Investigation of the Usability of Agricultural and Biomass Wastes in Brake Pad Composites

Investigation of the Usability of Agricultural and Biomass Wastes in Brake Pad Composites | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Investigation of the Usability of Agricultural and Biomass Wastes in Brake Pad Composites İlker Sugözü, Elçin Sayar, Uğur Eşme, Banu Sugözü This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9618636/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Brake pads are critical friction components in automotive braking systems. Recently, the focus has shifted toward sustainable, non-toxic, and cost-effective alternatives to conventional brake pad materials. Agricultural and biomass waste fillers offer promising reinforcement potential due to their abundance, biodegradability, and low cost. This study explores the tribological and physical performance of brake pads reinforced with five natural fillers: corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder. Each was incorporated at 5, 10, and 15 wt.% using the powder metallurgy method. Tribological tests were performed against a gray cast iron disc to evaluate specific wear rate and coefficient of friction. Physical properties such as hardness, density were also assessed. SEM and EDS analyses were conducted to examine the worn surfaces and elemental composition. Results showed that filler type and content significantly influenced composite performance. Composites with 10 wt.% coconut shell and bamboo powder exhibited the most stable friction behavior and highest average coefficient of friction, outperforming the reference. SEM images revealed that samples with 15 wt.% filler had better surface morphology, denser tribo-layers, and stronger matrix–filler bonding. However, 10 wt.% was optimal for balancing mechanical integrity and tribological performance. This study demonstrates the potential of coconut shell, bamboo powder, flax, and hemp as sustainable reinforcements in eco-friendly brake pad composites, offering a viable pathway toward greener automotive materials. Biomass waste Agricultural fibers Brake pad Friction Wear Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Introduction Brake pads are essential components of braking systems, directly influencing the vehicle's braking efficiency, reliability, and safety. These components are typically composed of composite friction materials that must exhibit a balance of mechanical strength, thermal stability, and consistent tribological behavior under varying operating conditions. To meet such requirements, brake pad formulations usually include a wide range of constituents such as binders, friction modifiers, fillers, abrasives, and reinforcements. In recent years, growing environmental concerns and the increasing demand for sustainable and cost-effective materials have encouraged researchers to explore alternative raw materials in brake pad production. Conventional fillers and reinforcements, some of which may be hazardous or non-renewable—are being progressively replaced by natural, biodegradable, and renewable alternatives [ 1 – 3 ]. Among these, agricultural and biomass wastes have gained particular attention due to their abundance, low cost, biodegradability, and relatively low environmental impact. Agricultural residues such as corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder contain lignocellulosic structures that can offer beneficial properties when used as reinforcement materials in composite structures [ 4 – 13 ]. Their integration into brake pad composites may not only reduce material costs and environmental footprint but also improve or maintain key frictional and wear performance parameters. This study aims to investigate the usability of selected agricultural and biomass waste materials as reinforcement additives in composite brake pads. A total of sixteen brake pad formulations were developed using five types of bio-based fillers (corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder) at three different weight percentages (5%, 10%, and 15%). The brake pads were produced using the powder metallurgy method. The effects of filler type and content on the tribological performance and physical properties of the composites were evaluated through friction and wear testing, microstructural analysis, and physical property measurements. 2. Materials and Method In this study, a total of 16 different brake pad samples were produced using five types of organic waste materials: corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder. Each of these materials was added to the composite formulation in three different weight ratios (5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, and 15 wt.%), along with a reference sample without any organic additive. The brake pad composites were formulated using various materials, each serving a specific purpose to enhance performance. Phenolic resin acted as the binder, providing structural integrity and thermal stability. Steel wool was used as a reinforcement fiber to improve the mechanical strength of the pad, while cashew nut shell powder served as a friction modifier to maintain consistent friction and reduce surface glazing. Alumina, an abrasive material, was included to enhance wear resistance, and graphite acted as a solid lubricant to reduce friction and prevent overheating. Copper and brass chips were used as additional friction modifiers to regulate heat dissipation and improve thermal stability. Lastly, barite was used as a filler to improve density, vibration damping, and thermal management of the brake pads. The samples were labeled based on the type and weight percentage of the organic waste material used. Corn husk (M), flax (KT), hemp (KN), coconut shell (H), and bamboo (B) were coded according to their content levels—for example, a sample containing 5 wt.% corn husk was labeled as M5. The reference sample, which did not contain any organic waste material, was labeled as R. The contents of the composites are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Functional composition of brake pad samples with varying organic additives Sample Binder Reinforcement Solid lubricant Abrasive Friction modifiers Organic Additive Filler R 20 10 5 10 20 0 35 M5 20 10 5 10 20 5 30 M10 20 10 5 10 20 10 25 M15 20 10 5 10 20 15 20 KT5 20 10 5 10 20 5 30 KT10 20 10 5 10 20 10 25 KT15 20 10 5 10 20 15 20 KN5 20 10 5 10 20 5 30 KN10 20 10 5 10 20 10 25 KN15 20 10 5 10 20 15 20 H5 20 10 5 10 20 5 30 H10 20 10 5 10 20 10 25 H15 20 10 5 10 20 15 20 B5 20 10 5 10 20 5 30 B10 20 10 5 10 20 10 25 B15 20 10 5 10 20 15 20 Brake pad composites were produced using a powder metallurgy process, starting with the careful selection of raw materials. The materials included five types of organic waste additives—corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder—along with traditional components such as phenolic resin, steel wool, graphite, alumina, cashew nut shell powder, brass chips, and barite. These components were chosen based on their specific functions, such as enhancing friction, improving mechanical properties, and promoting lubrication. The organic waste materials were used at varying percentages (5%, 10%, and 15%), depending on the desired properties of the final brake pad. The raw materials were thoroughly mixed to ensure a homogenous distribution of all components. This step is crucial for ensuring that the properties of the final product are consistent throughout. Once mixed, the material was pre-shaped into an initial form using a hydraulic press. This stage was important for compacting the material and achieving a stable form before the hot-pressing process. Next, the pre-shaped brake pad samples underwent hot pressing at a temperature of 150°C and a pressure of 13 MPa. The hot-pressing process is critical for fusing the materials together, ensuring that the brake pads have the necessary density and strength to perform effectively under braking conditions. The heat and pressure also help in achieving the desired structural integrity and uniformity across all samples. Once the hot pressing was complete, the brake pads were allowed to cool to room temperature, which facilitated the hardening of the material. The samples were then carefully demolded from the press molds, and any excess material or imperfections were removed. The brake pads were subjected to post-processing, including surface polishing, to achieve the required finish. The surface finish is particularly important as it affects the brake pad’s interaction with the brake disc during operation, influencing both performance and wear rates. This comprehensive production process, which combines organic waste materials with traditional friction components, resulted in brake pad composites that were both functional and potentially more sustainable. The finished brake pad samples were then prepared for further testing to evaluate their tribological properties and overall performance under typical braking conditions. The custom-designed brake testing device was employed to assess the tribological properties of the composites. The composites were subjected to frictional testing for a duration of 10 minutes, during which the coefficient of friction was recorded on a per-second basis, alongside the monitoring of the disc-composite contact temperature. The hardness of the composites was measured using the Rockwell HRL scale, with a preload of 10 kgf and a total load of 60 kgf. Measurements were taken from three different surfaces of each composite, and the average value was calculated for each sample. The density of the composites was calculated using the Archimedes principle. After the friction tests, the worn surfaces of the composites were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to examine the wear patterns and surface morphology. 3. Results and Discussion The coefficient of friction (COF) is a fundamental tribological parameter that indicates the resistance to sliding between two contact surfaces. In composite materials, especially those used in braking applications, maintaining a stable and adequate coefficient of friction is essential for safety, performance, and durability [ 14 – 20 ]. In organic waste-reinforced composites, the COF is influenced by both the thermal behavior and the tribological interaction between the matrix and the natural reinforcement. Organic fillers generally contribute to the formation of stable friction films during sliding, which can enhance the consistency of the COF. However, due to their lower thermal conductivity and tendency to degrade at elevated temperatures, maintaining a stable COF under severe braking conditions can be challenging. To address this, such organic materials are often combined with ceramic reinforcements or metallic oxides to improve thermal resistance and wear stability. An ideal friction material exhibits a moderate and thermally stable coefficient of friction with minimal fading during prolonged or high-temperature use [ 21 – 30 ]. During the 10-minute friction test, the coefficient of friction and temperature data were recorded every second. For ease of comparison, each waste group was presented in the same graph along with the reference sample. Figure 1 shows the COF values recorded during the friction testing of the composites. The x-axis of a coefficient of friction (COF) graph represents time. The y-axis represents the coefficient of friction (µ), indicating the frictional resistance between two surfaces. The graph typically goes through several general phases. In the initial phase, the coefficient of friction may be low because the material surface has not fully adapted or optimized its contact. In brake pads, this corresponds to the initial contact and surface adaptation phase, where the graph may show a gradual increase in friction as the surfaces interact. The steady-state phase follows, during which the coefficient of friction stabilizes as the material surfaces fully adapt, maintaining a consistent interaction. For brake pads, this steady-state usually results in a friction coefficient ranging between 0.35 and 0.45, and the graph shows a flat or stable section where friction remains constant during regular use. The fade and recovery phase occurs with prolonged usage or increased temperatures, causing a decrease in the friction coefficient due to the fade effect, where the material loses its ability to maintain high friction at elevated temperatures. On the graph, this is visible as a drop in the friction coefficient, indicating that the material has overheated or experienced wear. The recovery phase happens when the friction coefficient begins to rise again after the temperature decreases or the material cools. Lastly, in cases of excessive friction or load, a sharp increase in the coefficient of friction can be observed. The graph shows a sudden spike in friction, suggesting that the material is undergoing excessive wear or harsh operating conditions. Upon examination of the graphs, it was observed that the composites containing corn husk exhibited lower friction coefficient values compared to the reference sample without organic waste. A similar trend was partially observed in the composites containing hemp fibers. The composites with corn husk showed more pronounced fluctuations in friction behavior, which is considered undesirable in brake pad applications as it leads to inconsistent braking performance. In the composite containing 5% flax, distinct peaks were observed during friction, which are indicative of brake fade. Brake fade refers to a temporary reduction in braking efficiency under high temperature or prolonged braking conditions. A similar behavior was also observed in the samples labeled H15 and KN15. In terms of braking performance, it is essential to evaluate the average coefficient of friction, temperature response, and frictional stability together. The temperature generated during friction plays a critical role in evaluating the thermal resistance and tribological performance of composite brake materials. Excessive heat can compromise the structural integrity of the composite by inducing thermal degradation, particularly at the matrix–filler interface, which may lead to a decline in the coefficient of friction. This is especially evident in composites containing organic fillers, where high temperatures can trigger thermal decomposition, resulting in brake fade — a temporary loss of braking efficiency. Conversely, lower frictional temperatures are indicative of good thermal stability and may reflect higher wear resistance. Sudden spikes in temperature during braking can disrupt frictional stability, leading to inconsistent performance and potential safety concerns. Additionally, the accumulation of heat may create thermal mismatches within the composite structure, causing internal stresses and the formation of microcracks, which further deteriorate the material's durability. Figure 2 shows the temperature generated during the friction process. The specific wear rate (SWR) is a critical parameter in evaluating the wear resistance of brake pad materials under frictional loading. A lower SWR indicates superior wear performance, as it reflects a reduced volumetric material loss per unit load and sliding distance. In the context of braking systems, a low specific wear rate is essential to ensure consistent braking efficiency, extended component lifespan, and minimized generation of wear debris. Figure 3 presents the specific wear rates of all the composite samples investigated in this study. It can be observed that the specific wear rates vary depending on the type and content of the reinforcement materials. The composite samples reinforced with corn husk exhibited relatively high specific wear rates compared to those containing other fillers. This indicates that the wear resistance of corn husk-based composites is lower under identical test conditions. The increased wear rate may be attributed to the lower interfacial bonding strength between the corn husk fibers and the polymer matrix, as well as the lower hardness and thermal stability of the organic filler. These characteristics likely contribute to the accelerated material loss during sliding, reducing the composite's overall tribological performance. The hardness and density of composite materials are key physical properties that directly influence their mechanical performance and wear behavior. Hardness reflects the material's resistance to localized plastic deformation and is often correlated with improved wear resistance. Higher hardness values typically indicate a more robust microstructure, which can better withstand frictional forces during service. Density, on the other hand, provides insight into the material’s mass per unit volume and is affected by the type and amount of fillers or reinforcements used. Variations in density can influence the composite’s overall weight, which is particularly important in automotive applications where weight reduction is desired without compromising mechanical integrity. Figure 4 presents the hardness and density values of the composites studied. The mean coefficient of friction and frictional stability of the composites are presented in Fig. 5 . The mean coefficient of friction and frictional stability of the composites are critical parameters for evaluating their tribological performance. The mean coefficient of friction provides a measure of the resistance to sliding between the composite surface and the counterface, while frictional stability reflects the consistency of this resistance over time and under varying operating conditions. The frictional stability of the composites was quantified by calculating the standard deviation of the coefficient of friction values measured during the sliding tests. A lower standard deviation indicates more stable frictional behavior. Additionally, a stability index, defined as the ratio of the average coefficient of friction to its standard deviation, was used to compare the samples. Composites exhibiting higher stability indices demonstrate more consistent frictional performance over the testing period. The composite samples reinforced with 10% coconut shell and bamboo powder demonstrated promising frictional performance in comparison to the reference sample. This improvement suggests that the incorporation of natural fillers can effectively enhance the tribological behavior of the material, making them viable alternatives for eco-friendly friction applications. The SEM micrographs in Fig. 6 revealed important details about the surface morphology and wear mechanisms of the composite samples. The worn surfaces of the composites exhibited features such as microcracks, fiber pull-out, and matrix fragmentation, which are typical indicators of abrasive and adhesive wear. The SEM analysis revealed that all samples containing corn husk, as well as those with 5% flax, hemp, bamboo, and coconut shell content, exhibited poor surface morphology. The worn surfaces showed signs of weak interfacial bonding, fiber pull-out, and increased porosity, indicating inadequate structural integrity under frictional loading. These observations suggest that a 5% filler content is insufficient to ensure effective reinforcement and stable tribological behavior for these types of natural fillers. During sliding, the formation of friction layers—commonly referred to as third-body or tribo-layers—was observed on the worn surfaces of the composites. These layers are composed of compacted wear debris, transferred material, and fragmented reinforcement particles. The presence of stable and uniform friction layers plays a critical role in reducing direct asperity contact, minimizing material removal, and stabilizing the coefficient of friction. In some samples, particularly those containing bamboo, coconut shell and flax reinforcements, a more continuous and adherent friction layer was evident, indicating enhanced surface protection and improved wear resistance. In contrast, samples with low filler content or weak filler–matrix bonding showed discontinuous or poorly developed friction layers, which correlated with higher wear rates and more unstable frictional behavior. The combined use of SEM and EDS analyses provides comprehensive insight into the surface morphology and elemental composition of the worn composite samples. SEM images reveal detailed microstructural features such as fiber pull-out, matrix cracking, and wear patterns, which are indicative of the underlying wear mechanisms. Complementarily, EDS analysis identifies the elemental constituents present on the worn surfaces, confirming the presence of organic fillers, metallic reinforcements, and ceramic additives. This correlation between the morphological observations from SEM and the elemental data from EDS allows for a deeper understanding of how the composite composition influences wear behavior and friction layer formation. Together, these techniques validate the structural integrity and tribological performance of the composites by linking surface damage characteristics with material composition. Figure 7 shows the EDS analysis of the composites, indicating that oxygen (O), iron (Fe), carbon (C), and zirconium (Zr) are the predominant elements on the worn surfaces. The presence of these elements highlights the composite’s composition, with O and C primarily originating from the organic fillers and matrix, Fe from the metallic components or wear debris, and Zr likely from the ceramic additives, contributing to the material’s tribological performance and wear resistance. Additionally, in the composites containing coconut shell and bamboo powder, aluminum (Al) and copper (Cu) were notably detected. These elements are associated with the ceramic and metallic additives incorporated to enhance thermal stability and frictional properties, which likely contribute to the improved wear resistance observed in these samples. 4. Conclusions A total of sixteen composite brake pad samples were developed using five types of natural fillers—corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder—at varying contents (5%, 10%, and 15% by weight), and their tribological and physical properties were systematically evaluated. The incorporation of natural fillers significantly influenced the tribological behavior of the composites. Among them, 10 wt.% coconut shell and bamboo powder exhibited the most promising performance in terms of friction stability and average coefficient of friction, even surpassing the reference material. Composites containing corn husk generally demonstrated lower coefficients of friction and higher wear rates compared to other samples. This is attributed to poor filler–matrix bonding and lower thermal stability, which resulted in more severe surface damage and frictional instability. SEM analysis revealed that composites with 15 wt.% organic filler content consistently exhibited better surface morphology across all filler types, characterized by more uniform structure, denser tribo-layers, reduced porosity, and stronger interfacial adhesion. In contrast, the 5 wt.% filler composites showed weak bonding and poor morphological integrity. The hardness and density values of the composites were affected by both the type and amount of filler used. Increasing filler content generally led to reduced density, while the hardness varied depending on the compatibility and dispersion of the fillers within the matrix. The results suggest that optimal performance is achieved at moderate filler content (around 10 wt.%), balancing reinforcement effects with thermal and mechanical stability. The study highlights the potential of specific biomass waste materials, particularly coconut shell, bamboo powder hemp and flax, as sustainable and effective reinforcements in eco-friendly brake pad formulations. Declarations Author contribution Elçin Sayar: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, writing original draft, visualization, and data curation. İlker Sugözü: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, visualization, and support for data interpretation. Uğur Eşme: conceptualization, validation, visualization, and data curation. Banu Sugözü: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, supervision, writing original draft, visualization and data curation, writing—review & editing. Data Availability The data supporting this study’s findings are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions. Ethical approval: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Funding: No funding was received for conducting this study. References Bijwe J, Kumar M (2007) Development of asbestos-free organic friction composites using agro-waste: characterization and evaluation. Wear 263(7–12):1243–1248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2007.01.007 Ige OE, Inambao FL, Adewumi GA (2019) Biomass-based composites for brake pads: A review. Int J Mech Eng Technol 10(3):920–943 Ammar Z, Ibrahim H, Adly M, Sarris I, Mehanny S (2023) Influence of natural fiber content on the frictional material of brake pads: A review. J Compos Sci 7(2):72. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7020072 Ibrahim A, Ademoh NA, Momohjimoh I (2015) Development and Evaluation of Maize Husk (MH) Filled Brake Pad. J Min Mater Charact Eng 3(4):285–293 Dayo AQ, Alebiosu AA (2017) Performance Evaluation of Coconut Shell Particulate Reinforced Brake Pad. J King Saud Univ Eng Sci 33(1):45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2017.01.002 Prasad BK (2014) Dry sliding wear behaviour of cast iron–flax fiber reinforced resin composite friction materials. Tribol Int 77:180–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2014.04.017 Ramesh M, Palanikumar K, Reddy KH (2013) Mechanical property evaluation of bamboo fiber reinforced composite. Mater Des 48:429–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.11.014 Hamamcı B, Sali M (2025) Mechanical and tribological investigation of jute fiber reinforcement in organic automotive brake pads and water repellency gain in natural fiber reinforced pads. Eur Mech Sci 9(1):66–77 Manoj E, Selvakumar G, Ram Prakash S, Jacob A (2023) Characterization study on eco-friendly brake pad material using sorghum husk-derived Si₃N₄ and biochar friction modifier. Biomass Convers Biorefin 14:5735–5744. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-04917-z Budati S, Sulaiman MH, Leman Z, Mohamed Yusoff MZ, Zainudin ES (2023) Experimental investigation on the physical, mechanical, and tribological properties of non-asbestos brake friction composites with hemp fibre and rice husk reinforcements. J Tribol 40:212–225 Owoeye SS, Oladele IO (2020) Tribological and mechanical properties of brake pad produced using hemp fiber and periwinkle shell as filler. Mater Today Proc 44:2154–2159 Prasad BK (2014) Dry sliding wear behaviour of cast iron–flax fiber reinforced resin composite friction materials. Tribol Int 77:180–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2014.04.017 Sugözü İ (2015) Investigation of using rice husk dust and ulexite in automotive brake pads. Mater Test 57(10):877–882 Raj JS, Christy TV, Gnanaraj SD, Sugozu B (2020) Influence of calcium sulfate whiskers on the tribological characteristics of automotive brake friction materials. Eng Sci Technol Int J 23(2):445–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2019.07.002 Raj Jeganmohan S, Gnanaraj Solomon D, Christy TV (2018) Effect of two different rubbers as secondary binders on the friction and wear characteristics of non-asbestos organic (NAO) brake friction materials. Tribol Mater Surf Interfaces 12(2):71–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/17515831.2018.1435021 Jeganmohan S, Sugozu B (2020) Usage of powder pinus brutia cone and colemanite combination in brake friction composites as friction modifier. Mater Today Proc 27:2072–2075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.01.204 Jeganmohan S, Sugozu B, Kumar M, Selvam DR (2020) Experimental investigation on the friction and wear characteristics of palm seed powder reinforced brake pad friction composites. J Inst Eng India Ser D 101(1):61–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40033-019-00176-7 Vijay R, Lenin Singaravelu D, Jayaganthan R (2020) Tribological characterization of biofiber-reinforced brake friction composites. In: Narayanaswamy KS, Rajendran S (eds) Green Composites for Automotive Applications. Elsevier, pp 1–22 Vijay R, Chaudhary V (2021) Tribology properties of fiber-reinforced polymer composites. In: Gupta S, Chaudhary V (eds) Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Manufacturing, Properties, and Applications. CRC, pp 15–38 Vijay R, Lenin Singaravelu D (2022) Tribological behavior of natural fiber-reinforced polymeric composites. In: Jawaid M, Thariq M, Saba N (eds) Natural Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites: From Macro to Nanoscale. Elsevier, pp 345–370 Milosevic M, Valášek P, Ruggiero A (2020) Tribology of natural fibers composite materials: An overview. Lubr 8(4):42. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8040042 Vigneshkumar M, Rajasekaran C (2018) Tribological behavior of short sisal fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. J Nat Fibers 15(6):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2017.1329283 Chin CW, Yousif BF (2012) Adhesive wear and frictional performance of bamboo fibres reinforced epoxy composite. Tribol Int 47:122–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2011.10.002 Bijwe J, Kumar MJ, Fahim M (2000) Composites containing natural fillers: Tribological and thermal properties. Wear 237(1):20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1648(99)00334-4 Maurya AK, Jha AK, Tyagi R (2017) Tribological characterization of short sisal fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. Mater Res Express 4(10):105301. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aa8f2c Wu C, Li Y, Zhang Y (2021) Effect of fiber shape on the tribological performance of sisal fiber-reinforced composites. Compos Part B Eng 223:109112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.109112 Gehlen R et al (2020) Tribological performance of sisal and glass fiber hybrid composites. Wear 460–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2020.203477 Aslan S, Tufan M, Küçükömeroğlu T (2018) Evaluation of tribological properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites. J Compos Mater 52(24):3369–3380. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021998318764761 Yousif BF, Chin CW (2012) Epoxy composite based on kenaf fibers for tribological applications under wet contact conditions. Surf Rev Lett 19(6):1250050. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218625X12500504 Nordin NA et al (2013) Wear rate of natural fibre: Long kenaf composite. Proc. Eng., 68, 145–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2013.12.162 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9618636","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":635079354,"identity":"45c1ac98-1d53-4f74-aa79-ba7b4acd090a","order_by":0,"name":"İlker Sugözü","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mersin University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"İlker","middleName":"","lastName":"Sugözü","suffix":""},{"id":635079355,"identity":"44c2690d-0515-487e-8fc5-7def5cbfb4d1","order_by":1,"name":"Elçin Sayar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tarsus University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Elçin","middleName":"","lastName":"Sayar","suffix":""},{"id":635079356,"identity":"67a404d0-ca11-47ee-9beb-b213d0725273","order_by":2,"name":"Uğur Eşme","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Tarsus University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Uğur","middleName":"","lastName":"Eşme","suffix":""},{"id":635079357,"identity":"0fbf3526-c4f9-4571-bce3-b1e523dcd970","order_by":3,"name":"Banu Sugözü","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwST+QCI5AEREkRqYUtA1mKAVTmaFh4EG68Wc/azxyR/ttXKyc/I+brh4546GXMG5oO3eRj+5OPSYtmTlybN23bcmHFG7rabM54d5rFsYEu25mEwsGzA5bADOWbSjG3HEpslcrfd5jlwgMfgAI+ZNFALTpcZnH9jBnTYscQ2iZxnt/8cqANq4f+GX8uNHDMJ3raaxB6JHLbbDAeYQbaw4dViOeONsTXPuQPGEjzPzG72HDjMY3CYzdhyjoExTi3m/DmGN3+U1cnJtyc/u/HjQJ29wfHmhzfeVMjhDmUIOIzEZgY7mIAGBoY6gipGwSgYBaNgBAMArI9Q01oMfs0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Mersin University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Banu","middleName":"","lastName":"Sugözü","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-05-05 12:38:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9618636/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9618636/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108805715,"identity":"2afe7ddf-3c99-4aed-bd19-30bbd5d8fb52","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:26:42","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":744128,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraph of the coefficient of friction values measured during the friction experiment\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9618636/v1/a9e8c899edc1c9336f3c5270.jpeg"},{"id":108633807,"identity":"32e0d728-a17c-4b01-b2f6-29b84bdaa27e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-06 17:15:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":604554,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThermal response of the composite during the frictional interaction\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9618636/v1/d288b87a10a503e93108b739.jpeg"},{"id":108805463,"identity":"b00a3e83-ab6e-4cb7-9736-7fc726b6331c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:26:02","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47671,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe specific wear rate (×10\u003csup\u003e-6\u003c/sup\u003e cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e/Nm) exhibited by the composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9618636/v1/1d791e3bf9234d996df730ee.jpeg"},{"id":108633813,"identity":"b3690007-6cfa-41c1-8a61-eb88d963be62","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-06 17:15:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76188,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe hardness and density of the composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9618636/v1/2b93788eb054255c56eeff11.jpeg"},{"id":108633809,"identity":"5793a351-96bc-4dfe-9e9a-830cd576b951","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-06 17:15:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":77419,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe frictional properties of the composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9618636/v1/b8fd15ba81f4860bfc48d6c6.jpeg"},{"id":108633812,"identity":"e87908e9-1de0-4852-9277-b18377a283fb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-06 17:15:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1521430,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSEM micrographs of the composites (x500 magnification)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9618636/v1/d5a69f9b76dd09919bf1e57e.jpeg"},{"id":108805468,"identity":"642c01f2-76a4-4c10-8906-458e2b5b455c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:26:03","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":643003,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEDS analysis of composites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9618636/v1/63583b71d6d5b07a1ce31b9c.jpeg"},{"id":108809571,"identity":"a5250f9d-0f85-4bc5-98e0-74d7382fb885","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-08 15:53:55","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3970538,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9618636/v1/c36052ac-c1c6-4194-bd96-4b3fffb114e9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Investigation of the Usability of Agricultural and Biomass Wastes in Brake Pad Composites","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBrake pads are essential components of braking systems, directly influencing the vehicle's braking efficiency, reliability, and safety. These components are typically composed of composite friction materials that must exhibit a balance of mechanical strength, thermal stability, and consistent tribological behavior under varying operating conditions. To meet such requirements, brake pad formulations usually include a wide range of constituents such as binders, friction modifiers, fillers, abrasives, and reinforcements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn recent years, growing environmental concerns and the increasing demand for sustainable and cost-effective materials have encouraged researchers to explore alternative raw materials in brake pad production. Conventional fillers and reinforcements, some of which may be hazardous or non-renewable\u0026mdash;are being progressively replaced by natural, biodegradable, and renewable alternatives [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Among these, agricultural and biomass wastes have gained particular attention due to their abundance, low cost, biodegradability, and relatively low environmental impact.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural residues such as corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder contain lignocellulosic structures that can offer beneficial properties when used as reinforcement materials in composite structures [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5 CR6 CR7 CR8 CR9 CR10 CR11 CR12\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Their integration into brake pad composites may not only reduce material costs and environmental footprint but also improve or maintain key frictional and wear performance parameters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to investigate the usability of selected agricultural and biomass waste materials as reinforcement additives in composite brake pads. A total of sixteen brake pad formulations were developed using five types of bio-based fillers (corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder) at three different weight percentages (5%, 10%, and 15%). The brake pads were produced using the powder metallurgy method. The effects of filler type and content on the tribological performance and physical properties of the composites were evaluated through friction and wear testing, microstructural analysis, and physical property measurements.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, a total of 16 different brake pad samples were produced using five types of organic waste materials: corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder. Each of these materials was added to the composite formulation in three different weight ratios (5 wt.%, 10 wt.%, and 15 wt.%), along with a reference sample without any organic additive.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe brake pad composites were formulated using various materials, each serving a specific purpose to enhance performance. Phenolic resin acted as the binder, providing structural integrity and thermal stability. Steel wool was used as a reinforcement fiber to improve the mechanical strength of the pad, while cashew nut shell powder served as a friction modifier to maintain consistent friction and reduce surface glazing. Alumina, an abrasive material, was included to enhance wear resistance, and graphite acted as a solid lubricant to reduce friction and prevent overheating. Copper and brass chips were used as additional friction modifiers to regulate heat dissipation and improve thermal stability. Lastly, barite was used as a filler to improve density, vibration damping, and thermal management of the brake pads.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe samples were labeled based on the type and weight percentage of the organic waste material used. Corn husk (M), flax (KT), hemp (KN), coconut shell (H), and bamboo (B) were coded according to their content levels\u0026mdash;for example, a sample containing 5 wt.% corn husk was labeled as M5. The reference sample, which did not contain any organic waste material, was labeled as R. The contents of the composites are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFunctional composition of brake pad samples with varying organic additives\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBinder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReinforcement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolid lubricant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbrasive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFriction modifiers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic Additive\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFiller\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKT5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKT10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKT15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKN5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKN10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKN15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrake pad composites were produced using a powder metallurgy process, starting with the careful selection of raw materials. The materials included five types of organic waste additives\u0026mdash;corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder\u0026mdash;along with traditional components such as phenolic resin, steel wool, graphite, alumina, cashew nut shell powder, brass chips, and barite. These components were chosen based on their specific functions, such as enhancing friction, improving mechanical properties, and promoting lubrication. The organic waste materials were used at varying percentages (5%, 10%, and 15%), depending on the desired properties of the final brake pad.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe raw materials were thoroughly mixed to ensure a homogenous distribution of all components. This step is crucial for ensuring that the properties of the final product are consistent throughout. Once mixed, the material was pre-shaped into an initial form using a hydraulic press. This stage was important for compacting the material and achieving a stable form before the hot-pressing process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNext, the pre-shaped brake pad samples underwent hot pressing at a temperature of 150\u0026deg;C and a pressure of 13 MPa. The hot-pressing process is critical for fusing the materials together, ensuring that the brake pads have the necessary density and strength to perform effectively under braking conditions. The heat and pressure also help in achieving the desired structural integrity and uniformity across all samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce the hot pressing was complete, the brake pads were allowed to cool to room temperature, which facilitated the hardening of the material. The samples were then carefully demolded from the press molds, and any excess material or imperfections were removed. The brake pads were subjected to post-processing, including surface polishing, to achieve the required finish. The surface finish is particularly important as it affects the brake pad\u0026rsquo;s interaction with the brake disc during operation, influencing both performance and wear rates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis comprehensive production process, which combines organic waste materials with traditional friction components, resulted in brake pad composites that were both functional and potentially more sustainable. The finished brake pad samples were then prepared for further testing to evaluate their tribological properties and overall performance under typical braking conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe custom-designed brake testing device was employed to assess the tribological properties of the composites. The composites were subjected to frictional testing for a duration of 10 minutes, during which the coefficient of friction was recorded on a per-second basis, alongside the monitoring of the disc-composite contact temperature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe hardness of the composites was measured using the Rockwell HRL scale, with a preload of 10 kgf and a total load of 60 kgf. Measurements were taken from three different surfaces of each composite, and the average value was calculated for each sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe density of the composites was calculated using the Archimedes principle.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter the friction tests, the worn surfaces of the composites were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to examine the wear patterns and surface morphology.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe coefficient of friction (COF) is a fundamental tribological parameter that indicates the resistance to sliding between two contact surfaces. In composite materials, especially those used in braking applications, maintaining a stable and adequate coefficient of friction is essential for safety, performance, and durability [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18 CR19\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn organic waste-reinforced composites, the COF is influenced by both the thermal behavior and the tribological interaction between the matrix and the natural reinforcement. Organic fillers generally contribute to the formation of stable friction films during sliding, which can enhance the consistency of the COF. However, due to their lower thermal conductivity and tendency to degrade at elevated temperatures, maintaining a stable COF under severe braking conditions can be challenging. To address this, such organic materials are often combined with ceramic reinforcements or metallic oxides to improve thermal resistance and wear stability. An ideal friction material exhibits a moderate and thermally stable coefficient of friction with minimal fading during prolonged or high-temperature use [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22 CR23 CR24 CR25 CR26 CR27 CR28 CR29\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the 10-minute friction test, the coefficient of friction and temperature data were recorded every second. For ease of comparison, each waste group was presented in the same graph along with the reference sample. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the COF values recorded during the friction testing of the composites. The x-axis of a coefficient of friction (COF) graph represents time. The y-axis represents the coefficient of friction (\u0026micro;), indicating the frictional resistance between two surfaces.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe graph typically goes through several general phases. In the initial phase, the coefficient of friction may be low because the material surface has not fully adapted or optimized its contact. In brake pads, this corresponds to the initial contact and surface adaptation phase, where the graph may show a gradual increase in friction as the surfaces interact. The steady-state phase follows, during which the coefficient of friction stabilizes as the material surfaces fully adapt, maintaining a consistent interaction. For brake pads, this steady-state usually results in a friction coefficient ranging between 0.35 and 0.45, and the graph shows a flat or stable section where friction remains constant during regular use. The fade and recovery phase occurs with prolonged usage or increased temperatures, causing a decrease in the friction coefficient due to the fade effect, where the material loses its ability to maintain high friction at elevated temperatures. On the graph, this is visible as a drop in the friction coefficient, indicating that the material has overheated or experienced wear. The recovery phase happens when the friction coefficient begins to rise again after the temperature decreases or the material cools. Lastly, in cases of excessive friction or load, a sharp increase in the coefficient of friction can be observed. The graph shows a sudden spike in friction, suggesting that the material is undergoing excessive wear or harsh operating conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpon examination of the graphs, it was observed that the composites containing corn husk exhibited lower friction coefficient values compared to the reference sample without organic waste. A similar trend was partially observed in the composites containing hemp fibers. The composites with corn husk showed more pronounced fluctuations in friction behavior, which is considered undesirable in brake pad applications as it leads to inconsistent braking performance. In the composite containing 5% flax, distinct peaks were observed during friction, which are indicative of brake fade. Brake fade refers to a temporary reduction in braking efficiency under high temperature or prolonged braking conditions. A similar behavior was also observed in the samples labeled H15 and KN15. In terms of braking performance, it is essential to evaluate the average coefficient of friction, temperature response, and frictional stability together.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe temperature generated during friction plays a critical role in evaluating the thermal resistance and tribological performance of composite brake materials. Excessive heat can compromise the structural integrity of the composite by inducing thermal degradation, particularly at the matrix\u0026ndash;filler interface, which may lead to a decline in the coefficient of friction. This is especially evident in composites containing organic fillers, where high temperatures can trigger thermal decomposition, resulting in brake fade \u0026mdash; a temporary loss of braking efficiency. Conversely, lower frictional temperatures are indicative of good thermal stability and may reflect higher wear resistance. Sudden spikes in temperature during braking can disrupt frictional stability, leading to inconsistent performance and potential safety concerns. Additionally, the accumulation of heat may create thermal mismatches within the composite structure, causing internal stresses and the formation of microcracks, which further deteriorate the material's durability. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the temperature generated during the friction process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe specific wear rate (SWR) is a critical parameter in evaluating the wear resistance of brake pad materials under frictional loading. A lower SWR indicates superior wear performance, as it reflects a reduced volumetric material loss per unit load and sliding distance. In the context of braking systems, a low specific wear rate is essential to ensure consistent braking efficiency, extended component lifespan, and minimized generation of wear debris. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the specific wear rates of all the composite samples investigated in this study. It can be observed that the specific wear rates vary depending on the type and content of the reinforcement materials. The composite samples reinforced with corn husk exhibited relatively high specific wear rates compared to those containing other fillers. This indicates that the wear resistance of corn husk-based composites is lower under identical test conditions. The increased wear rate may be attributed to the lower interfacial bonding strength between the corn husk fibers and the polymer matrix, as well as the lower hardness and thermal stability of the organic filler. These characteristics likely contribute to the accelerated material loss during sliding, reducing the composite's overall tribological performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe hardness and density of composite materials are key physical properties that directly influence their mechanical performance and wear behavior. Hardness reflects the material's resistance to localized plastic deformation and is often correlated with improved wear resistance. Higher hardness values typically indicate a more robust microstructure, which can better withstand frictional forces during service. Density, on the other hand, provides insight into the material\u0026rsquo;s mass per unit volume and is affected by the type and amount of fillers or reinforcements used. Variations in density can influence the composite\u0026rsquo;s overall weight, which is particularly important in automotive applications where weight reduction is desired without compromising mechanical integrity. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents the hardness and density values of the composites studied.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean coefficient of friction and frictional stability of the composites are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The mean coefficient of friction and frictional stability of the composites are critical parameters for evaluating their tribological performance. The mean coefficient of friction provides a measure of the resistance to sliding between the composite surface and the counterface, while frictional stability reflects the consistency of this resistance over time and under varying operating conditions. The frictional stability of the composites was quantified by calculating the standard deviation of the coefficient of friction values measured during the sliding tests. A lower standard deviation indicates more stable frictional behavior. Additionally, a stability index, defined as the ratio of the average coefficient of friction to its standard deviation, was used to compare the samples. Composites exhibiting higher stability indices demonstrate more consistent frictional performance over the testing period. The composite samples reinforced with 10% coconut shell and bamboo powder demonstrated promising frictional performance in comparison to the reference sample. This improvement suggests that the incorporation of natural fillers can effectively enhance the tribological behavior of the material, making them viable alternatives for eco-friendly friction applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SEM micrographs in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e revealed important details about the surface morphology and wear mechanisms of the composite samples. The worn surfaces of the composites exhibited features such as microcracks, fiber pull-out, and matrix fragmentation, which are typical indicators of abrasive and adhesive wear. The SEM analysis revealed that all samples containing corn husk, as well as those with 5% flax, hemp, bamboo, and coconut shell content, exhibited poor surface morphology. The worn surfaces showed signs of weak interfacial bonding, fiber pull-out, and increased porosity, indicating inadequate structural integrity under frictional loading. These observations suggest that a 5% filler content is insufficient to ensure effective reinforcement and stable tribological behavior for these types of natural fillers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring sliding, the formation of friction layers\u0026mdash;commonly referred to as third-body or tribo-layers\u0026mdash;was observed on the worn surfaces of the composites. These layers are composed of compacted wear debris, transferred material, and fragmented reinforcement particles. The presence of stable and uniform friction layers plays a critical role in reducing direct asperity contact, minimizing material removal, and stabilizing the coefficient of friction. In some samples, particularly those containing bamboo, coconut shell and flax reinforcements, a more continuous and adherent friction layer was evident, indicating enhanced surface protection and improved wear resistance. In contrast, samples with low filler content or weak filler\u0026ndash;matrix bonding showed discontinuous or poorly developed friction layers, which correlated with higher wear rates and more unstable frictional behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe combined use of SEM and EDS analyses provides comprehensive insight into the surface morphology and elemental composition of the worn composite samples. SEM images reveal detailed microstructural features such as fiber pull-out, matrix cracking, and wear patterns, which are indicative of the underlying wear mechanisms. Complementarily, EDS analysis identifies the elemental constituents present on the worn surfaces, confirming the presence of organic fillers, metallic reinforcements, and ceramic additives. This correlation between the morphological observations from SEM and the elemental data from EDS allows for a deeper understanding of how the composite composition influences wear behavior and friction layer formation. Together, these techniques validate the structural integrity and tribological performance of the composites by linking surface damage characteristics with material composition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e shows the EDS analysis of the composites, indicating that oxygen (O), iron (Fe), carbon (C), and zirconium (Zr) are the predominant elements on the worn surfaces. The presence of these elements highlights the composite\u0026rsquo;s composition, with O and C primarily originating from the organic fillers and matrix, Fe from the metallic components or wear debris, and Zr likely from the ceramic additives, contributing to the material\u0026rsquo;s tribological performance and wear resistance. Additionally, in the composites containing coconut shell and bamboo powder, aluminum (Al) and copper (Cu) were notably detected. These elements are associated with the ceramic and metallic additives incorporated to enhance thermal stability and frictional properties, which likely contribute to the improved wear resistance observed in these samples.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of sixteen composite brake pad samples were developed using five types of natural fillers\u0026mdash;corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder\u0026mdash;at varying contents (5%, 10%, and 15% by weight), and their tribological and physical properties were systematically evaluated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe incorporation of natural fillers significantly influenced the tribological behavior of the composites. Among them, 10 wt.% coconut shell and bamboo powder exhibited the most promising performance in terms of friction stability and average coefficient of friction, even surpassing the reference material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposites containing corn husk generally demonstrated lower coefficients of friction and higher wear rates compared to other samples. This is attributed to poor filler\u0026ndash;matrix bonding and lower thermal stability, which resulted in more severe surface damage and frictional instability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM analysis revealed that composites with 15 wt.% organic filler content consistently exhibited better surface morphology across all filler types, characterized by more uniform structure, denser tribo-layers, reduced porosity, and stronger interfacial adhesion. In contrast, the 5 wt.% filler composites showed weak bonding and poor morphological integrity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe hardness and density values of the composites were affected by both the type and amount of filler used. Increasing filler content generally led to reduced density, while the hardness varied depending on the compatibility and dispersion of the fillers within the matrix.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results suggest that optimal performance is achieved at moderate filler content (around 10 wt.%), balancing reinforcement effects with thermal and mechanical stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study highlights the potential of specific biomass waste materials, particularly coconut shell, bamboo powder hemp and flax, as sustainable and effective reinforcements in eco-friendly brake pad formulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contribution\u003c/strong\u003e El\u0026ccedil;in Sayar: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, writing original draft, visualization, and data curation. İlker Sug\u0026ouml;z\u0026uuml;: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, visualization, and support for data interpretation. Uğur Eşme: conceptualization, validation, visualization, and data curation. Banu Sug\u0026ouml;z\u0026uuml;: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, supervision, writing original draft, visualization and data curation, writing\u0026mdash;review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e The data supporting this study\u0026rsquo;s findings are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e No funding was received for conducting this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBijwe J, Kumar M (2007) Development of asbestos-free organic friction composites using agro-waste: characterization and evaluation. Wear 263(7\u0026ndash;12):1243\u0026ndash;1248. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2007.01.007\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.wear.2007.01.007\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIge OE, Inambao FL, Adewumi GA (2019) Biomass-based composites for brake pads: A review. Int J Mech Eng Technol 10(3):920\u0026ndash;943\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmmar Z, Ibrahim H, Adly M, Sarris I, Mehanny S (2023) Influence of natural fiber content on the frictional material of brake pads: A review. J Compos Sci 7(2):72. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7020072\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/jcs7020072\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIbrahim A, Ademoh NA, Momohjimoh I (2015) Development and Evaluation of Maize Husk (MH) Filled Brake Pad. J Min Mater Charact Eng 3(4):285\u0026ndash;293\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDayo AQ, Alebiosu AA (2017) Performance Evaluation of Coconut Shell Particulate Reinforced Brake Pad. J King Saud Univ Eng Sci 33(1):45\u0026ndash;53. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2017.01.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jksues.2017.01.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePrasad BK (2014) Dry sliding wear behaviour of cast iron\u0026ndash;flax fiber reinforced resin composite friction materials. Tribol Int 77:180\u0026ndash;192. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2014.04.017\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.triboint.2014.04.017\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRamesh M, Palanikumar K, Reddy KH (2013) Mechanical property evaluation of bamboo fiber reinforced composite. Mater Des 48:429\u0026ndash;432. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.11.014\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.matdes.2012.11.014\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHamamcı B, Sali M (2025) Mechanical and tribological investigation of jute fiber reinforcement in organic automotive brake pads and water repellency gain in natural fiber reinforced pads. Eur Mech Sci 9(1):66\u0026ndash;77\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eManoj E, Selvakumar G, Ram Prakash S, Jacob A (2023) Characterization study on eco-friendly brake pad material using sorghum husk-derived Si₃N₄ and biochar friction modifier. Biomass Convers Biorefin 14:5735\u0026ndash;5744. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-04917-z\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s13399-023-04917-z\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBudati S, Sulaiman MH, Leman Z, Mohamed Yusoff MZ, Zainudin ES (2023) Experimental investigation on the physical, mechanical, and tribological properties of non-asbestos brake friction composites with hemp fibre and rice husk reinforcements. J Tribol 40:212\u0026ndash;225\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOwoeye SS, Oladele IO (2020) Tribological and mechanical properties of brake pad produced using hemp fiber and periwinkle shell as filler. Mater Today Proc 44:2154\u0026ndash;2159\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePrasad BK (2014) Dry sliding wear behaviour of cast iron\u0026ndash;flax fiber reinforced resin composite friction materials. Tribol Int 77:180\u0026ndash;192. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2014.04.017\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.triboint.2014.04.017\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSug\u0026ouml;z\u0026uuml; İ (2015) Investigation of using rice husk dust and ulexite in automotive brake pads. Mater Test 57(10):877\u0026ndash;882\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRaj JS, Christy TV, Gnanaraj SD, Sugozu B (2020) Influence of calcium sulfate whiskers on the tribological characteristics of automotive brake friction materials. Eng Sci Technol Int J 23(2):445\u0026ndash;451. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2019.07.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jestch.2019.07.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRaj Jeganmohan S, Gnanaraj Solomon D, Christy TV (2018) Effect of two different rubbers as secondary binders on the friction and wear characteristics of non-asbestos organic (NAO) brake friction materials. Tribol Mater Surf Interfaces 12(2):71\u0026ndash;84. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/17515831.2018.1435021\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/17515831.2018.1435021\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJeganmohan S, Sugozu B (2020) Usage of powder pinus brutia cone and colemanite combination in brake friction composites as friction modifier. Mater Today Proc 27:2072\u0026ndash;2075. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.01.204\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.matpr.2020.01.204\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJeganmohan S, Sugozu B, Kumar M, Selvam DR (2020) Experimental investigation on the friction and wear characteristics of palm seed powder reinforced brake pad friction composites. J Inst Eng India Ser D 101(1):61\u0026ndash;69. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s40033-019-00176-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s40033-019-00176-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVijay R, Lenin Singaravelu D, Jayaganthan R (2020) Tribological characterization of biofiber-reinforced brake friction composites. In: Narayanaswamy KS, Rajendran S (eds) Green Composites for Automotive Applications. Elsevier, pp 1\u0026ndash;22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVijay R, Chaudhary V (2021) Tribology properties of fiber-reinforced polymer composites. In: Gupta S, Chaudhary V (eds) Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Manufacturing, Properties, and Applications. CRC, pp 15\u0026ndash;38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVijay R, Lenin Singaravelu D (2022) Tribological behavior of natural fiber-reinforced polymeric composites. In: Jawaid M, Thariq M, Saba N (eds) Natural Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites: From Macro to Nanoscale. Elsevier, pp 345\u0026ndash;370\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMilosevic M, Val\u0026aacute;šek P, Ruggiero A (2020) Tribology of natural fibers composite materials: An overview. Lubr 8(4):42. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants8040042\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/lubricants8040042\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVigneshkumar M, Rajasekaran C (2018) Tribological behavior of short sisal fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. J Nat Fibers 15(6):1\u0026ndash;10. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2017.1329283\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/15440478.2017.1329283\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChin CW, Yousif BF (2012) Adhesive wear and frictional performance of bamboo fibres reinforced epoxy composite. Tribol Int 47:122\u0026ndash;133. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2011.10.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.triboint.2011.10.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBijwe J, Kumar MJ, Fahim M (2000) Composites containing natural fillers: Tribological and thermal properties. Wear 237(1):20\u0026ndash;27. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1648(99)00334-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/S0043-1648(99)00334-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMaurya AK, Jha AK, Tyagi R (2017) Tribological characterization of short sisal fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. Mater Res Express 4(10):105301. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aa8f2c\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1088/2053-1591/aa8f2c\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWu C, Li Y, Zhang Y (2021) Effect of fiber shape on the tribological performance of sisal fiber-reinforced composites. Compos Part B Eng 223:109112. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.109112\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.compositesb.2021.109112\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGehlen R et al (2020) Tribological performance of sisal and glass fiber hybrid composites. Wear 460\u0026ndash;461. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2020.203477\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.wear.2020.203477\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAslan S, Tufan M, K\u0026uuml;\u0026ccedil;\u0026uuml;k\u0026ouml;meroğlu T (2018) Evaluation of tribological properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites. J Compos Mater 52(24):3369\u0026ndash;3380. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0021998318764761\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0021998318764761\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYousif BF, Chin CW (2012) Epoxy composite based on kenaf fibers for tribological applications under wet contact conditions. Surf Rev Lett 19(6):1250050. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1142/S0218625X12500504\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1142/S0218625X12500504\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNordin NA et al (2013) Wear rate of natural fibre: Long kenaf composite. Proc. Eng., 68, 145\u0026ndash;151. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2013.12.162\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.proeng.2013.12.162\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Biomass waste, Agricultural fibers, Brake pad, Friction, Wear","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9618636/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9618636/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBrake pads are critical friction components in automotive braking systems. Recently, the focus has shifted toward sustainable, non-toxic, and cost-effective alternatives to conventional brake pad materials. Agricultural and biomass waste fillers offer promising reinforcement potential due to their abundance, biodegradability, and low cost.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study explores the tribological and physical performance of brake pads reinforced with five natural fillers: corn husk, flax, hemp, coconut shell, and bamboo powder. Each was incorporated at 5, 10, and 15 wt.% using the powder metallurgy method. Tribological tests were performed against a gray cast iron disc to evaluate specific wear rate and coefficient of friction. Physical properties such as hardness, density were also assessed. SEM and EDS analyses were conducted to examine the worn surfaces and elemental composition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults showed that filler type and content significantly influenced composite performance. Composites with 10 wt.% coconut shell and bamboo powder exhibited the most stable friction behavior and highest average coefficient of friction, outperforming the reference. SEM images revealed that samples with 15 wt.% filler had better surface morphology, denser tribo-layers, and stronger matrix\u0026ndash;filler bonding. However, 10 wt.% was optimal for balancing mechanical integrity and tribological performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates the potential of coconut shell, bamboo powder, flax, and hemp as sustainable reinforcements in eco-friendly brake pad composites, offering a viable pathway toward greener automotive materials.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Investigation of the Usability of Agricultural and Biomass Wastes in Brake Pad Composites","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-06 17:15:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9618636/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c170acc9-56f8-4038-be6e-9998cdacf2b0","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 6th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-05-06T22:57:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-05-06T22:57:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery","date":"2026-05-05T12:21:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-06T17:15:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-06 17:15:14","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9618636","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9618636","identity":"rs-9618636","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}