Interfacial metamaterials for icing mitigation

Interfacial metamaterials for icing mitigation | Authorea try { document.documentElement.classList.add('js'); } catch (e) { } var _gaq = _gaq || []; _gaq.push(['_setAccount', 'G-8VDV14Y67G']); _gaq.push(['_trackPageview']); (function() { var ga = document.createElement('script'); ga.type = 'text/javascript'; ga.async = true; ga.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ? 'https://ssl' : 'http://www') + '.google-analytics.com/ga.js'; var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(ga, s); })(); Skip to main content Preprints Collections Wiley Open Research IET Open Research Ecological Society of Japan All Collections About About Authorea FAQs Contact Us Quick Search anywhere Search for preprint articles, keywords, etc. Search Search ADVANCED SEARCH SCROLL This is a preprint and has not been peer reviewed. Data may be preliminary. 23 September 2025 V1 Latest version Share on Interfacial metamaterials for icing mitigation Authors : Feng Wang 0009-0005-5229-3620 [email protected] , Xiao Senbo li , Xinshu Zou 0000-0001-7712-7403 , He Jianying li , Zhang Zhiliang li , and Bo Li Authors Info & Affiliations https://doi.org/10.22541/au.175864535.51612011/v1 191 views 128 downloads Contents Abstract Information & Authors Metrics & Citations View Options References Figures Tables Media Share Abstract Ice formation and accumulation pose significant challenges across numerous fields, highlighting the necessity for innovative mitigation solutions. Metamaterials---engineered materials that transcend natural limitations---have emerged as a compelling alternative for combating icing by precisely manipulating interfacial interactions at the ice-substrate boundary. This review provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of interfacial metamaterials designed for icing mitigation, focusing on their chemical, physical, thermal, and mechanical interactions with water and ice. These specialized metamaterials, which regulate surface-matter interactions through artificial structuring, are categorized based on their structural scale into nano-, micro-, macro-, and multiscale-textured surfaces. By synthesizing the latest advancements in anti-icing and de-icing mechanisms, we pinpoint the potential of interfacial metamaterials to revolutionize future material designs for effective and sustainable icing mitigation. 1. Introduction The ice accumulation on various solid substrates, i.e., icing, poses safety and operational risks in industrial applications, including wind turbines, electrical transmission lines, aviation, and so on. [1]. For instance, ice accumulation severely degrades the aerodynamic efficiency of wind turbine blades, posing risks of mechanical failure, safety incidents, and possible operational stoppages. [2]. For decades, many efforts are paid in design surfaces that can avoid ice accretion or assist ice removal. Active deicing systems, which ask an energy input—whether thermal, chemical, mechanical or pneumatic—are traditional icing mitigation methods and have been widely applied. [3]. The newly developed passive anti-icing surfaces, aiming to repel impinging water droplets, delay ice nucleation, suppress ice propagation, and weaken ice adhesion, provide energy- and cost-saving alternatives for icing mitigation. [4]. The development of advanced materials and surface engineering introduces novel concepts for handling icing challenges and propels the advancement of effective icing mitigation strategies. [5]. Metamaterials, namely synthetic structural materials with properties beyond natural ones, have been a new domain of science and technology [6]. Unlike conventional materials, metamaterials’ physical properties depend primarily on their specific internal structures, not the inherent properties of their chemical components The man-made structure units in metamaterials act like atoms and molecules in classic materials, which provide a platform for impregnating incomparable physical/chemical properties to those found in naturally existing or chemically synthesized materials. With the fantastic capability of design material properties at will, for the field of advanced materials, metamaterials represent an entirely new and innovative route [7]. Metamaterials have attracted huge interest and got developments in many sub-contents including mechanical metamaterials, acoustic metamaterials, microwave metamaterials, thermal metamaterials, seismic metamaterials, optical metamaterials, and so on [8]. Interfacial metamaterials constitute a category of artificially engineered materials that demonstrate interfacial phenomena surpassing those found in nature, enabled by precisely designed artificial structures. The interfacial metamaterial is designed to tailor the interactions between a surface and the contacted matters. In summary, current icing mitigation strategies typically repel ice through chemical, physical, thermal, or mechanical mechanisms, implemented via either active or passive approaches. [4b, 5d, 9]. Such material properties desired in anti-icing are practically accessible by metamaterials. Thus, carefully designed interfacial metamaterials with exceptional chemical/physical/thermal/mechanical response to water/ice possess great potential for icing mitigation [10]. Icing-mitigation interfacial metamaterials can be broadly classified into nano-textured, micro-textured, macro-textured, and multiscale-textured surfaces, based on the scale of their engineered structures. By designing metamaterials with specific surface textures, it is possible to influence ice nucleation and adhesion processes. For example, surfaces with nanoscale textures can enhance light absorption and effectively increase surface temperature for delaying water freezing and reducing ice adhesion [10b], by minimizing the contact area between ice and the substrate, microscale textured surfaces are able to reduce ice adhesion, thereby making it easier to remove ice with minimal force [11], while macroscale textured surfaces enable mechanical responses at the interfaces for enhanced icephobicity [4a]. Based on a fundamental understanding of the icing process, the underlying mechanisms of structural features and their interactions with water and ice are examined in detail. Through a thorough review of recent advances in metamaterials for ice removal, this study aims to outline key design principles for future interfacial metamaterials, inspiring novel and innovative approaches in the icing mitigation industry. Figure 1. Interfacial metamaterials for icing mitigation . The icing mitigation interfacial metamaterials are divided into nano-textured surfaces, micro-textured surfaces, macro-textured surfaces and multiscale-textured surfaces depending on the size of their artificial structures. Each category can interact with water/ice to assist ice removal through tailored chemical/physical/thermal/mechanical mechanisms. 2. Nano-textured Interfacial metamaterials for icing mitigation 2.1 Nano-texture enabled plasmonic metamaterials Plasmonic metamaterials are engineered surfaces with nanostructured elements that can manipulate light at sub-wavelength scales. The idea of harvesting sunlight for ubiquitous icephobicity with metamaterials was proposed by Poulikakos et al. in 2018 [10a, 10b]. As shown in Fig. 1a, an ultrathin transparent plasmonic metasurface was fabricated through rationally nanoengineering gold particles of subwavelength size (≈ 5 nm) in a dielectric titanium dioxide matrix. The nano-textured Au particles demonstrated excellent sunlight-absorbing capability at plasmonic resonance wavelengths, and the TiO 2 dielectric matrix enabled broadband light absorption. The engineered metamaterials obtained high values of mean light absorption (83%) under illumination (\(P\approx 2.4\text{\ kW\ m}^{-2}\)) and introduced a significant temperature increase (>10 °C) in seconds comapring to ambient temperature at the solid-air interface (Fig. 2b). As a result, the freezing dynamics of an isolated supercooled water droplet under illuminating on the meta-surface showed an impressive icing delay (910 s) compared to that on the controlled surface (170 s) in Fig. 2c. By 140 seconds, the frosted ice on the metasurface was fully defrosted in the illuminated region (Fig. 2d), whereas the frost covering the control sample remained entirely unaffected by the light exposure. Therefore, nano-textured plasmonic metamaterials can achieve exceptional icephobic performance. A similar idea of using plasmonic metamaterials for photothermal anti-icing was studied by Kim et al. in 2023 [10c]. Through the drop-casting technique, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and gold nanorods (GNRs) were assembled into a plasmonic metasurface with uniform characteristics. The CNC-GNR metasurface’s plasmonic photothermal effect was assessed under white light (350–800 nm) at an irradiance of 500 ± 50 mW·cm −2 . The multi-array formatted CNC-GNR film led to an impressive temperature rise (⩾ 10 °C). At the subsequent anti-/de-icing experiments, the CNC-GNR film prevented frost from forming during the substrate’s cooling process from 25 °C to -8 °C, and could melt away existing ice in 10 minutes upon light irradiation even when the substrate was at sub-zero temperatures. Figure 2. Nano-texture enabled plasmonic metamaterials for icing mitigation . (a) Transparent metasurface with nano gold (Au) particles embedded in a dielectric (titanium dioxide) layer. (b) Temperature evolution over time for metamaterials with different mean light absorption values (\(\overline{\mathcal{A}}\)) following illumination (\(P\approx 2.4\text{\ kW\ m}^{-2}\)) and the spatial profile of temperature increase at steady state (180 s of illumination). (c) Water droplet freezing delay on the nano-textured metasurface under illumination (\(2.4\text{\ kW\ m}^{-2}\)). (d) Light-induced de-icing sequences on the nano-textured metasurface under illumination (\(2.4\text{\ kW\ m}^{-2}\)). Adapted with permission [10b]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. 2.2 Nano-texture enabled superhydrophobic metamaterials Achieving a Cassie–Baxter water droplets state on surfaces promotes water removal and minimizes contact between water or ice and the surface. [12]. Thus, engineering surface structures to maintain the Cassie state of water droplets is an efficient way to delay frost formation under cooling [13]. However, the scale effect of surface textures on frost formation is more complex under supersaturated conditions. Varanasi et al. had demonstrated excellent performance of nanotextured superhydrophobic metamaterials in maintaining “Cassie ice” and enhancing icephobicity under supersaturated conditions [14]. As shown in Fig. 3a, in a test of the frosting process on textured surfaces with different scales, the nanotextured superhydrophobic surface showed longer frost delay than a microtextured superhydrophobic surface. The underlying mechanism was explained by observation of the frost in the structures experimentally (Fig. 3b). A substantial quantity of frost was observed accumulating between the textures of both the microtextured superhydrophobic surface and the hierarchically textured superhydrophobic surface., but the nanotextured part is free of ice. More evidence is given in Fig. 3c through the cryo-FIB/SEM system to visualize the interface between the nanotextured surface and frost directly. Air pockets in the nanotextures were observed even though a large amount of frost was formed atop. The subsequent ice adhesion test on various surfaces exhibited the superior icephobicity of nanotextured surfaces (Fig. 3d). The nanotextures can avoid ice interlocking with the surfaces and achieve easier ice removal under external force. With a theoretical thermodynamic prediction, Delaying the icing of a supercooled droplet on a surface requires minimizing the contact area ( A ) and maximizing the free energy barrier ( ΔG ) for stable ice embryo formation [15]. Both the A and ΔG can be adjusted by nanotextured structures. The above-referred superhydrophobic metamaterial showed its function in delaying frost by minimizing the contact area. Tiwari et al. presented the essential role of surface roughness radius of curvature (a key parameter that impacts ΔG ) in delaying the icing process [16]. To investigate icing suppression, eleven nanotextured surfaces were employed, each featuring tailored roughness radii of curvature and wettability. Through the combined use of nucleation rate measurement and Poisson statistics, a significant freezing delay of ~ 25 hours was observed at -21 °C. This work indicated that superhydrophobic surfaces with well-controlled nanotextures dramatically alter the surface icephobicity. Figure 3. Nano-texture enabled superhydrophobic metamaterials for icing mitigation . (a) SEM images and video snapshots illustrating frost formation on both the microtextured superhydrophobic surface and the nanotextured superhydrophobic surface. (b) SEM images of cryo-fractured frosted surfaces, including the microtextured superhydrophobic surface, hierarchically textured superhydrophobic surface, and nanotextured superhydrophobic surface. (c) SEM image of the FIB cross-section capturing the interface between frost and the nanotextured surface. (d) Ice adhesion strength on different surfaces, expressed as a fraction relative to that on untreated silicon. Adapted with permission [16]. Copyright 2013, Royal Society of Chemistry. 2.3 Nano-texture enabled slippery metamaterials Ice repellency can also be achieved by minimizing contact angle hysteresis through surface lubrication, as demonstrated in slippery surface metamaterials. [13]. Generally, two nanofabrication methods were used to access slippery metamaterials, the slippery liquid-infused porous surface (SLIPS) and the molecular brush-structured surface (MBSS) [17]. In 2012, Aizenberg et al. proposed liquid-infused nanotextured surfaces, which exhibit extreme anti-frost and anti-ice performance [17a]. A nanotextured polypyrrole (PPy) coating on aluminum substrates was fabricated through electrodeposition and subsequent fluorination. After infusing the nanostructures using a low-viscosity perfluorinated lubricant, a slippery metasurface with minimized contact angle hysteresis was fabricated (Fig. 4a). In the test of frost formation on the surfaces under 60% relative humidity (RH) with cooling 2 ℃/min to -10 ℃, as shown in Fig. 4b, SLIPS-Al was free of frost while the pure Al surface was fully frost covered. Subsequently, in a de-icing process on surfaces that were fully covered by ice after deep cooling, the ice patches on SLIPS-Al slid away instantly as soon as they melted, leaving the surface free of residues (Fig. 4b). Moreover, compared to bare Al (15.6 kPa), SLIPS-Al showed a drastically reduced average ice adhesion strength of 15.6 kPa, representing a 2-order-of-magnitude decrease. Besides, Dai et al. made a MBSS metamaterial through grafting flexible polydimethylsiloxane polymer chains on a hydroxylate substrate for icing mitigation [17b]. The Si−O−Si skeleton had high flexibility through bending and/or rotation and resulted in surface lubricity (Fig. 4c). Equipped with a 30.1 nm flexible polymer layer, the MBSS demonstrates ultralow contact angle hysteresis (≤1.0°) that is unaffected by the surface tensions of various liquids. In an ice adhesion test, as presented in Fig. 4d, owing to its negligible ice adhesion, wind is capable of removing accreted ice from the surface even under harsh conditions. In summary, the slippery metamaterials are excellent candidates for icing mitigation. Figure 4. Nano-texture enabled slippery metamaterials for icing mitigation . (a) Schematics of the electrochemical coating process for nanostructured polypyrrole on aluminum sheets, coupled with morphological characterizations of both untreated aluminum and the nanotextured surface. (b) Visual comparisons of surface appearances: untreated vs. slippery aluminum during ice formation (freezing at 60% RH, high humidity) and the subsequent deicing stage induced by heating. Adapted with permission [17a]. Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society. (c) Schematics of slippery metamaterial fabrication by self-catalyzed PDMS grafting on a hydroxylated substrate. The Si-O-Si skeleton’s rotational/bending mobility yields surface lubricity. (d) Ice removing performance on the slippery metamaterials. The slippery surfaces showed low ice adhesion and enabled an easy ice detachment when the wind was applied. Adapted with permission [17b]. Copyright 2020, American Chemical Society. 3. Micro-textured Interfacial metamaterials for icing mitigation 3.1 Micro-texture enabled photothermal metamaterials Nano-textured metamaterials have shown their plasmonic effects in absorbing solar energy for photothermal anti-/de-icing. However, these nanostructured coatings are prone to degradation from wear and tear during prolonged outdoor exposure. Robust micro-textured surfaces with superior photothermal effect and water-repellency were fabricated by Yao et al (Fig. 1a) [18]. The wire cutting achieved V-grooved surfaces were proved with both anti- and de-frosting performance. Firstly, the structured surface led to preferential condensation and frosting at the apexes of grooves and generated zones that free from frost at the surface valley regions (Fig. 5a). Secondly, the V-grooved surface achieved a higher sunlight-to-heat conversion efficiency (~ 98.6%) than the flat coated surface (~ 93.4%) in the visible range, as its groove structure enables more effective sunlight trapping. Therefore, the micro-grooved surfaces not only prevented frost from covering the entire surface, but also enabled effective photothermal defrosting under sunlight illumination, resulting in robust all-day frost-phobicity. A microporous xerogel (PMX) integrating photothermal and thermal isolation properties was demonstrated by Wu et al., enabling efficient ice formation delay and de-icing under weak sunlight irradiation (Fig. 5b) [19]. The ice-templating method was employed to fabricate the PMX, multi-walled carbon nanotubes served as the matrix, and the resulting material possessed oriented microtextures. The PMX matrix contains abundant artificial macropores, which act as thermal barriers to achieve maximal limitation of heat dissipation, thus guaranteed efficient icing mitigation under low temperatures. As depicted in Fig. 5b, the PMX surface demonstrated dual anti-icing and de-icing capabilities: water on it stayed unfrozen at -30 °C under 0.25 kW/m 2 (0.25 sun) sunlight, and the ice droplet was completely thawed to water at the same temperature after 26 minutes of “0.5 sun” irradiation. Through increasing the sunlight irradiation density, the maximum temperature increase on a PMX surface reached 90 °C. To validate practical applicability, they conducted an outdoor experiment, which confirmed that PMX can effectively avoid icing under cold natural conditions. Therefore, the micro-texture enabled photothermal metamaterials are promising for icing mitigation. Figure 5. Micro-texture enabled photothermal metamaterials . (a) Schematic illustrating V-grooved surfaces applied in winter frosting/defrosting (midnight vs. daytime), and the frosting behavior comparison between flat and V-grooved surfaces (surface temperature: -10 °C; environment: 20 °C, 30% RH). Scale bar: 1 cm [18]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. (b) Schematic of the PMX preparation process and its microstructure; melting processes of ice droplets on the PMX surface (under sunlight of different intensities) are also exhibited, verifying PMX’s excellent de-icing performance. Adapted with permission [19]. Copyright 2021, American Chemical Society. 3.2 Micro-texture enabled crack initiation metamaterials According to fundamental fracture mechanics theory, ice adhesion (𝜏 c ) can be described by\(\tau_{c}=\sqrt{\frac{\text{GE}^{\ast}}{\text{πλ}\Lambda}}\), where G is the surface energy, E* is the apparent Young’s modulus, λ is the total length of the crack, and Λ is a nondimensional constant [4b, 5d, 20]. Thus, effective anti-icing surfaces with low ice adhesion strength are able to be obtained through promoting cracks at the ice–substrate interface. The first systematic demonstration of crack initiation effect through micro-textured metamaterials for anti-icing was proposed by He et al [20a]. A macroscale crack initiator (MACI) was discovered by interfacial stiffness inhomogeneity through arrange micro-pores beneath surfaces. Finite element simulations show micro-porous subsurface structures have far more crack initiation sites along the ice-substrate interface than homogeneous substrates (Fig. 6a-b). MACI enabled polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) coatings showed super-low ice adhesion strength (SLIAS) of ≈ 6 kPa (Fig. 6c). Similar materials fabricated from PDMS with micro-textured pores that can act as crack initiators were investigated by Wang et al [17a]. Apart from the crack initiation for interface stiffness inhomogeneity, they introduced a so-called liquid layer generator (LLG) that could dynamically change the ice-substrate contact to ice-liquid-substrate soft contact. The resulted superior crack initiation effects led to extremely low ice adhesion (~ 2 kPa) and simultaneous ice cube detaching from surface under gravity (Fig. 6d-h). Besides, natural materials inspired the design of crack initiation metamaterial for icing mitigation [5c]. Zhang et al. observed unique adhesive performance of onion film that acheived from onion scales under low temperature. The subsurface micropores and the surface cuticle layer, which facilitate crack formation and reduce surface energy, were identified as the primary factors. Subsequently, an onion-inspired icephobic surface was fabricated by mimicking the bio-properties of actual onion films. The onion inspired surfaces showed great crack initiation effects and robust anti-icing property in icing/de-icing cycling tests (Fig. 6i-k). Figure 6. Micro-texture enabled crack initiation metamaterials . (a-b) Schematic of the crack initiation mechanism in lowering ice adhesion strength. (c) The results showed extremely low ice adhesion (＜10 kPa) on micro-textured metamaterials. Adapted with permission [20a]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. (d-f) The micro-hole morphologies of the PDMS films fabricated for anti-icing. (g) The icing cube on a LLG surface (right) fell off automatically under a temperature of -18 ℃. (h) The super low ice adhesion (~ 2 kPa) on LLG surfaces. Adapted with permission [20a]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry. (i) The microstructures of onion film and the inspired artificial film. (j) Schematic of the crack initiation mechanism on an onion film in hydrate/ice removing. (k) Ice adhesion strength evolution on onion-inspired films in icing and de-icing cycling tests. Adapted with permission [5c]. Copyright 2022, Elsevier Publishing Group. 3.3 Micro-texture enabled ice patterning metamaterials For a long time, passively suppressing the in-plane frost growth under humid subfreezing atmosphere has been a challenge. In 2018, Boreyko et al. showed an interesting study that more than 90% of a surface acheived passive anti-frosting through engineering surface micro-textures [21]. As shown in Fig. 7a, through fabricating microgrooves above the top fins, water wicked into the grooves preferentially during condensation. With the icing and “ice stripes” formed across the surface, attributed to the lower vapor pressure of ice in comparing with liquid water, these sacrificial ice stripes effectively maintained the dryness of the intermediate surface areas by harvesting vapor, preventing dew and frost formation. The surface design principles were given, and different micro-grooved samples were investigated (Fig. 7b). In a comparison of icing on smooth untreated aluminum, superhydrophobic aluminum, and engineered micro-textured aluminum under same condition. After 3 h, the plain and superhydrophobic surfaces were covered with ice due to condensation frosting. In contrast, on the micro-finned surface, frost growth was confined to the fin tops, while the side walls and floors remained dry, free from both supercooled condensation and frost (Fig. 7c). In 2021, Boreyko’s group advanced the concept of promoting Cassie ice formation on surfaces through engineered surface patterns. They also proposed a theoretical model to explain the formation mechanism of Cassie ice. (Fig. 7d) [22]. The underlying process comprises four steps, preferential vapor condensation at corners, upper condensates frosting with lower ones evaporating, impacting raindrops wicking into frost (preventing impalement/ice bridges), and continual Cassie ice accumulation above air pockets. The micro-textured metamaterials showed exceptional ice patterning effects, resulting in Cassie frost/ice with minimized contact between ice and surfaces, which had great potential in icing mitigation. Figure 7. Micro-texture enabled ice patterning metamaterials . (a) Schematics of the passive anti-frosting aluminum surfaces through micro-patterns design. (b) Surface design principle and the dimensions of different micro-grooved samples. (c) Outlooks of micro-patterned surfaces after icing for 3 hours. Sacrificial “ice stripes” were intentionally fabricated on the fin tops via freezing, with the intermediate areas staying completely dry. Adapted with permission [21]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (d) A conceptual overview showed the method to enable frost and ice to a Cassie state with hydrophilic pillars. Adapted with permission [22]. Copyright 2021, American Physical Society. 4. Macro-textured Interfacial metamaterials for icing mitigation 4.1 Macro-texture enabled microwave absorber metamaterials Using microwave heating for de-icing has the advantages such as wireless operation, rapid deicing, and more flexibility compared to heating resistance de-icing. Traditional microwave heating de-icing relied on thin microwave-absorbing materials like carbon fiber-reinforced plastic and carbon nanotube coatings [23]. A metamaterial absorber (MA) that can realize high microwave absorption with minimal thickness was proposed for wind turbine blade de-icing in 2018 [10d]. As Fig. 8a shows, Zhang et al. designed an MA that coule fully absorb incident microwave at 2.45 GHz (given frequency). The MA unit was composed of a hollow square ring film (copper), a mid-dielectric layer (FR-4) and a back film (copper). Multi-physical simulation revealed the electric field strength distribution on the MA, showing the electric field mainly concentrated below the region of copper ring (Fig. 8b). The temperature distribution was also calculated and shown in Fig. 8c. Under a microwave power density of 400 W/m 2 and a heating duration of 300 s, the maximum temperature attained was 48.2 ℃ – exceeding the ambient temperature, which implied excellent de-icing potential. Subsequently in 2021, they fabricated a MA plane for de-icing experimentally (Fig. 8d) [24]. The MA surface was resonant under 2.28 GHz with a -7.63 dB reflectivity (Fig. 8e). The heating experiments at 2.25, 2.45, and 2.65 GHz microwave showed that 2.25 GHz irradiation increased temperature for nearly 28 ℃ in 50 s (Fig. 8f). To verify the temperature distribution on the MA, infrared images were captured immediately after post-heating, corresponding to the front surface (Fig. 8g) and the back surface (Fig. 8h), respectively. The temperature increase observed on the MA (both front and back) surface attained more than 47 ℃. Therefore, the MA provided an effective way for heating icing surfaces and mitigating icing problems. Figure 8. Macro-texture enabled microwave absorber metamaterials . (a) Schematic diagram showing part of a wind turbine blade in the context of microwave heating. (b) Distribution of electric field strength (V/m) observed from the bottom view of the MA unit model. (c) Temperature distribution (℃) on the x-z cross-sectional cutting plane of the MA unit model. Adapted with permission [10d]. Copyright 2018, Second International Conference on Materials Chemistry and Environmental Protection (MEEP 2018). (d) Representative front-view image of the MA surface. (e) Reflectivity characteristic of the MA sample. (f) Temperature variation of the MA sample at different frequencies, recorded over the duration of excitation. (g) Infrared image of the MA’s front surface, captured right after excitation. (h) Infrared image of the MA’s back surface, captured immediately post-excitation. Adapted with permission [24]. Copyright 2021, Taylor & Francis Online. 4.2 Macro-texture enabled metamaterials with frost-free zone In 2020, Park et al. conducted a study on the discontinuous frost patterns that occur on the leaf vein structure, with observations focused on the millimeter scale (Fig. 9a) [25]. Ambient humidity was found to greatly affect surface frost formation. They also elucidated the thermodynamic correlation of the frost-free area and the macroscopic geometry. As Fig. 9b shows, the 60° vertex angle surface clearly displayed condensation, frost initiation/propagation, and evaporation. Unlike flat surfaces with uniform condensation, Fig. 9c’s mechanism indicated supercooled droplets grew faster on peaks. Accordingly, freezing was subsequently triggered at the peaks, which drove the quick propagation of the frost front toward the valleys. Once ice formed on the macrotexture peaks, the valleys’ lower vapor pressure induced droplet evaporation, thereby generating stable ice-free zones. Based on the fundamental understanding of the frost-free phenomenon, the relationship between the vertex angle (𝛼) and the coverage of frost was mapped, offering valuable guidance for designing icing-free region using macro-textured metamaterials. Later in 2022, Liu et al. systematically investigated the effects of macrotextures on the spatial gradient distribution of condensate droplets and subsequent frost-free zone formation [26]. As illustrated in Fig. 9e, the formation of frost-free zones on a macro-textured surface proceeded in three stages. Firstly, under supersaturated ambient conditions, the macrotextures created a gradient of condensed droplets on the surface, where larger droplets were distributed farther from the ridge. Secondly, ice crystals nucleated preferentially at the surface edge, and this was succeeded by a multi-phase transition involving the propagation of a freezing wave and the advancement of an evaporation wave. Thirdly, a symmetric frost-free zone developed on either side of the macro-ridge and maintains stability. The metamaterials with macro-textured array were then fabricated as indicated in Fig. 9f. The parameters of surface structures were proved to greatly affect frost-free zone formation (Fig. 9g). The carefully designed macrotextures enabled the surface to keep ~ 43% (24 h) and ~ 29% (48 h) frost-free area (Fig. 9h). Their excellent icephobicity makes these frost-free zone metamaterials stand out among existing anti-icing surfaces. Figure 9. Macro-texture enabled metamaterials with frost-free zone . (a) The artificial leaf exhibited preferred frosting on convex vein features and suppressed frosting on concave vein features. (b) Time-lapse images of the 60° vertex angle surface capturing sequential processes: condensation (80 s), fast propagation (200 s), evaporation (910 s), and ice-free bands (2270 s). (Scale bars, 1 mm.) (c) Schematic of the frosting and frost-free zone generating mechanism. (d) Frost-free zone correlation map, dependent on vertex angle (α) and ambient relative humidity (RH) (incorporating experimental results). Adapted with permission [25]. Copyright 2020, National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. (e) Schematics illustrating the formation of frost-free zones at different stages on a macro-textured surface. (f) Schematic showing the structural parameters of the macro-textured metamaterial. (g) Experimental results of the macro-textured metamaterial under specific conditions. (h) Verification of the anti-frosting properties of the macro-textured metamaterials in an experimental environment for 48 h.Adapted with permission [26]. Copyright 2022, Nature Publishing Group. 4.3 Macro-texture enabled mechanically responsive metamaterials In de-icing progress, stress distribution on the ice-adhered surfaces can be tuned through optimized design. Mechanically responsible surface structures therefore can be engineered to reduce ice adhesion. A novel idea of using fish-scale-like metamaterials for lowering ice adhesion and improving surface icephobicity was proposed theoretically by Xiao et al. in 2019 [27]. Two rupture modes during de-icing, the sequential and concurrent modes, were investigated. In the concurrent rupture mode, the interfacial interactions ruptured all at once; in contrast, in the sequential rupture mode, they were broken in an incremental manner. Thus, the energy depth during sequential ice rupture can be greatly elongated, which led to much lower rupture force during de-icing from a surface. Based on the fundamental understanding of the sequential rupture, a fish-scale-like surface was built by modeling (Fig. 10a). As shown by Fig. 10b, under deicing forces, by dynamically opening up, the fish-scale-like structures facilitated the sequential rupture of ice from the surface, which resulted in an approximate 60% decrease in ice adhesion strength. Later in 2024, Wang et al. realized the dynamic mechanically responsive structure on the real salmon fish scale and proved the function of sequential rupture mechanism to decrease ice adhesion in practice [4a]. As indicated in Fig. 10c, a real salmon fish scale was hard with high modulus, which was a promising candidate for developing durable and robust anti-icing surfaces. Ice adhesion strength on fish scales showed distinct anisotropy correlated with the applied shearing direction. Specifically, de-icing against the scale growth orientation yielded a measured ice adhesion of 141 ± 47 kPa, which was ~ 60% lower than the 353 ± 95 kPa observed in de-icing along the scale growth orientation.The underlying cause was the scales’ dynamic response, the opening phenomenon that occurred during de-icing against the growth orientation. When ice was sheared off against the fish scales growth orientation, the process adopted a sequential rupture mode, characterized by initial scale opening followed by gradual peeling (Fig. 10d). The scales’ ability to open and peel was recognized as key parameters that controlling ice detachment. By manipulating these parameters, ice adhesion strength was further reduced to 66 ± 15 kPa, exhibiting remarkable performance when compared to state-of-the-art icephobic surfaces (Fig. 10a). The development of metamaterials integrating fish scale-inspired structures and mechanical force-responsive dynamic behavior showed great potential in future icing mitigation. Figure 10. Macro-texture enabled mechanical response metamaterials . (a) The anisotropic fish scale and the modeling structures inspired by the fish scale. (b) Representative de-icing snapshots, initial state, sequential rupture of fish-scale-like metasurface and ice interactions, and ice detachment. Adapted with permission [27]. Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry. (c) The real salmon scale showed rough surfaces, robust mechanical strength, and low ice adhesion strength. (d) Load-displacement curve (de-icing against scale growth direction) implied scale dynamic evolution and peeling process. Adapted with permission [4a]. Copyright 2024, Science China Press. 5. Multiscale-textured Interfacial metamaterials for icing mitigation 5.1 Multiscale-texture enabled superhydrophobic metamaterials As discussed above, superhydrophobic metamaterials with nanotextures can minimize the contact between water/ice and surfaces and assist water/ice removal. Generally, multiscale-textured structures have superior icephobicity through creating higher energy barriers [4d, 28]. Inspired by the multiscale textures of Trifolium repens L. (endowing excellent water resistance and cold tolerance, Fig. 11a), Yin et al. developed an icephobic surface aluminum alloy (ISAl) with three structural components, a periodic microcrater array, nonuniform microclusters, and irregular nanosheets [28c]. Multiscale-engineered metamaterials enabled a stable Cassie–Baxter (CB) state of water/ice on the surfaces. The ISAl achieved a critical Laplace pressure of ~ 1437 Pa and an water contact angle (WCA) exceeding 150° at 0 ℃. As shown in Fig. 11b, its dynamic anti-icing time was maintained for over 5 h in extreme environments. Moreover, the ISAl exhibited a low ice adhesion strength of 1.60 kPa, when wind turbine blades coated with ISAl were in horizontal rotational motion at 34 r/min, ice quickly fell off. The icephobicity of superhydrophobic metamaterials relies on their capacity to maintain the CB state of atop water. Through multiscale texture tailoring, Zhong et al. developed a dual-energy-barrier structures for extreme superhydrophobicity [4d]. Fig. 11c illustrated that, in contrast to the conventional CB-to-Wenzel transition with a single energy barrier, the dual-energy-barrier principle mandated a transition pathway through two CB states (CB I and CB II) prior to the Wenzel state, which markedly improved the overall stability of the CB state. The dual-energy-barrier structures were fabricated through multiscale texture engineering with ultrafast laser. Experimental observations revealed that the artificial metamaterials possessed outstanding anti-icing performance, with an icing delay time exceeding 27,000 s at -15 ℃ and an ice adhesion strength as low as 0.9 ± 0.3 kPa. Moreover, in an icephobic durability test of dual-energy-barriers structures, a low ice adhesion of ∼20 kPa remained after 48 time icing/de-icing cycling tests. The excellent anti-icing performance of superhydrophobic metamaterials with multiscale textures revealed their potential in practical icing mitigation. Figure 11. Multiscale-texture enabled superhydrophobic metamaterials . (a) The Trifolium repens L. inspired multiscale-textured ISAl that consisted of three structural components, a periodic microcrater array, nonuniform microclusters, and irregular nanosheets. (b) The dynamic anti-frosting performance and ice adhesion on multiscale-textured surfaces. Adapted with permission [28c]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society. (c) The design concept of dual-energy-barrier superhydrophobic anti-icing surfaces. (d) The excellent icephobicity of dual-energy barrier metamaterials. Adapted with permission [4d]. Copyright 2024, American Chemical Society. 5.2 Multiscale-texture enabled photothermal metamaterials As mentioned above, surface nano-texture design can lead to plasmonic metamaterials to increase surface temperature and enable photothermal de-icing. However, dust, other contaminants and even condensed droplets can increase reflection and decrease solar absorption, leading to lower temperature increase and condensation freezing [29]. A hierarchical multiscale-texture design can efficiently improve the self-clean and water-removal capacity and enable superior sunlight harvesting performance of surfaces [19, 30]. As shown in Fig. 12a, multiscale metamaterials were fabricated by synthesizing candle soot, shells of silica, and brushes of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) into a superhydrophobic surface [29c]. The superhydrophobic photothermal surfaces had several advantages including advanced light trapping, enhanced melting water removal capacity, and excellent self-cleaning property. Temperature increasing on bare candle soot layer (termed as CS), silica shell coated candle soot layer (termed as SCS), and candle soot layer coated by PDMS brushes grafted silica shell (termed as PSCS) under 1-sun illumination were studied (Fig. 12b). All samples showed photothermal effects with temperature increasing above 50 ℃ with the excellent light trapping performance. The hierarchical PSCS with superhydrophobicity melted the frost atop within 120 s under 1-sun illumination (Fig. 12c), which proved the advantages of this photothermal metamaterial in icing mitigation illustrated in Fig. 12a. Wang et al. discovered that through the mutual coalescence of droplets, wheat leaves achieved both the self-propelled jumping of micro-droplets and the self-removal of contaminants [29a]. Inspired by the wheat leaves, a multiscale-textured superhydrophobic surface was fabricated by forming an iron oxide nanoparticles layer atop the copper substrates with a pulsed laser deposition system (Fig. 12d). The hierarchically structured surface prepared was designated as the condensate self-removing solar anti-icing/frosting surface (CR-SAS). As shown in Fig. 12d, the CR-SAS exhibited a self-removing condensate capability that driven by droplet coalescence and vaporization under heating, which maintained a continuously refreshed, dry, and clean surface for efficient sunlight absorption. Both the surface morphologies and surface hydrophobicity can be tuned through change the Ar pressure used among 10 Pa (H10), 20 Pa (H20), and 30 Pa (H30) during deposition (Fig. 12e). In a subsequent comparison of frosting behaviors between a multiscale-textured H30 surface and a pure copper surface, after a 10-minute period, the copper surface was found to be entirely covered by a thick frost layer, in contrast, the H30 surface was free from frost for an extended period (＞180 min) under 1-sun illumination (Fig. 12f). To further clarify the dynamic processes of water condensation, removal, and freezing on the surfaces, an infrared (IR) camera coupled with a magnifying lens was used. As shown in Fig. 12g, the observations revealed that the H30 surface temperature stayed above 0 ℃, and coalesced droplets exhibited continuous jumping under one-sun illumination. Thus, the multiscale texture enabled photothermal metamaterials have great potential in icing mitigation. Figure 12. Multiscale-texture enabled photothermal metamaterials . (a) Schematic illustrating the icephobic metamaterials, their fabrication process, and the key role of multiscale hierarchical structures, endowing the surfaces with superior light-trapping and water/dust removal property. (b) Temperature increases ( ∆T ) of samples as a function of different parameters (film thickness, illumination time, coating type) under 1-sun illumination. (c) Comparison of frost melting on the superhydrophilic SCS surface versus the superhydrophobic PSCS surface under 1-sun illumination. Adapted with permission [29c]. Copyright 2020, National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. (d) Schematic illustration of the CR-SAS fabrication process and the wheat leaves inspired multiscale icing mitigation strategy. (e) The top/side-view microscope, macroscopic image, and schematic composition of super-black CR-SASs fabricated under different conditions. (f)Long-term photothermal experiment performed on Cu and H30 samples under low temperature and high humidity conditions. (g) Time-lapse IR images illustrating the dynamic processes of water condensation, removal, and freezing on Cu and H30 samples, conducted under low temperature and high humidity conditions. Adapted with permission [29a]. Copyright 2021, National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 5.3 Multiscale-texture enabled mechanical response metamaterials Mechanical response in the de-icing process is universal when deformation occurs in the matrix or interface. Interfacial metamaterials that can utilize mechanical responses have proven their effectiveness in assisting ice removal [4a, 5c, 20a, 27]. The multiscale mechanical response resulting from multiscale-texture engineering can greatly promote cracks initiation at the ice-substrate interface and lead to superior icephobicity [20, 31]. He et al. proposed a multiscale metamaterials design strategy for mitigating the icing problem [31a]. In their study, metamaterials with nanoscale aqueous lubricating layer (ALL) and macroscale subsurface structure were created. The ALL was fabricated through covalent grafting hydrophilic poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) to PDMS surfaces with macroholes (PAA-g-hPDMS) (Fig. 13a). As shown in Fig. 13b, during shear de-icing process, the ALL enabled lower interactions between ice and substrate and promoted the generation of nanoscale cracks at the interface, and the subsurface macropores created stiffness inhomogeneity and facilitated macroscale crack at the interface of ice-solid (Fig. 13b). The synergy effects of nanoscale and macroscale response significantly weakened the interface of ice–solid and assisted ice removal. As indicated by Fig. 13c, the ice adhesion on PAA-g-hPDMS from PDMS (10:10) was only 17.6 ± 3.2 kPa which showed a reduction of 51.9 % compared to that on pure PDMS (10:10) (36.6 ± 5.4 kPa). Impressively, low ice adhesion value of ~ 17 kPa on PAA-g-hPDMS (10:10) was maintained in 15 icing/de-icing cyclic tests, showing excellent robustness for practical usage (Fig. 13c). Another recent study from Zhong et al. in 2023 presented a multiscale design strategy for achieving mechanical response anti-icing metamaterials [31b]. As shown in Fig. 13d, a trilayer icephobic surface was proposed, featuring porous PDMS sponges as the middle layer, sandwiched between an upper dense PDMS layer and a lower micro-textured metal layer. The multilayer design provided excellent durability with the stiff PDMS top, and lowered the ice adhesion through stiffness mismatch between different layers and their function in generating interfacial cracks. The authors systematically studied the influence of multiple factors on fabricating the anchor-sponge-protector sandwich-like structure (Fig. 13e). Notably, the intricately designed trilayer surface showed outstanding icephobicity, characterized by high durability and low ice adhesion (~ 5.3 kPa even after 20 icing/deicing cycles). A brief illustration that explained the crack initiation mechanism was given in Fig. 13f, the stiffness mismatch among different parts of the metamaterials created inhomogeneous deformation and stress concentration under de-icing forces. Then, cracks were generated at the interfaces. Moreover, the propagation of cracks was assisted by the stiff PDMS layer. As a result, the trilayer materials with mechanical response possessed durable low ice adhesion strength, which can be a candidate for practical icing mitigation. Figure 13. Multiscale-texture enabled mechanical response metamaterials . (a) The schematic diagram showed the fabrication routes of multiscale-textured PAA-g-hPDMS coating. (b) The de-icing mechanism of the surface integrated two functional structures, a nanoscale lubricating layer and macro-scale hollow sub-surface structures. (c) Ice adhesion tests showed the durable low ice adhesion on the multiscale-textured PAA-g-hPDMS coating. Adapted with permission [31a]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier Publishing Group. (d) Schematics showed the formation method of the multiscale-designed trilayer icephobic metamaterials. (e) The excellent icephobicity on the anchor-sponge-protector metamaterials. (f) The ice fracture through crack initiation and propagation driven via mechanical response during de-icing [31b]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society. 6. Conclusion and Perspective Focusing on the chemical, physical, thermal, and mechanical interactions at the interfaces between matrix materials and water/ice, this review thoroughly discusses interfacial metamaterials with engineered structures for icing mitigation. The programmability of metamaterials enables the development of novel, adaptive anti-icing and de-icing surfaces. Thanks to their uniquely engineered structures, metamaterials allow flexible control over interfacial area and interactions, thereby enhancing icing resistance and facilitating ice removal. To unravel the fundamental mechanisms of how metamaterial structures contribute to icing mitigation, nano-, micro-, and macro-scale structures and their interactions with water/ice are systematically examined. Metamaterials with nano-textures are discussed first, where plasmonic, superhydrophobic, and slippery effects are identified. In metamaterials with micro-textures, photothermal effects, facilitated crack initiation, and ice patterning are observed. Macro-textured metamaterials are also analyzed, revealing effects such as microwave absorption, frost suppression, and mechanical responses. The de-icing and anti-icing mechanisms across all three scales can be categorized according to the type of interfacial response: • Thermal (plasmonic effect, photothermal effect, microwave absorption) • Physical (superhydrophobicity, ice patterning, frost suppression) • Chemical (slippery surfaces) • Mechanical (crack initiation control, mechanical response) Building on this foundational understanding of texture scales and their functional roles, multiscale-designed interfacial metamaterials are explored. These multiscale textures are employed to achieve tailored superhydrophobic, photothermal, and mechanical responses to ice, resulting in superior surface icephobicity. This review summarizes both the design principles of interfacial metamaterials—namely, the engineering of structures to manipulate interfacial chemical, physical, thermal, and mechanical interactions with water/ice—and the trends shaping recent advancements in anti-icing and de-icing technologies. One emerging trend is the use of structural parameters to fine-tune icephobicity. Another is the development of multifunctional materials, such as surfaces that combine photothermal and superhydrophobic effects, or those that integrate slippery properties with mechanical responsiveness, showing excellent potential for icing mitigation. Therefore, multiscale interfacial structure designs that enable multifunctional responses hold great promise for the future of icephobic technologies. However, several challenges remain, including scalable manufacturing, mechanical robustness, and long-term durability in diverse environmental conditions. Continued efforts to study interfacial metamaterials—from fundamental mechanisms to practical applications—are expected to significantly advance the icing mitigation industry. References [1] a) L. Gao, T. Tao, Y. Liu, H. Hu, Renewable energy 2021 , 167 , 917; b) Y. Cao, W. Tan, Z. Wu, Aerospace science and technology 2018 , 75 , 353; c) M. Yamazaki, A. Jemcov, H. Sakaue, Aerospace 2021 , 8 (7), 188; d) G. Huang, B. Yan, Y. Guo, B. Zhang, G. Wu, High Voltage 2023 , 8 (1), 196.[2] a) C. Hochart, G. Fortin, J. Perron, A. Ilinca, Wind Energy: An International Journal for Progress and Applications in Wind Power Conversion Technology 2008 , 11 (4), 319; b) O. Parent, A. Ilinca, Cold regions science and technology 2011 , 65 (1), 88; c) H. Seifert, A. Westerhellweg, J. Kröning, Boreas 2003 , 6 (9), 2006.[3] a) Z. Zhijin, Z. Hang, Y. Song, Energies 2023 , 16 (2), 19; b) R. Rekuviene, S. Saeidiharzand, L. Mažeika, V. Samaitis, A. Jankauskas, A. K. Sadaghiani, G. Gharib, Z. Muganlı, A. Koşar, Applied Thermal Engineering 2024 , 123474.[4] a) F. Wang, S. Liu, S. Xiao, B. Skallerud, Z. Zhang, J. He, Science China Materials 2024 , 67 (6), 2016; b) F. Wang, Y. Zhuo, Z. He, S. Xiao, J. He, Z. Zhang, Advanced Science 2021 , 8 (21), 2101163; c) J. Jiang, Y. Shen, Y. Xu, Z. Wang, J. Tao, S. Liu, W. Liu, H. Chen, Nature Communications 2024 , 15 (1), 777; d) L. Wang, D. Li, G. Jiang, X. Hu, R. Peng, Z. Song, H. Zhang, P. Fan, M. Zhong, ACS nano 2024 , 18 (19), 12489.[5] a) F. Chu, Z. Hu, Y. Feng, N. C. Lai, X. Wu, R. Wang, Advanced Materials 2024 , 2402897; b) D. Yang, Y. Zheng, J. Li, A. T. Clare, K.-S. Choi, X. Hou, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2024 ; c) F. Wang, S. Xiao, J. He, F. Ning, R. Ma, J. He, Z. Zhang, Chemical Engineering Journal 2022 , 437 , 135274; d) F. Wang, W. Ding, J. He, Z. Zhang, Chemical Engineering Journal 2019 , 360 , 243.[6] a) M. Kadic, G. W. Milton, M. van Hecke, M. Wegener, Nature Reviews Physics 2019 , 1 (3), 198; b) Y. Liu, X. Zhang, Chemical Society Reviews 2011 , 40 (5), 2494; c) N. I. Zheludev, Y. S. Kivshar, Nature materials 2012 , 11 (11), 917.[7] a) Z. Zhang, L. Xu, T. Qu, M. Lei, Z.-K. Lin, X. Ouyang, J.-H. Jiang, J. Huang, Nature Reviews Physics 2023 , 5 (4), 218; b) P. Jiao, J. Mueller, J. R. Raney, X. Zheng, A. H. Alavi, Nature communications 2023 , 14 (1), 6004; c) X. Ni, S. Yves, A. Krasnok, A. Alu, Chemical Reviews 2023 , 123 (12), 7585; d) A. Djellouli, B. Van Raemdonck, Y. Wang, Y. Yang, A. Caillaud, D. Weitz, S. Rubinstein, B. Gorissen, K. Bertoldi, Nature 2024 , 628 (8008), 545.[8] a) J. You, Q. Ma, L. Zhang, C. Liu, J. Zhang, S. Liu, T. Cui, Electromagnetic Science 2023 , 1 (1), 1; b) N. Gao, Z. Zhang, J. Deng, X. Guo, B. Cheng, H. Hou, Advanced Materials Technologies 2022 , 7 (6), 2100698; c) R. Craster, S. Guenneau, M. Kadic, M. Wegener, Reports on Progress in Physics 2023 , 86 (9), 094501; d) J. Wang, G. Dai, J. Huang, Iscience 2020 , 23 (10); e) S. Brûlé, S. Enoch, S. Guenneau, Physics Letters A 2020 , 384 (1), 126034; f) D. D. Paul, Optical metamaterials: fundamentals and applications. American Institute of Physics: 2010 .[9] a) Y. Zhuo, J. Chen, S. Xiao, T. Li, F. Wang, J. He, Z. Zhang, Materials Horizons 2021 , 8 (12), 3266; b) A. Lotfi, M. S. Virk, Public Transport 2023 , 15 (3), 747; c) B. Turcotte, A. Dubnick, R. McKillop, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 2023 , 51 (2), 125.[10] a) E. Mitridis, ETH Zurich 2019 ; b) E. Mitridis, T. M. Schutzius, A. Sicher, C. U. Hail, H. Eghlidi, D. Poulikakos, ACS nano 2018 , 12 (7), 7009; c) J. Pyeon, S. M. Park, J. Kim, J.-H. Kim, Y.-J. Yoon, D. K. Yoon, H. Kim, Nature Communications 2023 , 14 (1), 8096; d) Z. Zhang, J. Wang, J. Ling, Y. Yuan, in Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Materials Chemistry and Environmental Protection (MEEP 2018), Sanya City, China 2018 , 23-25.[11] V. Vercillo, S. Tonnicchia, J. M. Romano, A. García‐Girón, A. I. Aguilar‐Morales, S. Alamri, S. S. Dimov, T. Kunze, A. F. Lasagni, E. Bonaccurso, Advanced Functional Materials 2020 , 30 (16), 1910268.[12] H. He, Z. Guo, Iscience 2021 , 24 (11).[13] M. J. Kreder, J. Alvarenga, P. Kim, J. Aizenberg, Nature Reviews Materials 2016 , 1 (1), 1.[14] S. Bengaluru Subramanyam, V. Kondrashov, J. r. Rühe, K. K. Varanasi, ACS applied materials & interfaces 2016 , 8 (20), 12583.[15] N. H. Fletcher, The Journal of chemical physics 1958 , 29 (3), 572.[16] P. Eberle, M. K. Tiwari, T. Maitra, D. Poulikakos, Nanoscale 2014 , 6 (9), 4874.[17] a) P. Kim, T.-S. Wong, J. Alvarenga, M. J. Kreder, W. E. Adorno-Martinez, J. Aizenberg, ACS nano 2012 , 6 (8), 6569; b) L. Zhang, Z. Guo, J. Sarma, X. Dai, ACS applied materials & interfaces 2020 , 12 (17), 20084; c) A. Zhang, H. Yang, C. Liu, J. Yang, Y. Yao, W. Zhang, R. Pan, Y. Zhuo, J. Ding, R. Hu, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2024 , 16 (16), 21001; d) S. Li, Y. Hou, M. Kappl, W. Steffen, J. Liu, H. J. Butt, Advanced Materials 2022 , 34 (34), 2203242.[18] W. Ma, A. A. Sergeev, M. B. Asif, Y. Pan, H. Wang, K. Li, A. Safari, J. Yang, B. Huang, K. S. Wong, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2024 .[19] B. Yu, Z. Sun, Y. Liu, Z. Zhang, Y. Wu, F. Zhou, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2021 , 13 (31), 37609.[20] a) Z. He, S. Xiao, H. Gao, J. He, Z. Zhang, Soft matter 2017 , 13 (37), 6562; b) Z. He, Y. Zhuo, J. He, Z. Zhang, Soft Matter 2018 , 14 (23), 4846.[21] S. F. Ahmadi, S. Nath, G. J. Iliff, B. R. Srijanto, C. P. Collier, P. Yue, J. B. Boreyko, ACS applied materials & interfaces 2018 , 10 (38), 32874.[22] H. Park, S. F. Ahmadi, J. B. Boreyko, Physical Review Letters 2021 , 127 (4), 044501.[23] a) L. Feher, T. S. V. Nuss, Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy 2008 , 43 (1), 56; b) J. Karthäuser, in WinterWind conference 2015 .[24] Z. Zhang, J. Zhang, X. Liu, K. Zheng, H. Yi, J. Wang, Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy 2021 , 55 (2), 140.[25] Y. Yao, T. Y. Zhao, C. Machado, E. Feldman, N. A. Patankar, K.-C. Park, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2020 , 117 (12), 6323.[26] C. Lu, C. Liu, Z. Yuan, H. Zhan, D. Zhao, L. Zhao, S. Feng, Y. Liu, Communications Materials 2022 , 3 (1), 80.[27] S. Xiao, B. H. Skallerud, F. Wang, Z. Zhang, J. He, Nanoscale 2019 , 11 (35), 16262.[28] a) A. Gaddam, H. Sharma, T. Karkantonis, S. Dimov, Applied Surface Science 2021 , 552 , 149443; b) X. Li, G. Wang, B. Zhan, S. Li, Z. Han, Y. Liu, Advanced Materials Interfaces 2019 , 6 (19), 1900864; c) S. Xuan, H. Yin, G. Li, Z. Zhang, Y. Jiao, Z. Liao, J. Li, S. Liu, Y. Wang, C. Tang, ACS nano 2023 , 17 (21), 21749; d) R. Pan, H. Zhang, M. Zhong, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2020 , 13 (1), 1743.[29] a) H. Zhang, G. Zhao, S. Wu, Y. Alsaid, W. Zhao, X. Yan, L. Liu, G. Zou, J. Lv, X. He, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2021 , 118 (18), e2100978118; b) C. Wu, H. Geng, S. Tan, J. Lv, H. Wang, Z. He, J. Wang, Materials Horizons 2020 , 7 (8), 2097; c) S. Wu, Y. Du, Y. Alsaid, D. Wu, M. Hua, Y. Yan, B. Yao, Y. Ma, X. Zhu, X. He, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2020 , 117 (21), 11240.[30] a) J.-J. Liu, C.-Y. He, B.-H. Liu, Z.-Q. Wang, S.-J. Zhao, Z.-W. Lu, Y.-Z. Zhang, Z.-Q. Tang, X.-H. Gao, X. Aday, Chemical Engineering Journal 2024 , 489 , 151338; b) Y. Wang, Y. Xue, Y. Sun, X. Sui, Y. Wang, W. Liang, Y. Wang, D. Zhu, H. Zhao, Surfaces and Interfaces 2023 , 42 , 103430; c) Z. Lin, C. Ma, Z. Ma, L. Gao, W. Chen, G. Chen, Chemical Engineering Journal 2023 , 466 , 143067; d) Y. Li, H. Li, J. Wu, X. Yang, X. Jia, J. Yang, D. Shao, L. Feng, S. Wang, H. Song, Applied Surface Science 2022 , 600 , 154177; e) L. Wu, P. Liu, X. Hua, Z. Guo, W. Liu, Chemical Engineering Journal 2024 , 480 , 147553; f) B. Yu, Z. Sun, Y. Liu, Y. Wu, F. Zhou, Langmuir 2023 , 39 (4), 1686; g) Y. Zhao, Z. Yan, H. Zhang, C. Yang, P. Cheng, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2021 , 165 , 120609; h) N. Li, K. Shao, J. He, S. Wang, S. Li, X. Wu, J. Li, C. Guo, L. Yu, P. Murto, Small 2023 , 19 (33), 2301474; i) L. Zhang, B. Luo, K. Fu, C. Gao, X. Han, M. Zhou, T. Zhang, L. Zhong, Y. Hou, Y. Zheng, Advanced Science 2023 , 10 (34), 2304187; j) W. Zhao, L. Xiao, X. He, Z. Cui, J. Fang, C. Zhang, X. Li, G. Li, L. Zhong, Y. Zhang, Optics & Laser Technology 2021 , 141 , 107115.[31] a) Z. He, Y. Zhuo, F. Wang, J. He, Z. Zhang, Progress in Organic Coatings 2020 , 147 , 105737; b) C. Chen, P. Fan, D. Zhu, Z. Tian, H. Zhao, L. Wang, R. Peng, M. Zhong, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2023 , 15 (4), 6025; c) Z. Wang, Z. Zhao, G. Wen, Y. Zhu, J. Chen, X. Jing, S. Sun, L. Zhang, X. Liu, H. Chen, ACS nano 2023 , 17 (14), 13724. Information & Authors Information Version history V1 Version 1 23 September 2025 Copyright This work is licensed under a Non Exclusive No Reuse License. Keywords icing mitigation interfacial metamaterials metamaterials Authors Affiliations Feng Wang 0009-0005-5229-3620 [email protected] Suzhou Laboratory View all articles by this author Xiao Senbo li Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet View all articles by this author Xinshu Zou 0000-0001-7712-7403 Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet View all articles by this author He Jianying li Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet View all articles by this author Zhang Zhiliang li Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet View all articles by this author Bo Li Suzhou Laboratory View all articles by this author Metrics & Citations Metrics Article Usage 191 views 128 downloads .FvxKWukQNSOunydq8rnd { width: 100px; } Citations Download citation Feng Wang, Xiao Senbo li, Xinshu Zou, et al. Interfacial metamaterials for icing mitigation. Authorea . 23 September 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.175864535.51612011/v1 If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download. For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu . Format Please select one from the list RIS (ProCite, Reference Manager) EndNote BibTex Medlars RefWorks Direct import Tips for downloading citations document.getElementById('citMgrHelpLink').addEventListener('click', function() { popupHelp(this.href); return false; }); $(".js__slcInclude").on("change", function(e){ if ($(this).val() == 'refworks') $('#direct').prop("checked", false); $('#direct').prop("disabled", ($(this).val() == 'refworks')); }); View Options View options PDF View PDF Figures Tables Media Share Share Share article link Copy Link Copied! Copying failed. Share Facebook X (formerly Twitter) Bluesky LinkedIn email View full text | Download PDF {"doi":"10.22541/au.175864535.51612011/v1","type":"Article"} Now Reading: Share Figures Tables Close figure viewer Back to article Figure title goes here Change zoom level Go to figure location within the article Download figure Toggle share panel Toggle share panel Share Toggle information panel Toggle information panel Go to previous graphic Go to next graphic Go to previous table Go to next table All figures All tables View all material View all material xrefBack.goTo xrefBack.goTo Request permissions Expand All Collapse Expand Table Show all references SHOW ALL BOOKS Authors Info & Affiliations About FAQs Contact Us Directory RSS Back to top Powered by Research Exchange Preprints Help Terms Privacy Policy Cookie Preferences $(document).ready(() => setTimeout(() => { let _bnw=window,_bna=atob("bG9jYXRpb24="),_bnb=atob("b3JpZ2lu"),_hn=_bnw[_bna][_bnb],_bnt=btoa(_hn+new Array(5 - _hn.length % 4).join(" ")); $.get("/resource/lodash?t="+_bnt); },4000)); (function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'9fec9f45b9144193',t:'MTc3OTI5MzUzOA=='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();