Experimental evaluation of limestone, calcined clay and cement (lc3) using limestone, calcined laterite, kaolin, sand and rice husk ash (rha)

Experimental evaluation of limestone, calcined clay and cement (lc3) using limestone, calcined laterite, kaolin, sand and rice husk ash (rha) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Experimental evaluation of limestone, calcined clay and cement (lc3) using limestone, calcined laterite, kaolin, sand and rice husk ash (rha) NKANSAH NANA KWAME ASHLEY, MICHAEL COMMEH, SETH ACHEAMPONG, GODSWAY GAFAH, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6266238/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study examines traditional supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) made from limestone, calcined laterite, kaolin, sand, and rice husk ash (RHA). The rice husk was obtained from a small-scale rice factory in Ejisu, Ghana. The materials were processed in the lab using pyrolysis to calcine the limestone at 900°C, the rice husks at 500 to 700°C, and the laterite at 500 to 700°C. After the samples were molded and cured for 28 days, physical tests such as compressive strength, XRD, XRF, and water absorption were conducted on the samples to determine their suitability for cement production. The purpose of using these materials as SCMs is to reduce CO 2 emissions from cement production, partially replace cement, and lower construction costs, providing substantial advantages to suppliers, contractors, and engineers. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Countries are urged under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to address important global challenges, such as social justice and the environment( The Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) in Ghana , n.d.). Many of these objectives are in line with initiatives to make the construction sector more sustainable, especially in relation to innovation, infrastructure, climate change, and responsible production. One of the main causes of environmental deterioration is the building sector, which accounts for 40% of worldwide energy-related emissions. Sustainable building practices have received little attention in Africa, frequently as a result of international organizations' and wealthier nations' policies (Adebayo & Avenue, 1994). Ghana's economy heavily depends on the construction industry, and the country's growing urbanization and economic expansion have led to a steady increase in the demand for cement. However, cement production accounts for almost 8% of worldwide emissions, making it a significant source of CO 2 . A significant portion of these emissions originate from the manufacturing of clinker, a crucial component of cement, which emits CO 2 through a chemical process (Barcelo, L., et al., 2014 ). Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3 cement) is one creative way to lower CO 2 emissions by substituting limestone and calcined clay for some of the clinker. This cement is a promising substitute for conventional cement and was created through worldwide cooperation. In addition to saving money, using RHA, kaolin, or calcined laterite in LC3 can increase cement strength. This might lower the cost of cement in Ghana, encourage the development of jobs, and make it possible for more people to fund building, especially for affordable housing projects ( History LC3-Project – LC3 , n.d.). This research is aimed at incorporate other materials in the reduction of CO 2 through reduced cement in the composition using limestone, calcined laterite, kaolin, and RHA. The objectives of the study were (a) to analyze the compressive strength of the product, (b) to optimize the composition of the alternative materials of the product, (c) to analyze the behavior of the LC3 produced from limestone, calcined clay, and cement and the incorporated materials produced from limestone, calcined laterite, cement, kaolin, and RHA. Literature Review 2.1 Architectural History in Ghana In Ghana's architectural history, European, Asian, and Middle Eastern influences were combined with traditional indigenous patterns and constructions during colonization. The infrastructure of the nation was significantly shaped by colonization, especially after 1843. During this time, Governor Guggisberg made significant contributions to Ghana's socioeconomic development by building the Takoradi Harbor, Achimota School, and Korle-Bu Hospital. The British increased educational institutions as Ghana gained independence by constructing new secondary schools and colleges, while missionaries also made contributions by founding universities and schools. Throughout Ghana's history, educational institutions such as those operated by the Presbyterians, Methodists, and Catholics have played a crucial role country ( An Architectural History of Ghana • The Cultural Encyclopaedia , n.d.). 2.2 Population Rate in Ghana and cement for Development Ghana's fast population increase has resulted in a severe housing scarcity, especially in urban areas. The nation is predicted to require at least 100,000 new dwelling units annually, but only 30 to 35% of that demand is satisfied, leaving 70,000 to 120,000 units shortfall each year (ISSER 2013). This lack of housing is a significant worldwide development issue, especially in emerging nations where high housing costs or a lack of availability force people to turn to unofficial, frequently illegal housing options, which fuels the expansion of slums. LC3 cement was created in response to environmental concerns in order to lower CO2 emissions from the cement industry, which is a major cause of climate change. Prior to LC3, the manufacture of cement contributed significantly to global warming by releasing CO2. Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, increasing global temperatures, causing extreme weather, ecosystem disruption, and negative effects on agriculture (Kabir, M., et al., 2023 ). In order to lessen climate change and its detrimental consequences on the earth, CO2 emissions must be reduced. 2.3 The Environment and Effect of Climate Change According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), there are six primary producers of greenhouse gases: industry, land use/forestry, transportation, power generation, and the commercial and residential sectors (Younger, M., et al., 2008 ). Transportation accounted for 28.9% of total emissions in 2017, making it the greatest source. Climate change causes extreme weather events including droughts, wildfires, and tropical storms as global temperatures rise. Increased carbon can occasionally help plants, but it can also lead to unfavourable weather patterns that have a detrimental impact on plant survival and food output (Omnski, 2020 ). 2.4 Calcination The technique of calcination involves heating a solid substance under controlled conditions, frequently at high temperatures, in order to alter its chemical or physical characteristics (Hanein, T., et al., 2022 ). Usually, the objective is to oxidize the material or eliminate water or volatile chemicals. Another name for this procedure is purification. Our word "calcination" is derived from the Latin word "calcinare," which means "to burn lime." It is frequently utilized in the manufacturing of cement and other products ( Calcination - Definition, Examples, Process, Calcination of Gypsum, Comparison between Calcination and Roasting , n.d.). 2.5 Particle size analysis on materials Particle size distribution has a direct impact on material qualities like flow, reactivity, abrasiveness, solubility, and compressibility, making it an essential parameter in quality control and research. It is essential to many applications, such as the handling of bulk materials, extraction procedures, and taste. Depending on the material and study objectives, labs employ a variety of techniques to examine particle size distribution, such as sieve analysis, dynamic light scattering (DLS), laser diffraction (LD), and dynamic image analysis (DIA) ( Particle Size Distribution_ Particle Analyzers __ Microtrac , n.d.). Materials and Methods 3.1 Materials Most of the materials, such as limestone, kaolin, and sand, were gotten from the KNUST Ceramics Lab, but some were mined and quarried from different places. The kaolin used was mined and quarried from Telekubogaso, and the sand was also from Atuabo. The cement used was already made cement from Unicem. The rice husk used was collected from a mini rice company situated at Ejisu in Ghana and calcined at the Ceramics department at a temperature of 700 degrees to get ash. The limestone was also calcined at a temperature of 900 degrees to get rid of the carbon dioxide (CO2) in the limestone to get lime. After calcination of the limestone, the limestone was crushed using the secondary jaw crusher and pulverized into a powder form. A sieve size of 115 mesh was used to sieve all the materials for an even particle size. 3.2 Methods The materials are measured in their required proportions with the use of the weighing scale and mixed thoroughly with the aid of a mixer. A suitable amount of water is sprinkled on the dry mixture and mixed again to attain a workable mix. (The water level ranges from 300 ml to 700 ml). The mold is then filled with the mixed composition and compressed with an iron lid in order to form the shape with the aid of the manual mold in the lab. The shaped blocks are then detached carefully from the mold, dried and cured for a period of 28 days. Three different samples were made from each composition because the laterite was calcined to three different temperatures (500°C, 600°C and 700°C). The cube samples produced were labelled and the wet weight of each of the samples was taken before drying them. For the curing of the samples, water was sprinkled on the samples each day for 28 days. After 28 days, the dry weight of the samples was taken and tests for analysis were also conducted. Below is the mixture composition of LCLC represented in Table 1 . Table 1 Mixture composition of LCLC Sample names Limestone (g) Calcined laterite (g) Cement (g) Rice Husk Ash (g) Kaolin (g) Sand (g) A1 500 150 250 100 0 0 1A 500 100 250 100 50 0 A0 500 50 200 100 100 50 AA 500 100 250 100 0 50 Results and Discussion 4.1 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is a non-destructive technique used to analyze the elemental composition of materials. In this instance, rice husk ash was finely powdered, shaped into a pellet, and subjected to XRF analysis. SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and CaO were the main oxides found, with trace levels of K2O and SO3. The total percentage of silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, and iron oxide was 96.49%, exceeding ASTM C618's minimum 50% pozzolan standard. The XRF results of the materials used for the research is represented in Table 2 which is shown below. Table 2 XRF results on calcined laterite, limestone, atuabo sand, unicem cement and rice husk ash (RHA) s/n Element Calcined Laterite Limestone Atuabo Sand Unicem Cement Kaolin Rice Husk Ash Unit 1 SiO 2 51.4 13.9 97.6 38 70.7 95.6 % 2 Al 2 O 3 35.8 3.74 1.17 8.25 25.6 0.694 % 3 Fe 2 O 3 11.1 1.9 0.127 3.08 0.611 0.196 % 4 CaO 0.0647 73.9 0.111 43.2 0.0641 0.517 % 5 MgO - 4.62 - 1.12 - - % 6 K 2 O 0.378 0.526 0.0319 1.12 0.557 1.29 % 7 SO 3 0.121 0.194 0.413 3.03 0.0226 0.413 % 8 TiO 2 0.809 0.283 0.522 - - 0.0372 % 9 L.O.I 11.97 41.76 0.51 4.13 % 4.2 X-Ray Diffraction Test (XRD) X-ray diffraction (XRD) is used to identify the phases of crystalline materials and determine unit cell dimensions (Epp J., 2016). In addition to limestone that was calcined at 900°C and rice husk ash at 700°C, calcined laterite was tested at three different temperatures: 500°C, 600°C, and 700°C. Three minerals were found in the calcined laterite at 500°C: kaolinite, quartz, and hematite. Kaolinite had the greatest peak (120°) and the highest intensity (3400 counts). Hematite was more common than quartz and kaolinite, which is indicative of laterite's iron oxide content. The mineral composition of the calcined laterite at 600°C was comparable to that of the sample at 500°C, with kaolinite once more exhibiting the highest peak (120°) but a lower intensity of 1900 counts. The calcined laterite had a higher concentration of quartz at 700°C, with the highest peak (270°) and intensity of 1550 counts. Three different minerals were also found in the calcined limestone which are, portlandite, calcite and barium tungsten oxide with more calcite in the limestone. The figure below shows the results of rice husk ash which is an amorphous material but has both broad and sharp peaks. This means, it is rich in silica. 4.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV) The Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is a popular non-destructive test used to examine the homogeneity, quality, cracks, and defects in concrete (Karaiskos, G., et al., 2015). All the specimens were tested using the UPV machine to determine the wave transmission velocity. According to IS 1311 (part; 1992), an ultrasonic pulse velocity of more than 4500 m/s indicates excellent quality; 3500–4500 m/s is considered good quality; 3000–3500 m/s is considered medium quality, and less than 3000 m/s is considered of doubtful quality. 4.4 Compressive Strength Analysis Compressive strength is calculated by dividing the highest stress a sample can withstand before breaking by the area of its cross-section (Ash et al., 2020). Samples were dried, weighed, and then crushed in order to determine the compressive strength in Newtons per millimeter square (N/mm 2 ) and the force applied in Newtons (N). The materials utilized had an impact on the compressive strength. Samples containing 700°C calcined laterite and kaolin had the highest average compressive strength (8.2 N/mm²), whereas samples containing 600°C calcined laterite, kaolin, and sand had the lowest average compressive strength (3.5 N/mm²). The compactness of the material and the composition's average water content were credited with the increased compressive strength. 4.5 Water Absorption Test The specimens (M1) were first dried and weighed in order to perform the IS 3495 (Part 2) water absorption test. Following a 24-hour immersion in water at 27°C, the specimens were cleaned and reweighed (M2) (Burlakoti & Maharjan, 2023). The formula (M2 – M1) / M1 × 100 was used to determine the percentage of water absorption. Water absorption values shouldn't be higher than 20% for high grade. Better quality was indicated by the sample with calcined laterite and sand at 600°C, which had the lowest average water absorption of 15.81%. The sample containing sand, kaolin, and laterite that had been calcined at 500°C, on the other hand, had a higher average water absorption of 20.6%, indicating that it is less resilient in terms of water retention. Conclusion In this study, the qualities of calcined clay and calcined laterite both from Ghana for usage in cementitious materials and concrete are compared. Although calcined clay combined with limestone has been thoroughly researched, laterite which is more prevalent in tropical areas and shares chemical similarities with clay is being investigated as a potential substitute. The samples had phase velocities below 3000 m/s in the ultrasonic pulse velocity test, which is used to find cracks or other flaws in concrete. This shows that the samples were not suitable for use in concrete since they were compressed manually rather than hydraulically during preparation. Samples with 700°C calcined laterite and kaolin had the highest compressive strength, whereas samples with 600°C calcined laterite, kaolin, and sand had the lowest strength because they could absorb water for a longer period of time and are less likely to shatter, the samples manufactured with calcined laterite and sand at 600°C also had the lowest water absorption percentage (15.81%). Declarations Conflicts of Interest : The authors have no conflicts of interest. Data Availability: All relevant data are included within the manuscript. Funding : No funding. Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations: Not applicable. Consent to Publish declaration: Not applicable. Authors contribution: Nkansah Nana Kwame Ashley: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, results interpretation, correcting, editing and proofreading of the manuscript. Michael Commeh: conceptualization, supervision, validation, correcting, editing, proofreading of the manuscript. Seth Acheampong: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation. Godsway Gafah: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation. Joshua Mawuli Tsitsi: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation. Edmond Tsekpo: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation. Rosemond Nyamewaa Van Ess: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation. References An Architectural History of Ghana • The Cultural Encyclopaedia. (n.d.). Ash, B., Ash, F., Vissers, L. J. L., & Momber, A. W. (2020). Compressive Strength Fundamentals of Hydrodemolition. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/compressive-strength Barcelo, L., Kline, J., Walenta, G., & Gartner, E. (2014). Cement and carbon emissions. Materials and structures, 47(6), 1055-1065. Burlakoti, N., & Maharjan, S. (2023). Comparison of Compressive Strength of Compressed Earth Blocks under Extended Immersion Periods. Calcination - Definition, Examples, Process, Calcination of Gypsum, Comparison between Calcination and Roasting. (n.d.). https://byjus.com/jee/calcination/ Epp, J. (2016). X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques for materials characterization. In Materials characterization using nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods (pp. 81-124). Woodhead Publishing. Hanein, T., Thienel, K. C., Zunino, F., Marsh, A. T., Maier, M., Wang, B., ... & Martirena-Hernandez, F. (2022). Clay calcination technology: state-of-the-art review by the RILEM TC 282-CCL. Materials and Structures, 55(1), 3. History LC3-Project – LC3. (n.d.). Jocelyn Timperley - Resilience. (n.d.). Kabir, M., Habiba, U. E., Khan, W., Shah, A., Rahim, S., De los Rios-Escalante, P. R., ... & Shafiq, M. (2023). Climate change due to increasing concentration of carbon dioxide and its impacts on environment in 21st century; a mini review. Journal of King Saud University-Science, 35(5), 102693. Karaiskos, G., Deraemaeker, A., Aggelis, D. G., & Van Hemelrijck, D. (2015). Monitoring of concrete structures using the ultrasonic pulse velocity method. Smart Materials and Structures, 24(11), 113001. Omnski, S. (2020). How Do Carbon Emissions Affect the Environment? In Greenmatters.Com. https://www.greenmatters.com/p/how-do-carbon-emissions-affect-environment Particle Size Distribution_ Particle Analyzers __ Microtrac. (n.d.). The Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) in Ghana. (n.d.). Younger, M., Morrow-Almeida, H. R., Vindigni, S. M., & Dannenberg, A. L. (2008). The built environment, climate change, and health: opportunities for co-benefits. American journal of preventive medicine, 35(5), 517-526. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6266238","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":454859406,"identity":"fca34801-5957-4cd2-8172-e7370b1f68a3","order_by":0,"name":"NKANSAH NANA KWAME ASHLEY","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABFUlEQVRIie3PPUvDQBjA8SccxOWi6wOBxo/wlIIv1G/ikiOQLuIilGwGhJvEuQU/RCZxvHLQqfTWCA5Kv0CkixkErxF0aWJHwftP98LveA7A5fqT+QBefgLAmLK7+OcUsJPY2z0/BtUQtis54LQbOQ6leKsfsUear9cVpJdkjIJqrCE6z7eS0/u5DoMFDkgHD6jg4orKBLzJUkP/WW0lVI7y0JMoCkvsYJkoSgYskJZM4jZyU9cSrwvNV1VDjAb20UnSOQYSY/sX2AwmCpUA8yyJsJWkQ0v6U+0f4YJSMS0Tmt0uR5zayeCplmfRvtGrKssScWdmry/v42Evahnsu0PVvPC12aw5qW4BUf77icvlcv3TPgFaVWVl/hsNSQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"NKANSAH","middleName":"NANA KWAME","lastName":"ASHLEY","suffix":""},{"id":454859407,"identity":"a57e8cdb-c1fd-4a34-8c57-5d88328d4099","order_by":1,"name":"MICHAEL COMMEH","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"MICHAEL","middleName":"","lastName":"COMMEH","suffix":""},{"id":454859408,"identity":"dce490e5-6087-4cfa-a3d1-4841b7493be4","order_by":2,"name":"SETH ACHEAMPONG","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"SETH","middleName":"","lastName":"ACHEAMPONG","suffix":""},{"id":454859409,"identity":"c41e4cb4-dcf9-4f02-a5fe-3f33b35d848c","order_by":3,"name":"GODSWAY GAFAH","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"GODSWAY","middleName":"","lastName":"GAFAH","suffix":""},{"id":454859410,"identity":"29a82409-5146-4565-8d5c-ca93a378cef9","order_by":4,"name":"JOSHUA MAWULI TSITSI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"JOSHUA","middleName":"MAWULI","lastName":"TSITSI","suffix":""},{"id":454859411,"identity":"91b006b0-cd79-4fc8-aa2c-eec8c47cd4e0","order_by":5,"name":"EDMOND TSEKPO","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"EDMOND","middleName":"","lastName":"TSEKPO","suffix":""},{"id":454859412,"identity":"f05ec956-9753-4337-81f7-6c7ba045edcd","order_by":6,"name":"ROSEMOND NYAMEWAA VAN ESS","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"ROSEMOND","middleName":"NYAMEWAA VAN","lastName":"ESS","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-20 05:23:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6266238/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6266238/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":82644123,"identity":"7e459996-b87a-4644-9a68-ddf457d30afb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:45:51","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":45035,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ea. XRD results of rice husk ash.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6266238/v1/2ea96af772a1f881ad7a0024.png"},{"id":82644120,"identity":"f8923d83-d1fc-41b2-a0b3-ae284be853bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:45:51","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25928,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb. Ultrasonic pulse velocity tests of various lc3 samples.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6266238/v1/8190aecc7f7e1f13eb5c0c5d.png"},{"id":82644121,"identity":"23cfc399-e217-4e02-99bb-5d4295d149f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:45:51","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24116,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ec. Compressive strength of lc3 samples.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6266238/v1/cc417770f6a5d8bbb4169731.png"},{"id":82645307,"identity":"48d62e84-6489-42f6-b70b-c6370b7e8fcf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:53:51","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24350,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ed. Water absorption tests of various lc3 samples.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6266238/v1/54aded3c5fbe232cbfdb7cc0.png"},{"id":83979531,"identity":"c1cb827b-4a43-4f88-928e-314b0099ffa8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-05 09:39:05","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":832822,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6266238/v1/066255f1-67fc-45ef-a7f3-63c3baac695a.pdf"},{"id":82645306,"identity":"e27b4a21-3094-44da-aeca-550893a57ca4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-13 15:53:51","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":843463,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraphical Abstract\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6266238/v1/042be995430906b2a27bd82f.jpeg"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Experimental evaluation of limestone, calcined clay and cement (lc3) using limestone, calcined laterite, kaolin, sand and rice husk ash (rha)","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCountries are urged under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to address important global challenges, such as social justice and the environment(\u003cem\u003eThe Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) in Ghana\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.). Many of these objectives are in line with initiatives to make the construction sector more sustainable, especially in relation to innovation, infrastructure, climate change, and responsible production. One of the main causes of environmental deterioration is the building sector, which accounts for 40% of worldwide energy-related emissions. Sustainable building practices have received little attention in Africa, frequently as a result of international organizations' and wealthier nations' policies (Adebayo \u0026amp; Avenue, 1994).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGhana's economy heavily depends on the construction industry, and the country's growing urbanization and economic expansion have led to a steady increase in the demand for cement. However, cement production accounts for almost 8% of worldwide emissions, making it a significant source of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e. A significant portion of these emissions originate from the manufacturing of clinker, a crucial component of cement, which emits CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e through a chemical process (Barcelo, L., et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3 cement) is one creative way to lower CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions by substituting limestone and calcined clay for some of the clinker. This cement is a promising substitute for conventional cement and was created through worldwide cooperation. In addition to saving money, using RHA, kaolin, or calcined laterite in LC3 can increase cement strength. This might lower the cost of cement in Ghana, encourage the development of jobs, and make it possible for more people to fund building, especially for affordable housing projects (\u003cem\u003eHistory LC3-Project \u0026ndash; LC3\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research is aimed at incorporate other materials in the reduction of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e through reduced cement in the composition using limestone, calcined laterite, kaolin, and RHA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe objectives of the study were (a) to analyze the compressive strength of the product, (b) to optimize the composition of the alternative materials of the product, (c) to analyze the behavior of the LC3 produced from limestone, calcined clay, and cement and the incorporated materials produced from limestone, calcined laterite, cement, kaolin, and RHA.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Architectural History in Ghana\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Ghana's architectural history, European, Asian, and Middle Eastern influences were combined with traditional indigenous patterns and constructions during colonization. The infrastructure of the nation was significantly shaped by colonization, especially after 1843. During this time, Governor Guggisberg made significant contributions to Ghana's socioeconomic development by building the Takoradi Harbor, Achimota School, and Korle-Bu Hospital. The British increased educational institutions as Ghana gained independence by constructing new secondary schools and colleges, while missionaries also made contributions by founding universities and schools. Throughout Ghana's history, educational institutions such as those operated by the Presbyterians, Methodists, and Catholics have played a crucial role country (\u003cem\u003eAn Architectural History of Ghana \u0026bull; The Cultural Encyclopaedia\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Population Rate in Ghana and cement for Development\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGhana's fast population increase has resulted in a severe housing scarcity, especially in urban areas. The nation is predicted to require at least 100,000 new dwelling units annually, but only 30 to 35% of that demand is satisfied, leaving 70,000 to 120,000 units shortfall each year (ISSER 2013). This lack of housing is a significant worldwide development issue, especially in emerging nations where high housing costs or a lack of availability force people to turn to unofficial, frequently illegal housing options, which fuels the expansion of slums.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC3 cement was created in response to environmental concerns in order to lower CO2 emissions from the cement industry, which is a major cause of climate change. Prior to LC3, the manufacture of cement contributed significantly to global warming by releasing CO2. Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, increasing global temperatures, causing extreme weather, ecosystem disruption, and negative effects on agriculture (Kabir, M., et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In order to lessen climate change and its detrimental consequences on the earth, CO2 emissions must be reduced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 The Environment and Effect of Climate Change\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), there are six primary producers of greenhouse gases: industry, land use/forestry, transportation, power generation, and the commercial and residential sectors (Younger, M., et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Transportation accounted for 28.9% of total emissions in 2017, making it the greatest source. Climate change causes extreme weather events including droughts, wildfires, and tropical storms as global temperatures rise. Increased carbon can occasionally help plants, but it can also lead to unfavourable weather patterns that have a detrimental impact on plant survival and food output (Omnski, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Calcination\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe technique of calcination involves heating a solid substance under controlled conditions, frequently at high temperatures, in order to alter its chemical or physical characteristics (Hanein, T., et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Usually, the objective is to oxidize the material or eliminate water or volatile chemicals. Another name for this procedure is purification. Our word \"calcination\" is derived from the Latin word \"calcinare,\" which means \"to burn lime.\" It is frequently utilized in the manufacturing of cement and other products (\u003cem\u003eCalcination - Definition, Examples, Process, Calcination of Gypsum, Comparison between Calcination and Roasting\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Particle size analysis on materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticle size distribution has a direct impact on material qualities like flow, reactivity, abrasiveness, solubility, and compressibility, making it an essential parameter in quality control and research. It is essential to many applications, such as the handling of bulk materials, extraction procedures, and taste. Depending on the material and study objectives, labs employ a variety of techniques to examine particle size distribution, such as sieve analysis, dynamic light scattering (DLS), laser diffraction (LD), and dynamic image analysis (DIA) (\u003cem\u003eParticle Size Distribution_ Particle Analyzers __ Microtrac\u003c/em\u003e, n.d.).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost of the materials, such as limestone, kaolin, and sand, were gotten from the KNUST Ceramics Lab, but some were mined and quarried from different places. The kaolin used was mined and quarried from Telekubogaso, and the sand was also from Atuabo. The cement used was already made cement from Unicem. The rice husk used was collected from a mini rice company situated at Ejisu in Ghana and calcined at the Ceramics department at a temperature of 700 degrees to get ash.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe limestone was also calcined at a temperature of 900 degrees to get rid of the carbon dioxide (CO2) in the limestone to get lime. After calcination of the limestone, the limestone was crushed using the secondary jaw crusher and pulverized into a powder form. A sieve size of 115 mesh was used to sieve all the materials for an even particle size.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe materials are measured in their required proportions with the use of the weighing scale and mixed thoroughly with the aid of a mixer. A suitable amount of water is sprinkled on the dry mixture and mixed again to attain a workable mix. (The water level ranges from 300 ml to 700 ml). The mold is then filled with the mixed composition and compressed with an iron lid in order to form the shape with the aid of the manual mold in the lab. The shaped blocks are then detached carefully from the mold, dried and cured for a period of 28 days. Three different samples were made from each composition because the laterite was calcined to three different temperatures (500\u0026deg;C, 600\u0026deg;C and 700\u0026deg;C). The cube samples produced were labelled and the wet weight of each of the samples was taken before drying them. For the curing of the samples, water was sprinkled on the samples each day for 28 days. After 28 days, the dry weight of the samples was taken and tests for analysis were also conducted. Below is the mixture composition of LCLC represented in Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixture composition of LCLC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample names\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimestone (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalcined laterite (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCement (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice Husk Ash (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaolin (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSand (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.1 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eX-ray fluorescence (XRF) is a non-destructive technique used to analyze the elemental composition of materials. In this instance, rice husk ash was finely powdered, shaped into a pellet, and subjected to XRF analysis. SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and CaO were the main oxides found, with trace levels of K2O and SO3. The total percentage of silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, and iron oxide was 96.49%, exceeding ASTM C618's minimum 50% pozzolan standard. The XRF results of the materials used for the research is represented in Table 2 which is shown below.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eXRF results on calcined laterite, limestone, atuabo sand, unicem cement and rice husk ash (RHA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003es/n\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eElement\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalcined Laterite\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLimestone\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAtuabo Sand\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnicem Cement\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKaolin\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRice Husk Ash\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUnit\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSiO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAl\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.694\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFe\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.127\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.611\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.196\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n 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align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.194\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.413\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0226\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.413\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTiO\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.809\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.283\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.522\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0372\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eL.O.I\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.2 X-Ray Diffraction Test (XRD)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eX-ray diffraction (XRD) is used to identify the phases of crystalline materials and determine unit cell dimensions (Epp J., 2016). In addition to limestone that was calcined at 900°C and rice husk ash at 700°C, calcined laterite was tested at three different temperatures: 500°C, 600°C, and 700°C.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThree minerals were found in the calcined laterite at 500°C: kaolinite, quartz, and hematite. Kaolinite had the greatest peak (120°) and the highest intensity (3400 counts). Hematite was more common than quartz and kaolinite, which is indicative of laterite's iron oxide content.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe mineral composition of the calcined laterite at 600°C was comparable to that of the sample at 500°C, with kaolinite once more exhibiting the highest peak (120°) but a lower intensity of 1900 counts. The calcined laterite had a higher concentration of quartz at 700°C, with the highest peak (270°) and intensity of 1550 counts. Three different minerals were also found in the calcined limestone which are, portlandite, calcite and barium tungsten oxide with more calcite in the limestone. The figure below shows the results of rice husk ash which is an amorphous material but has both broad and sharp peaks. This means, it is rich in silica.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test (UPV)\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is a popular non-destructive test used to examine the homogeneity, quality, cracks, and defects in concrete (Karaiskos, G., et al., 2015). All the specimens were tested using the UPV machine to determine the wave transmission velocity. According to IS 1311 (part; 1992), an ultrasonic pulse velocity of more than 4500 m/s indicates excellent quality; 3500–4500 m/s is considered good quality; 3000–3500 m/s is considered medium quality, and less than 3000 m/s is considered of doubtful quality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Compressive Strength Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompressive strength is calculated by dividing the highest stress a sample can withstand before breaking by the area of its cross-section (Ash et al., 2020). Samples were dried, weighed, and then crushed in order to determine the compressive strength in Newtons per millimeter square (N/mm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) and the force applied in Newtons (N). The materials utilized had an impact on the compressive strength. Samples containing 700°C calcined laterite and kaolin had the highest average compressive strength (8.2 N/mm²), whereas samples containing 600°C calcined laterite, kaolin, and sand had the lowest average compressive strength (3.5 N/mm²). The compactness of the material and the composition's average water content were credited with the increased compressive strength.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e4.5 Water Absorption Test\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe specimens (M1) were first dried and weighed in order to perform the IS 3495 (Part 2) water absorption test. Following a 24-hour immersion in water at 27°C, the specimens were cleaned and reweighed (M2) (Burlakoti \u0026amp; Maharjan, 2023). The formula (M2 – M1) / M1 × 100 was used to determine the percentage of water absorption. Water absorption values shouldn't be higher than 20% for high grade. Better quality was indicated by the sample with calcined laterite and sand at 600°C, which had the lowest average water absorption of 15.81%. The sample containing sand, kaolin, and laterite that had been calcined at 500°C, on the other hand, had a higher average water absorption of 20.6%, indicating that it is less resilient in terms of water retention.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, the qualities of calcined clay and calcined laterite both from Ghana for usage in cementitious materials and concrete are compared. Although calcined clay combined with limestone has been thoroughly researched, laterite which is more prevalent in tropical areas and shares chemical similarities with clay is being investigated as a potential substitute.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe samples had phase velocities below 3000 m/s in the ultrasonic pulse velocity test, which is used to find cracks or other flaws in concrete. This shows that the samples were not suitable for use in concrete since they were compressed manually rather than hydraulically during preparation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSamples with 700\u0026deg;C calcined laterite and kaolin had the highest compressive strength, whereas samples with 600\u0026deg;C calcined laterite, kaolin, and sand had the lowest strength because they could absorb water for a longer period of time and are less likely to shatter, the samples manufactured with calcined laterite and sand at 600\u0026deg;C also had the lowest water absorption percentage (15.81%).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors have no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability:\u003c/strong\u003e All relevant data are included within the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e: No funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Consent to Participate declarations:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contribution:\u003c/strong\u003e Nkansah Nana Kwame Ashley: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, results interpretation, correcting, editing and proofreading of the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;Michael Commeh: conceptualization, supervision, validation, correcting, editing, proofreading of the manuscript. Seth Acheampong: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation. \u0026nbsp;Godsway Gafah: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation. \u0026nbsp;Joshua Mawuli Tsitsi: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation. \u0026nbsp; Edmond Tsekpo: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation. \u0026nbsp;Rosemond Nyamewaa Van Ess: writing, methodology, experimental work, analysis, and results interpretation.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAn Architectural History of Ghana • The Cultural Encyclopaedia. (n.d.).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAsh, B., Ash, F., Vissers, L. J. L., \u0026amp; Momber, A. W. (2020). Compressive Strength Fundamentals of Hydrodemolition. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/compressive-strength\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBarcelo, L., Kline, J., Walenta, G., \u0026amp; Gartner, E. (2014). Cement and carbon emissions. Materials and structures, 47(6), 1055-1065.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBurlakoti, N., \u0026amp; Maharjan, S. (2023). Comparison of Compressive Strength of Compressed Earth Blocks under Extended Immersion Periods.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCalcination - Definition, Examples, Process, Calcination of Gypsum, Comparison between Calcination and Roasting. (n.d.). https://byjus.com/jee/calcination/\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEpp, J. (2016). X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques for materials characterization. In Materials characterization using nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods (pp. 81-124). Woodhead Publishing.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHanein, T., Thienel, K. C., Zunino, F., Marsh, A. T., Maier, M., Wang, B., ... \u0026amp; Martirena-Hernandez, F. (2022). Clay calcination technology: state-of-the-art review by the RILEM TC 282-CCL. Materials and Structures, 55(1), 3.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHistory LC3-Project – LC3. (n.d.).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJocelyn Timperley - Resilience. (n.d.).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKabir, M., Habiba, U. E., Khan, W., Shah, A., Rahim, S., De los Rios-Escalante, P. R., ... \u0026amp; Shafiq, M. (2023). Climate change due to increasing concentration of carbon dioxide and its impacts on environment in 21st century; a mini review. Journal of King Saud University-Science, 35(5), 102693.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKaraiskos, G., Deraemaeker, A., Aggelis, D. G., \u0026amp; Van Hemelrijck, D. (2015). Monitoring of concrete structures using the ultrasonic pulse velocity method. Smart Materials and Structures, 24(11), 113001.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eOmnski, S. (2020). How Do Carbon Emissions Affect the Environment? In Greenmatters.Com. https://www.greenmatters.com/p/how-do-carbon-emissions-affect-environment\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eParticle Size Distribution_ Particle Analyzers __ Microtrac. (n.d.).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) in Ghana. (n.d.).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYounger, M., Morrow-Almeida, H. R., Vindigni, S. M., \u0026amp; Dannenberg, A. L. (2008). The built environment, climate change, and health: opportunities for co-benefits. American journal of preventive medicine, 35(5), 517-526.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6266238/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6266238/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines traditional supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) made from limestone, calcined laterite, kaolin, sand, and rice husk ash (RHA). The rice husk was obtained from a small-scale rice factory in Ejisu, Ghana. The materials were processed in the lab using pyrolysis to calcine the limestone at 900\u0026deg;C, the rice husks at 500 to 700\u0026deg;C, and the laterite at 500 to 700\u0026deg;C. After the samples were molded and cured for 28 days, physical tests such as compressive strength, XRD, XRF, and water absorption were conducted on the samples to determine their suitability for cement production. The purpose of using these materials as SCMs is to reduce CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions from cement production, partially replace cement, and lower construction costs, providing substantial advantages to suppliers, contractors, and engineers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Experimental evaluation of limestone, calcined clay and cement (lc3) using limestone, calcined laterite, kaolin, sand and rice husk ash (rha)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-13 15:45:46","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6266238/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c7fb6aed-53a1-4362-886b-6bba3075c284","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 13th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-05T09:38:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-13 15:45:46","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6266238","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6266238","identity":"rs-6266238","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}