Social Engineering Competencies of Prospective Teacher Students for Social Change: a Study at the Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia

Social Engineering Competencies of Prospective Teacher Students for Social Change: a Study at the Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Social Engineering Competencies of Prospective Teacher Students for Social Change: a Study at the Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Maulia Depriya Kembara, Mupid Hidayat, Rama Wijaya Abdul Rozak, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6549497/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study aims to analyze the patterns of social engineering competency selection among prospective teacher students, as well as the factors influencing these choices, including educational background, access to technology, and gender differences. A quantitative approach was employed, utilizing descriptive statistical analysis, chi-square tests, Spearman correlation, and logistic regression. Data were collected through a survey of 376 prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia and analyzed to identify gaps between theoretical and practical competencies, along with selection patterns based on demographic factors. The results indicate that prospective teacher students tend to favor theory-based competencies over practical skills. Theoretical understanding emerged as the most dominant competency, whereas practice-oriented competencies were selected less frequently. These findings suggest that the higher education system continues to place greater emphasis on theoretical knowledge rather than its practical application in the context of social engineering. To better prepare prospective teacher students for real-world social challenges, higher education institutions should strive for a more balanced integration of theory and practice. The implementation of project-based learning, service-learning, and interdisciplinary approaches is recommended to cultivate more applicable and transformative social engineering competencies. Social Engineering Competencies Prospective Teacher Students General Education Social Change Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction In the era of globalization and the Industrial Revolution 4.0, social change is occurring rapidly, requiring individuals to possess a high level of adaptability. One increasingly emphasized skill in the educational sphere is social engineering, defined as the ability to design, manage, and implement social change effectively (Rozi, 2020 ). This competency is particularly crucial for prospective teacher students, who are expected to become future leaders across various sectors (Mundiri & Bariroh, 2019 ). Social engineering entails not only technical abilities but also a deep understanding of social dynamics (Pabbajah et al., 2020 ), effective communication, and ethical considerations in the implementation of social policies or programs (Burns, 2007 ; McIntyre-Mills et al., 2011 ; Taufik, 2020 ). Higher education plays a central role in shaping the social engineering competencies of prospective teacher students. The curriculum must integrate theoretical foundations with practical skills to empower these students to develop innovative solutions to social issues (Mudhar & Wirastania, 2020). Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI), as an institution dedicated to training educators and professionals in various disciplines, holds significant responsibility in cultivating this competency (Febrianti et al., 2020 ; Kembara, 2015 ; Kembara et al., 2024; Kembara, Rozak, Hadian, et al., 2022; Riza et al., 2024 ). However, the extent to which UPI’s prospective teacher students possess social engineering competencies remains an area that warrants further investigation (Imara & Altinay, 2021 ). Within the Indonesian education system, the social competence of prospective teacher students is primarily shaped by their prior educational experiences, beginning from the elementary to secondary levels. General education subjects such as Civics, Sociology, and History aim to develop students’ understanding of society, social interaction, and change (Tilaar, 1999 ; Witarsa & Muhammad, 2023 ). At the higher education level, general education is offered through courses such as Pancasila Education, Religious Education, Civics Education, and Indonesian Language Education (Kembara et al., 2024; Kembara, Rozak, Hadian, et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the effectiveness of these general education courses in cultivating social engineering competencies remains underexplored. Instruction in these areas often tends to be overly theoretical, with limited opportunities for students to engage directly in the design and management of social change initiatives (Ismanto, 2019 ; Supriatna et al., 2024 ). As social challenges become increasingly complex, the relevance of general subject-based education ( Mata Kuliah Umum /MKU) in higher education becomes more pronounced. MKU courses, such as Pancasila Education, Religious Education, Civics Education, and Indonesian Language Education, offer insights into how student teachers can actively contribute to social change (Maftuh et al., 2024). However, the actual effectiveness of these courses in fostering social engineering competencies remains to be systematically examined. One important area of inquiry is the extent to which students' previous educational backgrounds influence their understanding of and engagement with this competency. Beyond academic factors, individual character traits also significantly contribute to the development of social engineering competencies. Qualities such as leadership, empathy, and ethical awareness are essential for managing sustainable social transformation (Kembara et al., 2024; Kembara, Rozak, et al., 2019; Kembara, Rozak, Hadian, et al., 2022; Kembara, Rozak, Maftuh, et al., 2022; Kembara, Wijaya, et al., 2019a , 2019b ; Lickona, 1991). Character education at the elementary and secondary levels is expected to serve as a foundation for prospective teacher students to cultivate these social engineering skills. However, in practice, such education often emphasizes moral instruction rather than the practical abilities required to navigate complex social dynamics. In higher education, prospective teacher students with strong general education backgrounds in the social sciences and humanities are often better equipped to grasp and apply social engineering concepts. Conversely, those from vocational or technical education backgrounds may focus more on technical competencies, with less exposure to broader social frameworks (Cheng & Ou, 2017 ; Dewey, 1916 ). Research suggests that educational background influences student teachers’ competencies and perspectives on sustainability and social engagement. Frequently, student teachers prioritize practical skills and knowledge over ethical values and attitudes in sustainability education (Casado et al., 2016 ; Cebrián & Junyent, 2015 ). Therefore, it is essential to investigate how prior educational experiences shape the selection and preference of social engineering competencies among UPI’s prospective teacher students. Previous studies have demonstrated that experiential learning is more effective in developing social competence than lecture-based or theory-heavy approaches (Tynjälä et al., 2016 ; Williams & Sembiante, 2022 ). Thus, it is important to assess whether UPI’s prospective teacher students, from a range of educational backgrounds, are being provided with sufficient opportunities to apply social engineering concepts through practical experiences. This study also considers the extent to which these students engage in social projects, extracurricular activities, or community service that may support their development in managing social change. From a curricular standpoint, a balanced integration of general education, MKU, and character development is critical in fostering social engineering competencies among prospective teacher students. Several studies highlight the importance of bridging theory and practice in higher education to adequately prepare students to face real-world social challenges (Hadar et al., 2020 ; Tynjälä et al., 2016 ). Therefore, the UPI curriculum must be evaluated to ensure that students acquire not only theoretical knowledge but also the practical competencies necessary for effective social engineering. This study aims to examine the relationship between prospective teacher students’ educational backgrounds and their preferences in selecting social engineering competencies. Do students from general public schools tend to favor theory-based competencies, while those from vocational schools lean toward practical skills? Is there a significant difference in competency preference based on prior educational experience? These questions will be explored through data analysis of UPI’s prospective teacher students. The findings of this study are expected to provide insights for curriculum development in higher education by examining how educational backgrounds influence students’ selection of social engineering competencies. Furthermore, the results may inform the design of more effective teaching approaches that enhance prospective teacher students’ ability to manage social change. The findings can also contribute to strengthening the synergy among general education, MKU, and character education in shaping graduates who are prepared to make meaningful contributions to social transformation. Research on social engineering in education has grown in recent decades, particularly in exploring how educational institutions prepare pre-service teachers with the social competencies needed to navigate societal change. The concept of "social engineering" was first introduced by Lester Frank Ward in the late 19th century as a scientific method for deliberately managing and directing social transformation (Ward, 1903 ). In higher education, social engineering encompasses a range of skills, including social analysis, policy design, advocacy, and the implementation of community-based initiatives (Burn, 2018 ; Selwyn, 2022 ). Several studies have emphasized that pre-service teachers with a comprehensive understanding of social engineering are better equipped to address global issues such as social inequality, climate change, and the evolving patterns of social interaction shaped by technology (Hidayat et al., 2025 ; Laurillard, 2013 ; Westley et al., 2017 ). In the field of education, social engineering has increasingly been applied through various learning approaches, particularly experiential and transformative education. Mezirow ( 1991 ) developed a theory of transformative learning that emphasizes the importance of student teachers engaging in critical reflection on their social experiences to foster a deeper understanding of social change. Within the context of higher education, studies indicate that experiential programs, such as project-based learning and service learning, are more effective in developing social engineering skills compared to traditional lecture-based methods (Eyler & Giles Jr., 1999 ; Kolb, 1984 ). However, the implementation of such methods remains limited across many universities, especially in Indonesia, where education continues to emphasize theoretical mastery rather than direct engagement with social practice (Tilaar, 1999 ; Laurillard, 2013 ). Several studies also underscore the significance of general courses ( Mata Kuliah Umum /MKU) in cultivating social engineering competencies among prospective teacher students. For instance, Citizenship Education holds considerable potential in shaping the social awareness of future teachers through exposure to concepts such as human rights, democracy, and public policy (Astuti, 2021 ). Nonetheless, other research shows that the effectiveness of MKU in developing social engineering skills is often constrained, as the instructional approach tends to be predominantly one-way and fails to provide sufficient opportunities for prospective teachers to actively participate in social projects (Lickona, 1991). In several developed countries, MKU has evolved into a curriculum centered on social action, where prospective teacher students are not only taught theoretical concepts but also engage in activities that have a tangible impact on their communities (Freire et al., 2018 ). In addition to general courses, the educational backgrounds of prospective teacher students play a crucial role in shaping their understanding and development of social engineering competencies. Students with a background in social sciences or humanities-based high schools generally exhibit a stronger grasp of social change concepts compared to those from science or vocational tracks (Dewey, 1916 ; Kolb & Kolb, 2009 ). A study by Westheimer and Kahne ( 2004 ) demonstrated that educational approaches which emphasize social awareness and civic engagement are more effective in nurturing social engineering competencies among prospective teachers. In Indonesia, subjects such as civics and sociology at the high school level are designed to provide foundational knowledge of social structures; however, these subjects are often taught in a theoretical manner, lacking meaningful interaction with real-world communities (Zamroni, 2011 ). Research further highlights the role of character education in supporting the development of social engineering competencies. According toLickona (1991), character traits such as empathy, leadership, cooperation, and resilience are essential qualities that must be cultivated from an early age to enable individuals to design and implement effective social change. A study by Berkowitz and Bier (2005) found that experiential character education programs, such as participation in social organizations or community-based projects, positively influence the development of social engineering skills among student teachers (Berkowitz et al., 2017). Unfortunately, many universities in Indonesia have not yet systematically integrated character education into their curricula, thereby leaving the cultivation of these competencies largely to individual initiative through extracurricular activities or student organizations (Tilaar, 1999 ). Despite the existing body of research, a gap remains between theory and practice in the development of social engineering within higher education. Although many studies highlight the effectiveness of experiential learning and social engagement in promoting social engineering competencies, educational institutions still tend to rely on conventional approaches in teaching social science and humanities courses. This study seeks to address this gap by analyzing how the educational backgrounds of prospective teacher students influence their selection of social engineering competencies at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI). The findings are expected to provide insights into the design of curricula that are more responsive to the needs of future teachers in tackling emerging social challenges. This study aims to answer questions regarding which social engineering competencies are most frequently selected by prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, how general educational backgrounds (elementary, junior high, and senior high school) influence the selection of these competencies, and whether specific patterns can be identified based on the type of high school attended. The research questions include identifying the most dominant social engineering competencies among UPI’s prospective teachers and determining whether there is a relationship between prior educational experience and the selection of these competencies. This study is significant in offering a deeper understanding of how previous education shapes the preferences of prospective teacher students in the field of social engineering. The results are expected to serve as a foundation for designing a more effective curriculum that enhances the social competencies of future educators. Methods This study employs a quantitative approach using a survey method. Data were collected from prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia through a questionnaire covering various aspects of social engineering competencies and educational background. Descriptive statistics and data visualization were used to identify competency selection patterns based on prior education. A descriptive quantitative approach was adopted to examine the relationship between educational background and the selection of social engineering competencies. This method enables systematic and objective analysis of patterns in respondent data (Creswell, 2014 ). The survey served as the primary data collection tool, capturing students’ preferences and their correlation with previous educational experiences. The quantitative method was chosen for its capacity to statistically represent how educational background influences competency selection (Neuman, 2013 ) and to ensure generalizability across a broader population. The study population comprised all prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia from various faculties. A purposive sampling method was used to target respondents who had completed general education (elementary to high school) and had taken general university courses. This ensured data relevance to the research objectives (Sugiyono, 2017 ). The sample size was calculated using Slovin’s formula (1960) with a 5% margin of error to ensure representativeness (Sugiyono, 2017 ). Inclusion criteria included active students willing to participate with prior experience in general courses; those without such experience or who submitted incomplete responses were excluded. Data were collected via an online questionnaire, which consisted of sections on demographics (age, gender, study program, and educational background), technology access (e.g., laptop and internet use), experience with social change (e.g., involvement in organizations), and selected social engineering competencies (theoretical knowledge, practical skills, professional ethics, and evaluation of social change). The questionnaire was developed based on previous research in social engineering and character education (Lickona, 1991; Westheimer & Kahne, 2004 ). Content validity was ensured through expert judgment by lecturers in social education. Reliability was tested using Cronbach’s Alpha to confirm internal consistency. Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. Descriptive Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistical analysis was employed to examine the distribution of data based on demographic variables and the selection of social engineering competencies. The results are presented in the form of frequency tables, bar charts, and pie charts to illustrate the tendencies of prospective teacher students in choosing various social engineering competencies. For example, the analysis observes which competencies are most frequently selected and how these selection patterns vary according to educational background. The analysis revealed the following findings: there are 19 types of social engineering competencies selected by prospective teacher students; the average number of selections per competency is 350; the most frequently selected competency received 642 selections, while the least received 290; and the standard deviation of 94.38 indicates a considerable variation in the selection of competencies among the students. The graph in Fig. 1 presents the ten most frequently selected social engineering competencies by prospective teacher students. The competency with the highest number of selections is Theoretical Understanding (642 selections), while the other competencies show a more evenly distributed selection frequency. Chi-Square Analysis Chi-Square analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between two categorical variables, such as educational background (type of high school attended) and the selection of social engineering competencies. The Chi-Square (χ²) test was employed because it is appropriate for evaluating the significance of relationships between categorical variables in the research sample (Field, 2013). The results of the Chi-Square test are as follows: Chi-Square value = 6672.28; p-value = 7.39 × 10⁻¹⁷ (very small); Degrees of Freedom (df) = 5742. Since the p-value < 0.05, it can be concluded that there is a significant relationship between high school background and the selection of social engineering competencies. Spearman Correlation Analysis Spearman correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between ordinal variables, particularly how educational background influences the selection of competencies. This analysis is suitable for variables with an ordinal scale (e.g., ranking of competency importance) and assesses whether a monotonic relationship exists between educational experience and the preference for specific social competencies. The results of the Spearman correlation analysis yielded a Spearman Correlation Coefficient of -0.0776 and a p-value of 2.03 × 10⁻¹² (very small). Since the p-value < 0.05, it can be concluded that there is a significant relationship between high school educational background and the selection of social engineering competencies. However, the correlation is negative and weak, suggesting that as the categorization order of high schools increases, the tendency of students to select certain competencies differs slightly from that of other groups. Logistic Regression Analysis Logistic regression was applied to assess the relationship between independent variables (such as previous education and social experience) and the dependent variable (selection of social competencies), with the aim of identifying the most influential factors in the selection of social engineering competencies. This method provides insights into whether specific factors significantly influence the selection of particular competencies (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 2000 ). The results of the logistic regression analysis for the Theoretical Understanding competency are as follows: Pseudo R-squared = 0.0052 (indicating that the model explains very little of the data variability); p-value (model) = 0.6204, showing that the overall model is not statistically significant; Coefficient for SMA_num = 0.0015 with p-value = 0.305 → Not significant; Coefficient for Gender_num = 0.2929 with p-value = 0.386 → Not significant; and Coefficient for Laptop_num = -0.0997 with p-value = 0.791 → Not significant. These findings indicate that none of the examined factors—high school background, gender, or laptop ownership, significantly influence the selection of the Theoretical Understanding competency. This suggests that other variables, such as individual experiences, personal interests, or social environment influences, may play a more substantial role in shaping competency preferences. Results and Discussion Dominant Social Engineering Competencies Based on the results of data analysis, the competencies most frequently selected by prospective teacher students were: Theoretical Understanding (642 selections); Practical Skills (541 selections); Professional Ethics (431 selections); Self-Development (408 selections); Securing Personal Data (340 selections); Protecting Yourself (327 selections); Basic Knowledge of Law (325 selections); Asking (318 selections); Planning (315 selections); and Evaluation and Adjustment (313 selections). The visualization in Fig. 1 illustrates the distribution of competency selections. It reveals that prospective teacher students tend to favor theory-based competencies, such as Theoretical Understanding and Basic Knowledge of Law , over competencies that require direct implementation in social transformation, such as Evaluation and Adjustment or Implementation of Evidence-Based Solutions . In light of theoretical perspectives, these findings align withMezirow’s ( 1991 ) argument that formal education often emphasizes cognitive dimensions more than practical ones, or that theoretical concepts tend to dominate over practical settings (Parhan & Sutedja, 2019 ). Within the context of social engineering, this presents a challenge, as prospective teacher students who possess theoretical knowledge without corresponding practical experience may encounter difficulties in applying social engineering concepts effectively in real-life societal contexts. From the analysis above, it can be concluded that the predominance of Theoretical Understanding as the most frequently selected competency indicates the continued dominance of a concept-based approach in comprehending social engineering. Meanwhile, Practical Skills is the second most selected competency, demonstrating that prospective teacher students also acknowledge the importance of real-world application in driving social change. In addition, the high selection rates for Professional Ethics and Self-Development suggest that moral values and personal growth are also considered relevant within the framework of social engineering. Relationship with Previous Education The data also indicate that certain high schools show a marked tendency toward selecting specific competencies. The five high schools with the highest number of total competency selections are: SMAN 1 Banjaran (76 selections); SMKN 3 Cimahi (57 selections); SMA Alfa Centauri (57 selections); SMAN 1 Cipatat (57 selections); and SMAN 15 Bandung (57 selections). The graph presented in Fig. 2 displays the distribution of selected competencies according to the high school of origin of the prospective teacher students. From this visualization, it is evident that students from different schools tend to choose distinct competencies, suggesting potential differences in educational approaches across institutions. For example, SMAN 1 Banjaran shows a stronger inclination toward theory-based competencies, whereas SMKN 3 Cimahi leans more toward practical skills. This observation is consistent with Dewey’s theory, which posits that experience-based education is more effective in fostering social competencies compared to education that is primarily conceptual. This view is also reinforced by Kolb and Mezirow, who argue that experiential learning more effectively cultivates social engineering skills (A. Y. Kolb & Kolb, 2009 ; D. A. Kolb, 1984 ; Mezirow, 1991 ). Table 1 Dominant Competencies and Critical Analysis Type of Education Dominant Competencies Critical Analysis General High School Theoretical Understanding, Basic Knowledge of Law Student teachers are accustomed to academic approaches and theory-based learning. The high school education system focuses more on mastery of material than on direct practice. Vocational School (SMK) Practical Skills, Evaluation and Adjustment The vocational curriculum offers more practical experience, thus prospective teacher students tend to favor competencies that are applicable in the context of social engineering. Islamic Senior High School (MA) Professional Ethics, Self-Development Religion-based education emphasizes moral and ethical values, prompting students to prioritize character and social integrity competencies. Islamic Boarding School Protect Yourself, Secure Personal Data These institutions emphasize self-protection and social security due to their focus on awareness of social and technological risks. Based on Table 1 , schools with a strong academic focus, such as general high schools, tend to emphasize theoretical instruction, which may explain why their graduates prefer competencies rooted in theory. The general curriculum used in public and private schools tends to emphasize cognitive mastery over direct, experience-based learning (D. A. Kolb, 1984 ). On the other hand, Islamic boarding schools and other religion-based educational institutions are likely to instill a deeper understanding of ethics and social norms, which may influence students’ preference for moral and ethical competencies over those that are primarily practical (Tilaar, 1999 ). Relationship between Competence and Gender Furthermore, the relationship between gender and the selection of social engineering competencies can be examined to determine whether specific patterns emerge based on gender factors. Male respondents comprised 17.5% of the total, while female respondents accounted for 82.5% (Fig. 3 ). The heatmap in Fig. 4 illustrates the overall pattern of social engineering competency selection based on gender. The color gradient is interpreted as follows: dark red indicates a higher frequency of selection, while blue signifies a lower frequency. The data suggest that female respondents tend to favor competencies related to communication, ethics, and evaluation, whereas male respondents are more inclined toward practical skill-based competencies. Notably, competencies such as Professional Ethics and Practical Skills exhibit high selection rates among both genders, indicating a shared perception of their importance among prospective teacher students. The percentage of competency choices by gender is presented in Fig. 5 below. Table 2 Top Five Competency Choices by Gender Competence Man (%) Woman (%) Ask 3.97% 4.95% Professional Ethics 6.73% 6.43% Evaluation and Adjustment 4.06% 4.84% Practical Skills 12.25% 7.27% Skills to Facilitate Sustainable Change 4.92% 4.37% Based on Table 2 , noticeable differences are evident in the selection of social engineering competencies between male and female prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI). The following are the main findings derived from the analysis of competency selection percentages by gender: Male respondents more frequently selected competencies related to practical skills, such as Practical Skills (12.25%) and Skills to Facilitate Sustainable Change (4.92%). In contrast, female respondents more frequently chose competencies related to communication, evaluation, and ethics, including Ask (4.95%), Evaluation and Adjustment (4.84%), and Professional Ethics (6.43%). The relatively balanced selection of Professional Ethics by both genders suggests a shared understanding of its relevance in the field of social engineering. These findings indicate that gender plays a role in shaping the preferences of prospective teacher students regarding the competencies they seek to develop in the context of social engineering. The observed differences in competency selection can be analyzed using several theoretical frameworks. The Theory of Gender Roles in Socialization (Eagly & Wood, 2016) posits that from an early age, individuals are socialized into distinct gender roles. Women are generally encouraged to adopt nurturing, ethical, and empathetic behaviors, which aligns with their higher selection rates for competencies such as Professional Ethics (6.43%) and Evaluation and Adjustment (4.84%). Conversely, men are typically socialized to be problem-solvers and decision-makers, which may account for their stronger preference for Practical Skills (12.25%). In addition, Emotional Intelligence Theory (Goleman, 1995 ) suggests that women tend to exhibit higher levels of emotional intelligence than men, making them more likely to select competencies related to social interaction and morality. This supports the finding that female respondents more frequently chose competencies focused on communication and ethics. Similarly, Ethics of Care Theory (Gilligan, 1985 ) argues that women are more inclined toward care-based ethics, while men emphasize justice-based ethics. This framework provides insight into why women favor evaluation and communication competencies, whereas men show a preference for technical and problem-solving competencies. However, Vygotsky's Social Constructivism Theory (Kozulin et al., 2003 ) presents an alternative perspective, suggesting that differences in competency selection are more strongly influenced by social environments and learning experiences than by biological or gender-related factors. For instance, a woman with significant exposure to technical and analytical fields may be more inclined to select strategy and evaluation-related competencies that male respondents more commonly choose. This highlights the critical influence of educational background and social context in shaping competency preferences. Similarly, Bronfenbrenner's Social Environmental Influence Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 2009 ) asserts that family, peer groups, and community environments play a greater role in forming individual preferences than biological or gender-based factors. Thus, prospective teacher students from families or communities that encourage exploration in science and technology may gravitate toward practical skill-based competencies, irrespective of gender. In line with this, Putnam’s Social Capital Theory (Santoso, 2020 ) emphasizes that social capital, such as community involvement and organizational engagement, has a more substantial effect on skill development than gender. Prospective teacher students who are active in social organizations may prefer competencies related to communication and collaboration. At the same time, those who engage in independent learning may lean toward analytical and problem-solving competencies. Gender-based differences in competency selection carry important implications for both higher education and the future workforce. Lack of Balance in Social Engineering Skills If women tend to select competencies based on communication and ethics, but lack strategic decision-making and evaluation skills, they may face challenges in assuming future leadership roles. Conversely, if men predominantly choose practical, skills-based competencies but lack social and ethical skills, they may encounter difficulties in establishing effective social relationships (Blickenstaff, 2016 ; Phillips, 2024 ). Impact on Career Opportunities and Leadership Roles When women are more inclined to select ethical competencies but less inclined to develop managerial skills, they may experience a gap in leadership opportunities within the field of social engineering. On the other hand, men who are less inclined to select moral competencies may face challenges in fostering effective workplace relationships. Gender-based differences in the selection of social engineering competencies indicate that gender influences how student teachers interpret and cultivate social skills. However, environmental and experiential factors also play a significant role. Accordingly, a more balanced approach to social engineering education is necessary to ensure that student teachers of all genders are equipped with comprehensive skill sets (Eagly & Wood, 2016; Mappatoba et al., 2025 ). The Influence of Technology Use on Selected Competencies The survey included questions regarding laptop ownership and the means by which student teachers complete assignments in the absence of personal devices. The analysis revealed that student teachers with laptops were more likely to select competencies related to evaluation and planning. This suggests that access to technology can influence the development of analytical skills and social strategies. In contrast, student teachers without laptops tended to prioritize competencies such as Securing Personal Data and Protecting Yourself , indicating heightened concern for digital security over broader social planning. These findings support the argument that access to technology significantly affects one’s ability to develop social and professional competencies. The data also show that access to technology impacts how prospective teachers at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI) select social engineering competencies. A key technological factor analyzed was laptop ownership and how assignments are completed without such devices. Students with laptops tended to select analysis- and planning-oriented competencies, such as Evaluation and Adjustment , Planning , and Implementation of Evidence-Based Solutions . In contrast, students without laptops more frequently chose security- and protection-based competencies, including Securing Personal Data , Protecting Yourself , and Professional Ethics . Moreover, students who relied on borrowed devices were more likely to select competencies centered on adaptation and collaboration, such as Collaboration with Stakeholders and Understanding the Positive Impact of Social Change . These results suggest that access to technology influences not only how student teachers complete academic tasks but also how they prioritize essential social engineering competencies. This finding aligns with Westheimer & Kahne ( 2004 ). It is supported by the Connectivism Theory (Siemens, 2005 ), which posits that learning in the digital era is strongly dependent on access to technology and information networks. Students with greater technological access are more likely to develop analytical and strategy-based skills, owing to their familiarity with digital resources. This explains their preference for competencies such as Evaluation and Adjustment and Implementation of Evidence-Based Solutions (Castells, 1996 , 2004 , 2021 ). Furthermore, Digital Divide Theory (Van Deursen & van Dijk, 2019 ) posits that disparities in access to technology can result in differences in skills and social opportunities. Students without personal devices tend to focus on competencies related to protection and security, likely due to heightened vulnerability to digital risks. This accounts for their emphasis on Securing Personal Data and Protecting Yourself , reflecting greater awareness of technological risks resulting from limited device access. The Theory of Technology further explains the acceleration of social change through technology as a Catalyst for Social Change (Castells, 2021 ), which argues that digital technology facilitates access to information and resources, thus expediting societal transformation. Students with technological access develop more innovation- and strategy-based competencies, whereas those without such access gravitate toward protection- and adaptation-based competencies (Van Deursen & van Dijk, 2019 ). However, these findings contrast with the Situational Learning Theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991 ), which emphasizes that learning and skill acquisition are more significantly shaped by social interaction and communal experience than by technological access. This suggests that student teachers involved in social organizations may still develop collaboration- and ethics-based competencies, regardless of their access to digital tools. Hence, environmental and social factors may have a greater influence than technology ownership in shaping the competencies that student teachers prioritize. Aligned with this perspective are the Theory of Multiple Intelligences and Putnam’s Social Capital Theory. Gardner argues that individuals' selection of skills is more influenced by their dominant types of intelligence than by the resources available to them. For example, a student teacher with logical-mathematical intelligence may gravitate toward analytical competencies, while one with interpersonal intelligence may prefer collaboration-based competencies, irrespective of technological access. This indicates that individual predispositions may outweigh access to technology in determining competency selection. Putnam's Social Capital Theory adds that community involvement and social networks exert a more substantial influence on skill development than access to technological tools. Student teachers with strong social networks are more likely to prioritize skills involving social interaction, whereas those with limited networks may focus on self-protection and safety-based competencies. The Relationship between Theoretical Competence Dominance and Study Programs at UPI Based on the analysis, the five study programs with the highest number of selections for theoretical competencies are as follows: Special Education B 2024 (148 selections); Korean Language Education A 2024 (131 selections); Resort and Leisure Management A 2024 (128 selections); Resort and Leisure Management B 2024 (122 selections); and Special Education A 2024 (106 selections). These findings suggest that pre-service teacher students from education-oriented programs (e.g., Special Education and Korean Language Education) tend to prefer theory-based competencies, likely due to their greater exposure to academic concepts such as pedagogy and educational psychology. Similarly, students from management-oriented programs (e.g., Resort and Leisure Management) also demonstrate a preference for theoretical approaches, which may be attributed to curricula that emphasize strategic planning and theoretical frameworks over hands-on practice. In contrast, students from science, technology, or vocationally oriented study programs may be more inclined toward practical, skills-based competencies. This trend aligns with Experiential Learning Theory (A. Y. Kolb & Kolb, 2009 ; D. A. Kolb, 1984 ), which posits that individuals in vocational fields tend to develop competencies through direct, experience-based learning. Implications and Recommendations The analysis reveals a significant disparity in the selection of social engineering competencies among pre-service teacher students at UPI, which can be observed across several key aspects: 1. The Gap Between Theoretical and Practical Competencies Pre-service teachers show a marked tendency to select theory-based competencies (e.g., Theoretical Understanding and Basic Knowledge of Law) over those oriented toward practical implementation (e.g., Evaluation and Adjustment, Implementation of Evidence-Based Solutions). This reflects an ongoing emphasis in Indonesian higher education on conceptual mastery rather than practical application. Such a pattern resonates with the critique offered by Freire’s Critical Education Theory, which argues that educational systems often function as “banking models” that deposit information into students without providing meaningful opportunities for application in real-life contexts. 2. The Influence of Educational Background on Competency Preferences Students from general high school backgrounds are more likely to select theoretical competencies, whereas graduates of vocational high schools tend to opt for practical competencies. Meanwhile, graduates from madrasahs (MA, MTs, MI) and Islamic boarding schools demonstrate a stronger inclination toward ethics-based and social protection-related competencies. These findings suggest that general secondary education has yet to provide a balanced integration of theoretical and practical learning, as emphasized by Dewey’s Contextual Education Theory, which underlines the importance of learning through authentic and experiential contexts. 3. The Influence of Technology Access on Selected Competencies Pre-service teachers with greater access to technology (e.g., personal laptops and stable internet connections) are more likely to choose competencies related to analysis and planning. Conversely, students with limited technological access tend to select competencies associated with security and social protection. This pattern supports Van Dijk’s Digital Divide Theory, which argues that disparities in technological access directly affect educational opportunities and the development of individual skill sets. 4. The Influence of Gender on Competency Selection Female pre-service teachers generally demonstrate a preference for ethics-based and self-development competencies, while their male counterparts tend to favor practice-oriented and evaluation-based competencies. This can be explained through the Theory of Gender Roles in Socialization (Eagly & Wood, 2016), which asserts that social roles ascribed to individuals from an early age shape the types of competencies they pursue throughout their development. Taken together, these aspects demonstrate that higher education structures, educational backgrounds, and access to technological and social resources significantly influence the selection of social engineering competencies. Therefore, curricular and pedagogical reforms are needed to bridge these competency gaps. Recommendations for Strengthening Social Engineering Competencies To address the gap between theoretical and practical orientations in social engineering education and to respond to the influencing factors identified above, the following recommendations are proposed: 1. Higher Education Curriculum Reform: Integrating Theory and Practice Universities should enhance experiential learning practices, in line with Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory, which posits that optimal learning occurs when theoretical understanding is integrated with practical application. Institutions should implement instructional strategies such as service-learning, project-based learning, and problem-based learning to enable pre-service teacher students to engage with theoretical content in real-world contexts (Parhan, Budiyanti et al., 2024 ; Parhan Syahidin et al. 2024). Foundational general education courses (MKU), such as Pancasila and Citizenship Education, should be restructured to include participatory social engagement projects alongside theoretical instruction. 2. Developing an Interdisciplinary Curriculum An interdisciplinary and flexible curriculum can more effectively link theory with practice. For instance, programs grounded in the social sciences and humanities can benefit from incorporating practice-based modules, while science and technology programs should include ethics and social impact components. In the context of global trends in higher education, shaped by technological advancement, social complexity, and multidimensional challenges, the urgency for interdisciplinary approaches has become increasingly evident. Curricula must move beyond linear, compartmentalized models and instead integrate knowledge, skills, and values across disciplines. As a strategic implementation, social sciences and humanities programs should incorporate elements such as real-world problem-solving, cross-sector collaboration, and digital competencies aligned with industry needs. Likewise, science and technology programs should not overlook training in professional ethics, the societal implications of innovation, and effective communication with diverse audiences. This interdisciplinary synergy broadens students’ intellectual capacities, enhances social empathy, and fosters moral accountability in professional contexts. A systematically designed interdisciplinary framework will help higher education institutions cultivate graduates who are academically proficient, adaptable, and capable of addressing complex societal issues. 3. Enhancing the Role of General Education in Developing Social Engineering Competencies At the secondary education level, particularly in high schools and vocational institutions, learning approaches must be aligned with Dewey’s Contextual Education Theory, which emphasizes real-life relevance and experiential learning. Curriculum development should prioritize opportunities for students to cultivate social competencies through internship programs, community engagement projects, and fieldwork. High school graduates, who often experience a predominantly theory-based education, should be provided with more exposure to practical contexts before transitioning to higher education. In parallel, character education must be strengthened through courses like Pancasila and Citizenship Education, reframed to focus not only on ideological instruction but also on applicable social engineering skills. In the framework of 21st-century education reform, the learning paradigm in Senior High Schools (SMA) and Vocational High Schools (SMK) must undergo substantial transformation. Dewey advocated for learning grounded in students’ lived experiences, and thus curricula should be designed to foster both social and professional competencies through activities with real-world relevance. The provision of practical experiences is vital for preparing students for academic and professional transitions. Character education should also be repositioned to develop adaptive, ethical, and socially engaged graduates, capable of navigating the complexities of contemporary society. 4. Enhancing the Role of Madrasahs and Islamic Boarding Schools in Social Engineering Education Religious-based educational institutions, particularly madrasahs and Islamic boarding schools, generally produce graduates with strong ethical competencies and a pronounced concern for social protection issues. However, the learning orientation within these environments often does not fully accommodate the development of capacity in data-driven decision-making or the implementation of structured social evaluations. This condition underscores the urgency of reformulating the religious education curriculum through the integration of methodological approaches rooted in scientific research and public policy analysis. Accordingly, madrasahs and Islamic boarding schools are expected not only to serve as centers for the transmission of normative values and morality, but also to produce human resources who are adaptive, critical, and responsive to complex social dynamics through an evidence-based approach. 5. Increasing Access to Technology and Digital Literacy There is a need to ensure more equitable access to technology, both within educational institutions and in society at large, including universities (Sumarna et al., 2022). Universities must provide technological facilities accessible to all prospective teacher students, such as computer laboratories, free internet access, and device loan programs for those in need. This aligns with the Digital Divide Theory, which highlights the role of technological access in reducing social disparities and enhancing individual competencies. Furthermore, integrating digital literacy into the curriculum is imperative. Courses related to technology should include training in data analysis, the use of technology for social change, and digital security, thereby better preparing prospective teacher students to confront digital challenges (Parhan, Syahidin et al., 2024 ). 6. Improving Gender Balance in Social Engineering Education Efforts must be made to encourage women to develop both practical and strategic skills through programs that support their involvement in data-driven decision-making and social evaluation. For instance, mentorship and leadership programs for female student teachers can help build their confidence and enhance their practical skill sets. At the same time, it is important to equip male student teachers with social skills through increased training in communication, collaboration, and social empathy, enabling them to more fully understand the moral dimensions of social engineering. Conclusion This study reveals that theoretical understanding continues to dominate the social engineering competencies of prospective teacher students at UPI, rather than practical skills. Variations in competency selection are influenced by factors such as educational background, access to technology, and gender, although these are not the sole determinants. To foster more balanced and applicable social engineering competencies, reforms in the higher education system are necessary. These include the adoption of experience-based learning, integration of theory and practice, expanded access to technology, and a more inclusive gender approach. By implementing these recommendations, students will be better equipped to address future social challenges. Moreover, the findings of this study can serve as a foundation for designing educational programs that more effectively support the development of social engineering competencies among prospective teacher students. Therefore, educational institutions must strengthen the teaching of social engineering competencies across all levels of education. Further research is warranted to explore additional factors influencing competency selection, such as personal experiences or the social environments of prospective teacher students. Declarations Ethics Approval Statement: This research has been reviewed and approved by the Community Service Institute, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. All research procedures comply with the ethical standards required for research involving human participants. Participant Consent Statement: All participants gave informed consent to take part in this study. Participation was voluntary, and participants were informed about the purpose of the study, their rights, and data confidentiality. Clinical trial number Not applicable Human Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations Not applicable’ Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Funding Not applicable. Author Contribution Author Contributions StatementFollowing are the contributions of each author:MDK: Conceived the research design, coordinated the research, and led the writing of the manuscript. MH: Contributed to the theoretical framework and literature review.RWAZ: Handled the data collection and quantitative analysis. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6549497","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":451549621,"identity":"ddfb84a8-856c-4166-b89f-3bc491e26e67","order_by":0,"name":"Maulia Depriya 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16:11:35","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6549497/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6549497/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82224929,"identity":"05cb976f-6bca-4359-946b-0a9efcd3be99","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 03:51:39","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1308701,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSelected Social Engineering Competencies\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6549497/v1/888e67bf6d0b67540362a4e9.png"},{"id":82224717,"identity":"fc9d2bc1-6861-4a0e-960f-fb448b4a0bc0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 03:43:39","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1174191,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompetency Graph Based on School of Origin\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6549497/v1/0883d6b2041ad5125a319b67.png"},{"id":82224719,"identity":"7dbf1d7b-eda4-4706-9af4-aebeb79a7c64","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 03:43:39","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":782413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage of Respondents by Gender\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6549497/v1/763eadd400f3129c2cbb1d69.png"},{"id":82224721,"identity":"4b368fb3-4939-4175-a537-6ad1c4d99cb0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 03:43:39","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":105814,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOverall Competency Choice Heatmap Based on Gender\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6549497/v1/8060a9009b6d7195425f7d5f.png"},{"id":82224723,"identity":"08bd3bb5-384d-416e-a7e5-d5f81345407a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-08 03:43:39","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":92356,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage of Competency Choices Based on Gender\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6549497/v1/1e24a799a9c84747ecab32d5.png"},{"id":84886465,"identity":"45e5b9a5-938e-496f-9a2b-59aa925836e5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-18 11:47:05","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4311404,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6549497/v1/19c2198a-b3b5-4581-bf12-91dc2634419f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eSocial Engineering Competencies of Prospective Teacher Students for Social Change: a Study at the Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the era of globalization and the Industrial Revolution 4.0, social change is occurring rapidly, requiring individuals to possess a high level of adaptability. One increasingly emphasized skill in the educational sphere is social engineering, defined as the ability to design, manage, and implement social change effectively (Rozi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This competency is particularly crucial for prospective teacher students, who are expected to become future leaders across various sectors (Mundiri \u0026amp; Bariroh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Social engineering entails not only technical abilities but also a deep understanding of social dynamics (Pabbajah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), effective communication, and ethical considerations in the implementation of social policies or programs (Burns, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; McIntyre-Mills et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Taufik, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher education plays a central role in shaping the social engineering competencies of prospective teacher students. The curriculum must integrate theoretical foundations with practical skills to empower these students to develop innovative solutions to social issues (Mudhar \u0026amp; Wirastania, 2020). Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI), as an institution dedicated to training educators and professionals in various disciplines, holds significant responsibility in cultivating this competency (Febrianti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Kembara, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Kembara et al., 2024; Kembara, Rozak, Hadian, et al., 2022; Riza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, the extent to which UPI\u0026rsquo;s prospective teacher students possess social engineering competencies remains an area that warrants further investigation (Imara \u0026amp; Altinay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the Indonesian education system, the social competence of prospective teacher students is primarily shaped by their prior educational experiences, beginning from the elementary to secondary levels. General education subjects such as Civics, Sociology, and History aim to develop students\u0026rsquo; understanding of society, social interaction, and change (Tilaar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Witarsa \u0026amp; Muhammad, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). At the higher education level, general education is offered through courses such as Pancasila Education, Religious Education, Civics Education, and Indonesian Language Education (Kembara et al., 2024; Kembara, Rozak, Hadian, et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the effectiveness of these general education courses in cultivating social engineering competencies remains underexplored. Instruction in these areas often tends to be overly theoretical, with limited opportunities for students to engage directly in the design and management of social change initiatives (Ismanto, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Supriatna et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs social challenges become increasingly complex, the relevance of general subject-based education (\u003cem\u003eMata Kuliah Umum\u003c/em\u003e/MKU) in higher education becomes more pronounced. MKU courses, such as Pancasila Education, Religious Education, Civics Education, and Indonesian Language Education, offer insights into how student teachers can actively contribute to social change (Maftuh et al., 2024). However, the actual effectiveness of these courses in fostering social engineering competencies remains to be systematically examined. One important area of inquiry is the extent to which students' previous educational backgrounds influence their understanding of and engagement with this competency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond academic factors, individual character traits also significantly contribute to the development of social engineering competencies. Qualities such as leadership, empathy, and ethical awareness are essential for managing sustainable social transformation (Kembara et al., 2024; Kembara, Rozak, et al., 2019; Kembara, Rozak, Hadian, et al., 2022; Kembara, Rozak, Maftuh, et al., 2022; Kembara, Wijaya, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019b\u003c/span\u003e; Lickona, 1991). Character education at the elementary and secondary levels is expected to serve as a foundation for prospective teacher students to cultivate these social engineering skills. However, in practice, such education often emphasizes moral instruction rather than the practical abilities required to navigate complex social dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn higher education, prospective teacher students with strong general education backgrounds in the social sciences and humanities are often better equipped to grasp and apply social engineering concepts. Conversely, those from vocational or technical education backgrounds may focus more on technical competencies, with less exposure to broader social frameworks (Cheng \u0026amp; Ou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Dewey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1916\u003c/span\u003e). Research suggests that educational background influences student teachers\u0026rsquo; competencies and perspectives on sustainability and social engagement. Frequently, student teachers prioritize practical skills and knowledge over ethical values and attitudes in sustainability education (Casado et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Cebri\u0026aacute;n \u0026amp; Junyent, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, it is essential to investigate how prior educational experiences shape the selection and preference of social engineering competencies among UPI\u0026rsquo;s prospective teacher students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have demonstrated that experiential learning is more effective in developing social competence than lecture-based or theory-heavy approaches (Tynj\u0026auml;l\u0026auml; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Williams \u0026amp; Sembiante, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, it is important to assess whether UPI\u0026rsquo;s prospective teacher students, from a range of educational backgrounds, are being provided with sufficient opportunities to apply social engineering concepts through practical experiences. This study also considers the extent to which these students engage in social projects, extracurricular activities, or community service that may support their development in managing social change.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a curricular standpoint, a balanced integration of general education, MKU, and character development is critical in fostering social engineering competencies among prospective teacher students. Several studies highlight the importance of bridging theory and practice in higher education to adequately prepare students to face real-world social challenges (Hadar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Tynj\u0026auml;l\u0026auml; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the UPI curriculum must be evaluated to ensure that students acquire not only theoretical knowledge but also the practical competencies necessary for effective social engineering.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to examine the relationship between prospective teacher students\u0026rsquo; educational backgrounds and their preferences in selecting social engineering competencies. Do students from general public schools tend to favor theory-based competencies, while those from vocational schools lean toward practical skills? Is there a significant difference in competency preference based on prior educational experience? These questions will be explored through data analysis of UPI\u0026rsquo;s prospective teacher students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study are expected to provide insights for curriculum development in higher education by examining how educational backgrounds influence students\u0026rsquo; selection of social engineering competencies. Furthermore, the results may inform the design of more effective teaching approaches that enhance prospective teacher students\u0026rsquo; ability to manage social change. The findings can also contribute to strengthening the synergy among general education, MKU, and character education in shaping graduates who are prepared to make meaningful contributions to social transformation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on social engineering in education has grown in recent decades, particularly in exploring how educational institutions prepare pre-service teachers with the social competencies needed to navigate societal change. The concept of \"social engineering\" was first introduced by Lester Frank Ward in the late 19th century as a scientific method for deliberately managing and directing social transformation (Ward, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1903\u003c/span\u003e). In higher education, social engineering encompasses a range of skills, including social analysis, policy design, advocacy, and the implementation of community-based initiatives (Burn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Selwyn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Several studies have emphasized that pre-service teachers with a comprehensive understanding of social engineering are better equipped to address global issues such as social inequality, climate change, and the evolving patterns of social interaction shaped by technology (Hidayat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Laurillard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Westley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the field of education, social engineering has increasingly been applied through various learning approaches, particularly experiential and transformative education. Mezirow (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e) developed a theory of transformative learning that emphasizes the importance of student teachers engaging in critical reflection on their social experiences to foster a deeper understanding of social change. Within the context of higher education, studies indicate that experiential programs, such as project-based learning and service learning, are more effective in developing social engineering skills compared to traditional lecture-based methods (Eyler \u0026amp; Giles Jr., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Kolb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). However, the implementation of such methods remains limited across many universities, especially in Indonesia, where education continues to emphasize theoretical mastery rather than direct engagement with social practice (Tilaar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Laurillard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral studies also underscore the significance of general courses (\u003cem\u003eMata Kuliah Umum\u003c/em\u003e/MKU) in cultivating social engineering competencies among prospective teacher students. For instance, Citizenship Education holds considerable potential in shaping the social awareness of future teachers through exposure to concepts such as human rights, democracy, and public policy (Astuti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, other research shows that the effectiveness of MKU in developing social engineering skills is often constrained, as the instructional approach tends to be predominantly one-way and fails to provide sufficient opportunities for prospective teachers to actively participate in social projects (Lickona, 1991). In several developed countries, MKU has evolved into a curriculum centered on social action, where prospective teacher students are not only taught theoretical concepts but also engage in activities that have a tangible impact on their communities (Freire et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to general courses, the educational backgrounds of prospective teacher students play a crucial role in shaping their understanding and development of social engineering competencies. Students with a background in social sciences or humanities-based high schools generally exhibit a stronger grasp of social change concepts compared to those from science or vocational tracks (Dewey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1916\u003c/span\u003e; Kolb \u0026amp; Kolb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). A study by Westheimer and Kahne (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that educational approaches which emphasize social awareness and civic engagement are more effective in nurturing social engineering competencies among prospective teachers. In Indonesia, subjects such as civics and sociology at the high school level are designed to provide foundational knowledge of social structures; however, these subjects are often taught in a theoretical manner, lacking meaningful interaction with real-world communities (Zamroni, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch further highlights the role of character education in supporting the development of social engineering competencies. According toLickona (1991), character traits such as empathy, leadership, cooperation, and resilience are essential qualities that must be cultivated from an early age to enable individuals to design and implement effective social change. A study by Berkowitz and Bier (2005) found that experiential character education programs, such as participation in social organizations or community-based projects, positively influence the development of social engineering skills among student teachers (Berkowitz et al., 2017). Unfortunately, many universities in Indonesia have not yet systematically integrated character education into their curricula, thereby leaving the cultivation of these competencies largely to individual initiative through extracurricular activities or student organizations (Tilaar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the existing body of research, a gap remains between theory and practice in the development of social engineering within higher education. Although many studies highlight the effectiveness of experiential learning and social engagement in promoting social engineering competencies, educational institutions still tend to rely on conventional approaches in teaching social science and humanities courses. This study seeks to address this gap by analyzing how the educational backgrounds of prospective teacher students influence their selection of social engineering competencies at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI). The findings are expected to provide insights into the design of curricula that are more responsive to the needs of future teachers in tackling emerging social challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to answer questions regarding which social engineering competencies are most frequently selected by prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, how general educational backgrounds (elementary, junior high, and senior high school) influence the selection of these competencies, and whether specific patterns can be identified based on the type of high school attended. The research questions include identifying the most dominant social engineering competencies among UPI\u0026rsquo;s prospective teachers and determining whether there is a relationship between prior educational experience and the selection of these competencies. This study is significant in offering a deeper understanding of how previous education shapes the preferences of prospective teacher students in the field of social engineering. The results are expected to serve as a foundation for designing a more effective curriculum that enhances the social competencies of future educators.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employs a quantitative approach using a survey method. Data were collected from prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia through a questionnaire covering various aspects of social engineering competencies and educational background. Descriptive statistics and data visualization were used to identify competency selection patterns based on prior education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA descriptive quantitative approach was adopted to examine the relationship between educational background and the selection of social engineering competencies. This method enables systematic and objective analysis of patterns in respondent data (Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The survey served as the primary data collection tool, capturing students\u0026rsquo; preferences and their correlation with previous educational experiences. The quantitative method was chosen for its capacity to statistically represent how educational background influences competency selection (Neuman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and to ensure generalizability across a broader population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study population comprised all prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia from various faculties. A purposive sampling method was used to target respondents who had completed general education (elementary to high school) and had taken general university courses. This ensured data relevance to the research objectives (Sugiyono, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The sample size was calculated using Slovin\u0026rsquo;s formula (1960) with a 5% margin of error to ensure representativeness (Sugiyono, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Inclusion criteria included active students willing to participate with prior experience in general courses; those without such experience or who submitted incomplete responses were excluded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected via an online questionnaire, which consisted of sections on demographics (age, gender, study program, and educational background), technology access (e.g., laptop and internet use), experience with social change (e.g., involvement in organizations), and selected social engineering competencies (theoretical knowledge, practical skills, professional ethics, and evaluation of social change).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire was developed based on previous research in social engineering and character education (Lickona, 1991; Westheimer \u0026amp; Kahne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Content validity was ensured through expert judgment by lecturers in social education. Reliability was tested using Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha to confirm internal consistency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescriptive Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistical analysis was employed to examine the distribution of data based on demographic variables and the selection of social engineering competencies. The results are presented in the form of frequency tables, bar charts, and pie charts to illustrate the tendencies of prospective teacher students in choosing various social engineering competencies. For example, the analysis observes which competencies are most frequently selected and how these selection patterns vary according to educational background.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis revealed the following findings: there are 19 types of social engineering competencies selected by prospective teacher students; the average number of selections per competency is 350; the most frequently selected competency received 642 selections, while the least received 290; and the standard deviation of 94.38 indicates a considerable variation in the selection of competencies among the students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe graph in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the ten most frequently selected social engineering competencies by prospective teacher students. The competency with the highest number of selections is \u003cem\u003eTheoretical Understanding\u003c/em\u003e (642 selections), while the other competencies show a more evenly distributed selection frequency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eChi-Square Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChi-Square analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between two categorical variables, such as educational background (type of high school attended) and the selection of social engineering competencies. The Chi-Square (χ\u0026sup2;) test was employed because it is appropriate for evaluating the significance of relationships between categorical variables in the research sample (Field, 2013). The results of the Chi-Square test are as follows: Chi-Square value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6672.28; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.39 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup1;⁷ (very small); Degrees of Freedom (df)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5742. Since the p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, it can be concluded that there is a significant relationship between high school background and the selection of social engineering competencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSpearman Correlation Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpearman correlation analysis was used to examine the relationship between ordinal variables, particularly how educational background influences the selection of competencies. This analysis is suitable for variables with an ordinal scale (e.g., ranking of competency importance) and assesses whether a monotonic relationship exists between educational experience and the preference for specific social competencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the Spearman correlation analysis yielded a Spearman Correlation Coefficient of -0.0776 and a p-value of 2.03 \u0026times; 10⁻\u0026sup1;\u0026sup2; (very small). Since the p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, it can be concluded that there is a significant relationship between high school educational background and the selection of social engineering competencies. However, the correlation is negative and weak, suggesting that as the categorization order of high schools increases, the tendency of students to select certain competencies differs slightly from that of other groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLogistic Regression Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLogistic regression was applied to assess the relationship between independent variables (such as previous education and social experience) and the dependent variable (selection of social competencies), with the aim of identifying the most influential factors in the selection of social engineering competencies. This method provides insights into whether specific factors significantly influence the selection of particular competencies (Hosmer \u0026amp; Lemeshow, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the logistic regression analysis for the \u003cem\u003eTheoretical Understanding\u003c/em\u003e competency are as follows: Pseudo R-squared\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0052 (indicating that the model explains very little of the data variability); p-value (model)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.6204, showing that the overall model is not statistically significant; Coefficient for SMA_num\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0015 with p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.305 \u0026rarr; Not significant; Coefficient for Gender_num\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.2929 with p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.386 \u0026rarr; Not significant; and Coefficient for Laptop_num = -0.0997 with p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.791 \u0026rarr; Not significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings indicate that none of the examined factors\u0026mdash;high school background, gender, or laptop ownership, significantly influence the selection of the \u003cem\u003eTheoretical Understanding\u003c/em\u003e competency. This suggests that other variables, such as individual experiences, personal interests, or social environment influences, may play a more substantial role in shaping competency preferences.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDominant Social Engineering Competencies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the results of data analysis, the competencies most frequently selected by prospective teacher students were: Theoretical Understanding (642 selections); Practical Skills (541 selections); Professional Ethics (431 selections); Self-Development (408 selections); Securing Personal Data (340 selections); Protecting Yourself (327 selections); Basic Knowledge of Law (325 selections); Asking (318 selections); Planning (315 selections); and Evaluation and Adjustment (313 selections).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe visualization in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the distribution of competency selections. It reveals that prospective teacher students tend to favor theory-based competencies, such as \u003cem\u003eTheoretical Understanding\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eBasic Knowledge of Law\u003c/em\u003e, over competencies that require direct implementation in social transformation, such as \u003cem\u003eEvaluation and Adjustment\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eImplementation of Evidence-Based Solutions\u003c/em\u003e. In light of theoretical perspectives, these findings align withMezirow\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e) argument that formal education often emphasizes cognitive dimensions more than practical ones, or that theoretical concepts tend to dominate over practical settings (Parhan \u0026amp; Sutedja, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Within the context of social engineering, this presents a challenge, as prospective teacher students who possess theoretical knowledge without corresponding practical experience may encounter difficulties in applying social engineering concepts effectively in real-life societal contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the analysis above, it can be concluded that the predominance of \u003cem\u003eTheoretical Understanding\u003c/em\u003e as the most frequently selected competency indicates the continued dominance of a concept-based approach in comprehending social engineering. Meanwhile, \u003cem\u003ePractical Skills\u003c/em\u003e is the second most selected competency, demonstrating that prospective teacher students also acknowledge the importance of real-world application in driving social change. In addition, the high selection rates for \u003cem\u003eProfessional Ethics\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSelf-Development\u003c/em\u003e suggest that moral values and personal growth are also considered relevant within the framework of social engineering.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRelationship with Previous Education\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data also indicate that certain high schools show a marked tendency toward selecting specific competencies. The five high schools with the highest number of total competency selections are: SMAN 1 Banjaran (76 selections); SMKN 3 Cimahi (57 selections); SMA Alfa Centauri (57 selections); SMAN 1 Cipatat (57 selections); and SMAN 15 Bandung (57 selections).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe graph presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays the distribution of selected competencies according to the high school of origin of the prospective teacher students. From this visualization, it is evident that students from different schools tend to choose distinct competencies, suggesting potential differences in educational approaches across institutions. For example, SMAN 1 Banjaran shows a stronger inclination toward theory-based competencies, whereas SMKN 3 Cimahi leans more toward practical skills. This observation is consistent with Dewey\u0026rsquo;s theory, which posits that experience-based education is more effective in fostering social competencies compared to education that is primarily conceptual. This view is also reinforced by Kolb and Mezirow, who argue that experiential learning more effectively cultivates social engineering skills (A. Y. Kolb \u0026amp; Kolb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; D. A. Kolb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Mezirow, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDominant Competencies and Critical Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of Education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDominant Competencies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral High School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheoretical Understanding, Basic Knowledge of Law\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent teachers are accustomed to academic approaches and theory-based learning. The high school education system focuses more on mastery of material than on direct practice.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVocational School (SMK)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractical Skills, Evaluation and Adjustment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe vocational curriculum offers more practical experience, thus prospective teacher students tend to favor competencies that are applicable in the context of social engineering.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIslamic Senior High School (MA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessional Ethics, Self-Development\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligion-based education emphasizes moral and ethical values, prompting students to prioritize character and social integrity competencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIslamic Boarding School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtect Yourself, Secure Personal Data\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese institutions emphasize self-protection and social security due to their focus on awareness of social and technological risks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, schools with a strong academic focus, such as general high schools, tend to emphasize theoretical instruction, which may explain why their graduates prefer competencies rooted in theory. The general curriculum used in public and private schools tends to emphasize cognitive mastery over direct, experience-based learning (D. A. Kolb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, Islamic boarding schools and other religion-based educational institutions are likely to instill a deeper understanding of ethics and social norms, which may influence students\u0026rsquo; preference for moral and ethical competencies over those that are primarily practical (Tilaar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRelationship between Competence and Gender\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the relationship between gender and the selection of social engineering competencies can be examined to determine whether specific patterns emerge based on gender factors. Male respondents comprised 17.5% of the total, while female respondents accounted for 82.5% (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe heatmap in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the overall pattern of social engineering competency selection based on gender. The color gradient is interpreted as follows: dark red indicates a higher frequency of selection, while blue signifies a lower frequency. The data suggest that female respondents tend to favor competencies related to communication, ethics, and evaluation, whereas male respondents are more inclined toward practical skill-based competencies. Notably, competencies such as \u003cem\u003eProfessional Ethics\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePractical Skills\u003c/em\u003e exhibit high selection rates among both genders, indicating a shared perception of their importance among prospective teacher students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe percentage of competency choices by gender is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTop Five Competency Choices by Gender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompetence\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMan\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWoman\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.97%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.95%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessional Ethics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.73%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.43%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaluation and Adjustment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.06%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.84%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractical Skills\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.25%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.27%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkills to Facilitate Sustainable Change\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.92%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.37%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, noticeable differences are evident in the selection of social engineering competencies between male and female prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI). The following are the main findings derived from the analysis of competency selection percentages by gender: Male respondents more frequently selected competencies related to practical skills, such as \u003cem\u003ePractical Skills\u003c/em\u003e (12.25%) and \u003cem\u003eSkills to Facilitate Sustainable Change\u003c/em\u003e(4.92%). In contrast, female respondents more frequently chose competencies related to communication, evaluation, and ethics, including \u003cem\u003eAsk\u003c/em\u003e (4.95%), \u003cem\u003eEvaluation and Adjustment\u003c/em\u003e (4.84%), and \u003cem\u003eProfessional Ethics\u003c/em\u003e (6.43%). The relatively balanced selection of \u003cem\u003eProfessional Ethics\u003c/em\u003e by both genders suggests a shared understanding of its relevance in the field of social engineering.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings indicate that gender plays a role in shaping the preferences of prospective teacher students regarding the competencies they seek to develop in the context of social engineering. The observed differences in competency selection can be analyzed using several theoretical frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eTheory of Gender Roles in Socialization\u003c/em\u003e (Eagly \u0026amp; Wood, 2016) posits that from an early age, individuals are socialized into distinct gender roles. Women are generally encouraged to adopt nurturing, ethical, and empathetic behaviors, which aligns with their higher selection rates for competencies such as \u003cem\u003eProfessional Ethics\u003c/em\u003e (6.43%) and \u003cem\u003eEvaluation and Adjustment\u003c/em\u003e (4.84%). Conversely, men are typically socialized to be problem-solvers and decision-makers, which may account for their stronger preference for \u003cem\u003ePractical Skills\u003c/em\u003e (12.25%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, \u003cem\u003eEmotional Intelligence Theory\u003c/em\u003e (Goleman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) suggests that women tend to exhibit higher levels of emotional intelligence than men, making them more likely to select competencies related to social interaction and morality. This supports the finding that female respondents more frequently chose competencies focused on communication and ethics. Similarly, \u003cem\u003eEthics of Care Theory\u003c/em\u003e (Gilligan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e) argues that women are more inclined toward care-based ethics, while men emphasize justice-based ethics. This framework provides insight into why women favor evaluation and communication competencies, whereas men show a preference for technical and problem-solving competencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, \u003cem\u003eVygotsky's Social Constructivism Theory\u003c/em\u003e(Kozulin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) presents an alternative perspective, suggesting that differences in competency selection are more strongly influenced by social environments and learning experiences than by biological or gender-related factors. For instance, a woman with significant exposure to technical and analytical fields may be more inclined to select strategy and evaluation-related competencies that male respondents more commonly choose. This highlights the critical influence of educational background and social context in shaping competency preferences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, \u003cem\u003eBronfenbrenner's Social Environmental Influence Theory\u003c/em\u003e(Bronfenbrenner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) asserts that family, peer groups, and community environments play a greater role in forming individual preferences than biological or gender-based factors. Thus, prospective teacher students from families or communities that encourage exploration in science and technology may gravitate toward practical skill-based competencies, irrespective of gender. In line with this, \u003cem\u003ePutnam\u0026rsquo;s Social Capital Theory\u003c/em\u003e(Santoso, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes that social capital, such as community involvement and organizational engagement, has a more substantial effect on skill development than gender. Prospective teacher students who are active in social organizations may prefer competencies related to communication and collaboration. At the same time, those who engage in independent learning may lean toward analytical and problem-solving competencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender-based differences in competency selection carry important implications for both higher education and the future workforce.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLack of Balance in Social Engineering Skills\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIf women tend to select competencies based on communication and ethics, but lack strategic decision-making and evaluation skills, they may face challenges in assuming future leadership roles. Conversely, if men predominantly choose practical, skills-based competencies but lack social and ethical skills, they may encounter difficulties in establishing effective social relationships (Blickenstaff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Phillips, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImpact on Career Opportunities and Leadership Roles\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen women are more inclined to select ethical competencies but less inclined to develop managerial skills, they may experience a gap in leadership opportunities within the field of social engineering. On the other hand, men who are less inclined to select moral competencies may face challenges in fostering effective workplace relationships.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender-based differences in the selection of social engineering competencies indicate that gender influences how student teachers interpret and cultivate social skills. However, environmental and experiential factors also play a significant role. Accordingly, a more balanced approach to social engineering education is necessary to ensure that student teachers of all genders are equipped with comprehensive skill sets (Eagly \u0026amp; Wood, 2016; Mappatoba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Influence of Technology Use on Selected Competencies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe survey included questions regarding laptop ownership and the means by which student teachers complete assignments in the absence of personal devices. The analysis revealed that student teachers with laptops were more likely to select competencies related to evaluation and planning. This suggests that access to technology can influence the development of analytical skills and social strategies. In contrast, student teachers without laptops tended to prioritize competencies such as \u003cem\u003eSecuring Personal Data\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eProtecting Yourself\u003c/em\u003e, indicating heightened concern for digital security over broader social planning. These findings support the argument that access to technology significantly affects one\u0026rsquo;s ability to develop social and professional competencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data also show that access to technology impacts how prospective teachers at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI) select social engineering competencies. A key technological factor analyzed was laptop ownership and how assignments are completed without such devices. Students with laptops tended to select analysis- and planning-oriented competencies, such as \u003cem\u003eEvaluation and Adjustment\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePlanning\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eImplementation of Evidence-Based Solutions\u003c/em\u003e. In contrast, students without laptops more frequently chose security- and protection-based competencies, including \u003cem\u003eSecuring Personal Data\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eProtecting Yourself\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eProfessional Ethics\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, students who relied on borrowed devices were more likely to select competencies centered on adaptation and collaboration, such as \u003cem\u003eCollaboration with Stakeholders\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eUnderstanding the Positive Impact of Social Change\u003c/em\u003e. These results suggest that access to technology influences not only how student teachers complete academic tasks but also how they prioritize essential social engineering competencies. This finding aligns with Westheimer \u0026amp; Kahne (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). It is supported by the Connectivism Theory (Siemens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), which posits that learning in the digital era is strongly dependent on access to technology and information networks. Students with greater technological access are more likely to develop analytical and strategy-based skills, owing to their familiarity with digital resources. This explains their preference for competencies such as \u003cem\u003eEvaluation and Adjustment\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eImplementation of Evidence-Based Solutions\u003c/em\u003e (Castells, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, Digital Divide Theory (Van Deursen \u0026amp; van Dijk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) posits that disparities in access to technology can result in differences in skills and social opportunities. Students without personal devices tend to focus on competencies related to protection and security, likely due to heightened vulnerability to digital risks. This accounts for their emphasis on \u003cem\u003eSecuring Personal Data\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eProtecting Yourself\u003c/em\u003e, reflecting greater awareness of technological risks resulting from limited device access.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Theory of Technology further explains the acceleration of social change through technology as a Catalyst for Social Change (Castells, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which argues that digital technology facilitates access to information and resources, thus expediting societal transformation. Students with technological access develop more innovation- and strategy-based competencies, whereas those without such access gravitate toward protection- and adaptation-based competencies (Van Deursen \u0026amp; van Dijk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, these findings contrast with the Situational Learning Theory (Lave \u0026amp; Wenger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), which emphasizes that learning and skill acquisition are more significantly shaped by social interaction and communal experience than by technological access. This suggests that student teachers involved in social organizations may still develop collaboration- and ethics-based competencies, regardless of their access to digital tools. Hence, environmental and social factors may have a greater influence than technology ownership in shaping the competencies that student teachers prioritize.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAligned with this perspective are the Theory of Multiple Intelligences and Putnam\u0026rsquo;s Social Capital Theory. Gardner argues that individuals' selection of skills is more influenced by their dominant types of intelligence than by the resources available to them. For example, a student teacher with logical-mathematical intelligence may gravitate toward analytical competencies, while one with interpersonal intelligence may prefer collaboration-based competencies, irrespective of technological access. This indicates that individual predispositions may outweigh access to technology in determining competency selection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePutnam's Social Capital Theory adds that community involvement and social networks exert a more substantial influence on skill development than access to technological tools. Student teachers with strong social networks are more likely to prioritize skills involving social interaction, whereas those with limited networks may focus on self-protection and safety-based competencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Relationship between Theoretical Competence Dominance and Study Programs at UPI\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the analysis, the five study programs with the highest number of selections for theoretical competencies are as follows: Special Education B 2024 (148 selections); Korean Language Education A 2024 (131 selections); Resort and Leisure Management A 2024 (128 selections); Resort and Leisure Management B 2024 (122 selections); and Special Education A 2024 (106 selections). These findings suggest that pre-service teacher students from education-oriented programs (e.g., Special Education and Korean Language Education) tend to prefer theory-based competencies, likely due to their greater exposure to academic concepts such as pedagogy and educational psychology. Similarly, students from management-oriented programs (e.g., Resort and Leisure Management) also demonstrate a preference for theoretical approaches, which may be attributed to curricula that emphasize strategic planning and theoretical frameworks over hands-on practice. In contrast, students from science, technology, or vocationally oriented study programs may be more inclined toward practical, skills-based competencies. This trend aligns with Experiential Learning Theory (A. Y. Kolb \u0026amp; Kolb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; D. A. Kolb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e), which posits that individuals in vocational fields tend to develop competencies through direct, experience-based learning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications and Recommendations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis reveals a significant disparity in the selection of social engineering competencies among pre-service teacher students at UPI, which can be observed across several key aspects:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1. The Gap Between Theoretical and Practical Competencies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-service teachers show a marked tendency to select theory-based competencies (e.g., Theoretical Understanding and Basic Knowledge of Law) over those oriented toward practical implementation (e.g., Evaluation and Adjustment, Implementation of Evidence-Based Solutions). This reflects an ongoing emphasis in Indonesian higher education on conceptual mastery rather than practical application. Such a pattern resonates with the critique offered by Freire\u0026rsquo;s Critical Education Theory, which argues that educational systems often function as \u0026ldquo;banking models\u0026rdquo; that deposit information into students without providing meaningful opportunities for application in real-life contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2. The Influence of Educational Background on Competency Preferences\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudents from general high school backgrounds are more likely to select theoretical competencies, whereas graduates of vocational high schools tend to opt for practical competencies. Meanwhile, graduates from madrasahs (MA, MTs, MI) and Islamic boarding schools demonstrate a stronger inclination toward ethics-based and social protection-related competencies. These findings suggest that general secondary education has yet to provide a balanced integration of theoretical and practical learning, as emphasized by Dewey\u0026rsquo;s Contextual Education Theory, which underlines the importance of learning through authentic and experiential contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3. The Influence of Technology Access on Selected Competencies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-service teachers with greater access to technology (e.g., personal laptops and stable internet connections) are more likely to choose competencies related to analysis and planning. Conversely, students with limited technological access tend to select competencies associated with security and social protection. This pattern supports Van Dijk\u0026rsquo;s Digital Divide Theory, which argues that disparities in technological access directly affect educational opportunities and the development of individual skill sets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4. The Influence of Gender on Competency Selection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale pre-service teachers generally demonstrate a preference for ethics-based and self-development competencies, while their male counterparts tend to favor practice-oriented and evaluation-based competencies. This can be explained through the Theory of Gender Roles in Socialization (Eagly \u0026amp; Wood, 2016), which asserts that social roles ascribed to individuals from an early age shape the types of competencies they pursue throughout their development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaken together, these aspects demonstrate that higher education structures, educational backgrounds, and access to technological and social resources significantly influence the selection of social engineering competencies. Therefore, curricular and pedagogical reforms are needed to bridge these competency gaps.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRecommendations for Strengthening Social Engineering Competencies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address the gap between theoretical and practical orientations in social engineering education and to respond to the influencing factors identified above, the following recommendations are proposed:\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1. Higher Education Curriculum Reform: Integrating Theory and Practice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversities should enhance experiential learning practices, in line with Kolb\u0026rsquo;s Experiential Learning Theory, which posits that optimal learning occurs when theoretical understanding is integrated with practical application. Institutions should implement instructional strategies such as service-learning, project-based learning, and problem-based learning to enable pre-service teacher students to engage with theoretical content in real-world contexts (Parhan, Budiyanti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Parhan Syahidin et al. 2024). Foundational general education courses (MKU), such as Pancasila and Citizenship Education, should be restructured to include participatory social engagement projects alongside theoretical instruction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2. Developing an Interdisciplinary Curriculum\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn interdisciplinary and flexible curriculum can more effectively link theory with practice. For instance, programs grounded in the social sciences and humanities can benefit from incorporating practice-based modules, while science and technology programs should include ethics and social impact components. In the context of global trends in higher education, shaped by technological advancement, social complexity, and multidimensional challenges, the urgency for interdisciplinary approaches has become increasingly evident. Curricula must move beyond linear, compartmentalized models and instead integrate knowledge, skills, and values across disciplines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a strategic implementation, social sciences and humanities programs should incorporate elements such as real-world problem-solving, cross-sector collaboration, and digital competencies aligned with industry needs. Likewise, science and technology programs should not overlook training in professional ethics, the societal implications of innovation, and effective communication with diverse audiences. This interdisciplinary synergy broadens students\u0026rsquo; intellectual capacities, enhances social empathy, and fosters moral accountability in professional contexts. A systematically designed interdisciplinary framework will help higher education institutions cultivate graduates who are academically proficient, adaptable, and capable of addressing complex societal issues.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3. Enhancing the Role of General Education in Developing Social Engineering Competencies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the secondary education level, particularly in high schools and vocational institutions, learning approaches must be aligned with Dewey\u0026rsquo;s Contextual Education Theory, which emphasizes real-life relevance and experiential learning. Curriculum development should prioritize opportunities for students to cultivate social competencies through internship programs, community engagement projects, and fieldwork. High school graduates, who often experience a predominantly theory-based education, should be provided with more exposure to practical contexts before transitioning to higher education. In parallel, character education must be strengthened through courses like Pancasila and Citizenship Education, reframed to focus not only on ideological instruction but also on applicable social engineering skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the framework of 21st-century education reform, the learning paradigm in Senior High Schools (SMA) and Vocational High Schools (SMK) must undergo substantial transformation. Dewey advocated for learning grounded in students\u0026rsquo; lived experiences, and thus curricula should be designed to foster both social and professional competencies through activities with real-world relevance. The provision of practical experiences is vital for preparing students for academic and professional transitions. Character education should also be repositioned to develop adaptive, ethical, and socially engaged graduates, capable of navigating the complexities of contemporary society.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4. Enhancing the Role of Madrasahs and Islamic Boarding Schools in Social Engineering Education\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligious-based educational institutions, particularly madrasahs and Islamic boarding schools, generally produce graduates with strong ethical competencies and a pronounced concern for social protection issues. However, the learning orientation within these environments often does not fully accommodate the development of capacity in data-driven decision-making or the implementation of structured social evaluations. This condition underscores the urgency of reformulating the religious education curriculum through the integration of methodological approaches rooted in scientific research and public policy analysis. Accordingly, madrasahs and Islamic boarding schools are expected not only to serve as centers for the transmission of normative values and morality, but also to produce human resources who are adaptive, critical, and responsive to complex social dynamics through an evidence-based approach.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5. Increasing Access to Technology and Digital Literacy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is a need to ensure more equitable access to technology, both within educational institutions and in society at large, including universities (Sumarna et al., 2022). Universities must provide technological facilities accessible to all prospective teacher students, such as computer laboratories, free internet access, and device loan programs for those in need. This aligns with the Digital Divide Theory, which highlights the role of technological access in reducing social disparities and enhancing individual competencies. Furthermore, integrating digital literacy into the curriculum is imperative. Courses related to technology should include training in data analysis, the use of technology for social change, and digital security, thereby better preparing prospective teacher students to confront digital challenges (Parhan, Syahidin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6. Improving Gender Balance in Social Engineering Education\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEfforts must be made to encourage women to develop both practical and strategic skills through programs that support their involvement in data-driven decision-making and social evaluation. For instance, mentorship and leadership programs for female student teachers can help build their confidence and enhance their practical skill sets. At the same time, it is important to equip male student teachers with social skills through increased training in communication, collaboration, and social empathy, enabling them to more fully understand the moral dimensions of social engineering.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study reveals that theoretical understanding continues to dominate the social engineering competencies of prospective teacher students at UPI, rather than practical skills. Variations in competency selection are influenced by factors such as educational background, access to technology, and gender, although these are not the sole determinants. To foster more balanced and applicable social engineering competencies, reforms in the higher education system are necessary. These include the adoption of experience-based learning, integration of theory and practice, expanded access to technology, and a more inclusive gender approach. By implementing these recommendations, students will be better equipped to address future social challenges. Moreover, the findings of this study can serve as a foundation for designing educational programs that more effectively support the development of social engineering competencies among prospective teacher students. Therefore, educational institutions must strengthen the teaching of social engineering competencies across all levels of education. Further research is warranted to explore additional factors influencing competency selection, such as personal experiences or the social environments of prospective teacher students.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":" \u003cp\u003eEthics Approval Statement: This research has been reviewed and approved by the Community Service Institute, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. All research procedures comply with the ethical standards required for research involving human participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParticipant Consent Statement: All participants gave informed consent to take part in this study. Participation was voluntary, and participants were informed about the purpose of the study, their rights, and data confidentiality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u0026rsquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions StatementFollowing are the contributions of each author:MDK: Conceived the research design, coordinated the research, and led the writing of the manuscript. MH: Contributed to the theoretical framework and literature review.RWAZ: Handled the data collection and quantitative analysis. MP: Provided pedagogical and ethical interpretation of the findings.ABB: Supported the analysis of technology access and editing of the manuscriptAll authors reviewed the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAvailability of Data and Materials\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe articles referred to in this paper are all freely available in the public domain..\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAstuti, R. (2021). \u003cem\u003eKewarganegaraan dalam Membangun Kesadaran Sosial Mahasiswa\u003c/em\u003e. Raja Grafindo Persada.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBerkowitz, M. W., Bier, M. C., \u0026amp; ... (2017). 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Penerapan Pendekatan Pembelajaran Kontekstual dalam Pendidikan Agama Islam di Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eTARBAWY: Indonesian Journal of Islamic Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e, 114\u0026ndash;126. https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/tarbawy/article/view/20165\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eParhan, M., Syahidin, S., Somad, M. A., Abdulah, M., \u0026amp; Nugraha, R. H. (2024). Developing a Contextual Learning Model in Islamic Education to Improve Applicable Knowledge and Foster Knowledge-Based Virtues.\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eJurnal Pendidikan Islam\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e10\u003c/em\u003e(1), 75\u0026ndash;86. https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/jpi/article/view/35205\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePhillips, M. J. (2024). 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The Politics of Educating for Democracy. \u003cem\u003eAmerican Educational Research Journal\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e41\u003c/em\u003e(2), 237\u0026ndash;269. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312041002237\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWestley, F., Mcgowan, K., \u0026amp; Tjornbo, O. (2017). \u003cem\u003eThe Evolution of Social Innovation\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781786431158\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWilliams, L., \u0026amp; Sembiante, S. F. (2022). Experiential learning in U.S. undergraduate teacher preparation programs: A review of the literature. \u003cem\u003eTeaching and Teacher Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e112\u003c/em\u003e, 103630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103630\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWitarsa, \u0026amp; Muhammad, S. (2023). Critical thinking as a necessity for social science students capacity development: How it can be strengthened through project based learning at university. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Education\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e7\u003c/em\u003e. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.983292\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZamroni. (2011). \u003cem\u003ePendidikan Demokrasi pada Masyarakat Multikultural\u003c/em\u003e. Gavin Kalam Utama.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Social Engineering Competencies, Prospective Teacher Students, General Education, Social Change","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6549497/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6549497/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to analyze the patterns of social engineering competency selection among prospective teacher students, as well as the factors influencing these choices, including educational background, access to technology, and gender differences. A quantitative approach was employed, utilizing descriptive statistical analysis, chi-square tests, Spearman correlation, and logistic regression. Data were collected through a survey of 376 prospective teacher students at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia and analyzed to identify gaps between theoretical and practical competencies, along with selection patterns based on demographic factors. The results indicate that prospective teacher students tend to favor theory-based competencies over practical skills. Theoretical understanding emerged as the most dominant competency, whereas practice-oriented competencies were selected less frequently. These findings suggest that the higher education system continues to place greater emphasis on theoretical knowledge rather than its practical application in the context of social engineering. To better prepare prospective teacher students for real-world social challenges, higher education institutions should strive for a more balanced integration of theory and practice. The implementation of project-based learning, service-learning, and interdisciplinary approaches is recommended to cultivate more applicable and transformative social engineering competencies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Social Engineering Competencies of Prospective Teacher Students for Social Change: a Study at the Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-08 03:43:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6549497/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"039cad42-4ebd-4541-84bf-fd889198afc6","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-18T11:38:48+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-08 03:43:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6549497","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6549497","identity":"rs-6549497","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}