many other nations, particularly in higher education institutions. Male and female academic leaders\u0026apos; experiences and leadership styles are shaped by the dynamic interaction of societal norms, institutional frameworks, and individual agency. Traditional societal institutions, often reflecting patriarchal beliefs, distinguish Eswatini. Gender roles are highly ingrained, with men supposed to be forceful, authoritative, and decision-makers, while women are frequently consigned to supporting positions or expected to demonstrate nurturing tendencies. These standards can create a difficult atmosphere for female leaders in higher education, who may receive criticism for their leadership styles and decisions. To understand how male and female academic leaders navigate gendered expectations in their roles, here are insights from other leaders:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLW3 (individual interview)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIf you are to check, the number of women who occupy higher positions like deans, vice chancellors, and department chairs in tertiary institutions is fewer compared to men. Why? We are a patriarchal society. Policies are there, but there is no implementation.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLW5 (focus group 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWe are expected to be assertive, but not to be perceived as aggressive because that is not a trait women in this country should possess.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLW8 (focus group C).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWe almost lack mentorship in these positions; we network informally, so we have to look for support systems to navigate the male-dominated spaces\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe disparity in higher positions held by males against women at higher learning institutions is a significant concern, as indicated by the first contribution from LW3. This finding emphasises the structural obstacles that prevent women from assuming leadership positions. Research shows how patriarchal structures and ingrained gender norms prevent women from advancing in a variety of fields, including education (Simon \u0026amp; Hasan2025). A cycle of male dominance in higher education, which ought to ideally foster equality and representational diversity, is sustained by society\u0026apos;s assumption that males hold leadership positions. In comparison to their male counterparts, women are still underrepresented in leadership roles in HEIs in Eswatini. As of 2023, the number of women in top leadership roles, such as deans or vice chancellors, has decreased. This gender disparity contributes to a loop in which female leadership is frequently questioned or undercut while male leadership is normalised (Nkambule \u0026amp; Perumal, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLW5 highlights the crucial aspect of women\u0026apos;s expected balance between assertiveness and social acceptability. Women are frequently required to exhibit leadership characteristics while avoiding behaviours that could be labeled as \u0026apos;aggressive.\u0026apos; This paradox reflects broader gender stereotypes that dictate acceptable behavior for women in leadership, often compromising their authenticity and effectiveness in their professions. According to Thelma and Ngulube (2024), women leaders must carefully navigate societal expectations that can impede their boldness. One such sensitive endeavour is striking a balance between authority and niceness. Women frequently find themselves in a difficult situation where they have to balance being forceful without coming across as hostile. Self-censorship or a hesitancy to exercise authority may result from this balancing act (Radu and Provo, 2025). The third contribution (LW8) draws attention to a crucial problem: the absence of official assistance and mentorship in negotiating male-dominated settings. Although useful, informal networking might not offer the same degree of support and direction as official mentorship programs. According to research, mentoring is essential for women\u0026apos;s professional growth since it increases their visibility and provides them with access to resources (Ntshongwana, 2024). Women could find it difficult to locate chances for leadership and career advancement in the absence of formal support networks. To boost their self-esteem and leadership abilities, female leaders\u0026nbsp;frequently turn to unofficial networks and mentorship initiatives. Due to the male-dominated leadership environment, a lot of women use peer support systems to exchange experiences and methods for dealing with institutional difficulties (Khan et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Eswatini\u0026apos;s HEIs, male leaders frequently follow established paradigms of authority to circumvent gender expectations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLM10 (individual interview).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI am a male leader; I need to be assertive, and I can\u0026rsquo;t behave like a woman. I make quick decisions so that I achieve my goals. I have to work in such a way that I am never questioned on my leadership style. I should lead like a man as the society expects.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLM13 (focus group A)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThere are policies that speak of gender equity, but you know we are not keen on supporting such. Men should always be seen as leading so that society does not question much when they see that many of our leaders are women.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLM14 (focus group B).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eI always make sure that I am careful when dealing with other women leaders. We should just accept that women are as capable as us men. They are intelligent leaders; in this 4IR we should accept that women are capable. We live harmoniously with them.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe LM10 statement emphasises a strong commitment to conventional ideas of masculinity in leadership. The gender dichotomy that frequently marginalises female leadership is reinforced by LM10\u0026apos;s assertion that he \u0026quot;can\u0026apos;t behave like a woman\u0026quot; and his emphasis on assertiveness as a crucial leadership quality. His emphasis on making \u0026quot;fast decisions\u0026quot; to avoid examination is a prime example of a reactionary style of leadership, in which a performance of hyper-masculinity is the result of an underlying dread of being questioned. This is consistent with important research that demonstrates how deeply ingrained gender stereotypes influence leadership behaviours at HEIs, frequently causing men to shun cooperative or sympathetic leadership philosophies that are typically associated with women (Zhong, 2024). LM13\u0026apos;s response reveals a troubling attitude toward institutional practices that promote gender parity. The rejection of such regulations as a formality reveals a strong reluctance on the part of male leadership to address the difficulties that women in HEIs face. By asserting that \u0026quot;men should always be considered leading,\u0026quot; LM13 subtly promotes a status quo that maintains gender gaps in leadership in addition to upholding traditional gender roles. According to research, these kinds of attitudes are common among male leaders, which frequently results in structural obstacles that women must overcome to advance to leadership roles (Ghundol \u0026amp; Muthanna, 2025). This feeling contradicts perceived support for equity and reinforces structures that hinder meaningful change.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLM14, on the other hand, presents a more progressive viewpoint by recognising the potential of female leaders. Considering the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), which prioritises ability and abilities over gender, his remark that \u0026quot;women are as capable as us men\u0026quot; demonstrates a changing perception of gender roles in leadership. His warning to exercise caution \u0026quot;when dealing with other women leaders,\u0026quot; however, suggests a deeper conflict. This implies that even if he acknowledges women\u0026apos;s abilities, he still needs to carefully manage the power dynamics, possibly due to concerns about maintaining professional boundaries and perceptions. This conflicting position is consistent with research that showed although female leadership is becoming more accepted, male leaders\u0026apos; relationships with female counterparts are still influenced by unconscious biases and traditional hierarchies (Noman et al., 2025). Such reluctance can impede genuine chances for mentorship and collaboration between the sexes, which are essential for creating an inclusive learning environment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the chapter\u0026apos;s data analysis, here are two tables illustrating gendered leadership styles, decision-making techniques, and organisational influence in Eswatini\u0026apos;s higher education institutions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1: Leadership Styles and Decision-Making Approaches by Gender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeadership Style \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharacteristics \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExamples from Participants \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransformational\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCollaborative, empathetic, relationship-focused \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLW1: \u0026ldquo;Women form relationships, listen, and empathise.\u0026rdquo; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInspires teamwork and shared goals \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLW4: \u0026ldquo;Departments led by women are better organized.\u0026rdquo; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransactional\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuick decisions, efficiency-oriented, authoritative \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLM12: \u0026ldquo;Men make fast decisions, less consultation.\u0026rdquo; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHierarchical, result-focused \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLM10: \u0026quot;I need to be assertive and lead like a man\u0026quot; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2: Challenges and Opportunities in Gendered Leadership\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAspect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChallenges/Opportunities\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExamples form participants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMentorship and Support \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLack of formal mentorship programs, cultural restrictions \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLW9: \u0026quot;We don\u0026rsquo;t get mentors to help us in these positions\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWork-Life Balance \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverwhelm balancing family and work, societal expectations \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLW6: \u0026quot;Women feel overwhelmed trying to balance duties\u0026quot; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCultural Norms and Stereotypes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUpholding traditional masculinity, resistance to gender policies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLM13: \u0026quot;Men are in charge; women can\u0026apos;t lead in our culture\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeadership Perception \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmphasis on assertiveness, reluctance to adopt transformational styles\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 156px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLM10: \u0026quot;I must lead like a man\u0026quot; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRecommendations of the study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Ministry of Education and Training should create structured mentorship programmes that connect female leaders to experienced leaders (both male and female) in higher education. These programmes should focus on offering women guidance, support, and networking opportunities as they navigate leadership roles and overcome obstacles. Additionally, institutions should consider leadership development programmes that emphasise the full-range leadership spectrum, encouraging leaders to adopt both transformational and transactional behaviours fluidly based on situational demands (Avolio et al., 1999). As the parent ministry, it should encourage higher education institutions to prioritise and execute gender equity policies for leadership. This includes setting targets for women\u0026apos;s appointment and promotion to leadership roles, as well as ensuring that these rules are enforced through accountability methods.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, this empirical study of gendered leadership styles at Eswatini's higher education institutions not only uncovers important insights into the intersection of gender and leadership, but it also demonstrates the transformative potential of more inclusive leadership practices. Institutions may create inclusive, cooperative, and creative cultures that are in line with the needs of the Fourth Industrial Revolution by adopting the transformational leadership traits linked to female leaders.\u0026nbsp;Recognising the fluidity of leadership styles, aligned with the\u0026nbsp;Gendered Leadership Framework and Full-Range Leadership Theory can help institutions cultivate leadership environments that are more responsive to the challenges of the 21st century and the Fourth Industrial Revolution. \u0026nbsp;Such an approach supports the achievement of SDGs related to gender equality and inclusive quality education, emphasizing that leadership development must be context-sensitive, fluid, and inclusive to foster sustainable progress.\u0026nbsp;Given the favourable effects on institutional culture and 21st-century educational achievements, this change calls for comprehensive policies that promote gender equity in leadership.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Access Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis article/supplementary material contains the original contributions given in this work; for further information, please contact the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted with the permission of the Director of Education in the Ministry of Education and Training of the Kingdom of Eswatini. The official authorisation was granted on 21 February 2025. A formal permission letter was issued by the Ministry, as it is the sole authority responsible for approving research requests of this nature within the Kingdom of Eswatini.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, informed consent was obtained through a written process. The consent form was completed on the 31st of January; however, we had to wait for ethical clearance from the Ministry of Education and Training before seeking consent from participants. Since there were three institutions involved, consent was sought from 26th of February to the 7th of March 2025. Prior to data collection, all participants received an information sheet detailing the purpose of the research, their rights, and how their data would be used. The consent was obtained in writing through signed consent forms, which participants completed voluntarily. The process took place after the Director granted permission for the study, and the consent forms were signed by each participant in the presence of the researcher. The forms serve as proof of informed and voluntary participation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was personally funded by the author and did not receive any external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this research study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to acknowledge all the participants who voluntarily participated in this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbukalusa, K., \u0026amp; Oosthuizen, R. (2025). 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Approaches to qualitative research: A narrative literature review. \u003cem\u003eAdvances in Medicine, Psychology, and Public Health\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e(2), 81-95. DOI 10.5281/zenodo.12804997.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhong, J. (2024). Gender Differences in Leadership Perceptions in Higher Education, Volume-07, Issue-02, pp-128-136.https://doi.org/10.56805/ajhssr.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"gender, leadership, patriarchal, transformational leadership, transactional leadership","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8101507/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8101507/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis qualitative study explored how gendered leadership styles influence institutional culture and decision-making processes in Eswatini's universities. The main objective of the study was to explore how gendered leadership styles affect the institutional culture and decision-making procedures in the tertiary institutions of Eswatini and examine the differences and similarities between the leadership philosophies of men and women in Eswatini's higher education institutions. Using a narrative inquiry, data were gathered through semi-structured individual interviews and focus group discussions with 18 leaders (n=18). The sample comprised nine males and nine females from three tertiary institutions in Eswatini. The selection criteria used for the study were based on purposive sampling. The study found significant differences in leadership styles: female leaders tended to take transformational approaches, emphasising collaboration, empathy, and relationship-building, whereas male leaders tended to take transactional approaches, which emphasise individualism and quick decision-making. These findings imply that embracing and fostering gender diversity in leadership can lead to more inclusive and successful organisational cultures, eventually improving institutional performance. This study emphasises the importance of enacting gender equity policies to enable varied leadership that can face the challenges of the Fourth Industrial Revolution and contribute to more equal educational environments in Eswatini. The study recommends that higher education institutions in Eswatini should create formal mentorship programmes that connect female leaders to experienced leaders. Also, the Ministry of Education and Training should encourage higher education institutions to prioritise and execute gender equity policies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Exploring Gender-Based Leadership Styles in Higher Education: A Comparative Analysis of Female and Male Leaders in Tertiary Institutions in Eswatini","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-09 15:41:21","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8101507/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-29T11:47:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-14T19:07:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"312848826937901128352319548474681961892","date":"2026-03-13T08:53:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-12T14:25:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-07T05:09:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"203735669208348251191688450403867879067","date":"2026-03-07T03:58:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"12945294798081810677915113039086207790","date":"2026-03-06T19:32:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-06T18:55:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"32140480896766301439891728844665348144","date":"2026-03-06T11:48:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"45501359634090514114470591195052478940","date":"2026-03-06T11:47:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"161634894964910586653820406448341560608","date":"2026-03-05T07:58:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"222582256834337388323450119482524825729","date":"2026-03-05T04:25:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"153795556003630958176864804030694023903","date":"2026-03-04T11:56:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"238978847918453774005581473452419859532","date":"2026-03-04T11:40:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-04T10:51:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-02T06:17:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-24T07:22:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-04T08:04:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","date":"2025-12-04T07:56:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"37e03469-077a-41f7-b2c4-785539c6e996","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 9th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":64114691,"name":"Social science/Education"},{"id":64114692,"name":"Social science/Social policy"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-15T10:40:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-09 15:41:21","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8101507","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8101507","identity":"rs-8101507","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}