PES Results in the Tropics Are Region-Specific and Not Universal

PES Results in the Tropics Are Region-Specific and Not Universal | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article PES Results in the Tropics Are Region-Specific and Not Universal Jia-Ler Yap, Rachel Sui Kei Lee, Wan-Yu Liu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8149786/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) programs are widely advocated as scalable climate mitigation tools, yet their effectiveness varies dramatically across regions. This study analyzes forest carbon dynamics in 86 tropical countries from 1990 to 2020, revealing sharp regional divergence that single-country studies have not captured. PES programs in Africa show positive associations with forest carbon stocks, while those in Asia and the Americas exhibit weak or negative relationships. These contrasting outcomes reflect differences in governance quality, rent distribution structures, and enforcement capacity rather than inherent policy design. Where commodity extraction pressures, weak oversight, or unstable property rights dominate, PES fails to produce carbon gains. This finding challenges the assumption that PES effectiveness transfers uniformly across contexts. International climate policy has extrapolated success cases from Africa into global strategy without adequately addressing institutional prerequisites. Our results demonstrate that PES viability depends on institutional fit, not universal scalability, with direct implications for climate finance mechanisms. Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences Biological sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences Scientific community and society/Social sciences Tropical Forest Carbon Stock Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) Economic Growth and Deforestation Climate Change Mitigation Policies Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files PESsupplementary.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8149786","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":559181909,"identity":"828c85c3-50dd-4534-8987-aa0e11838cc5","order_by":0,"name":"Jia-Ler Yap","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Chung Hsing University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jia-Ler","middleName":"","lastName":"Yap","suffix":""},{"id":559181910,"identity":"37609bc3-a2e6-4236-83b4-39fb18e60d4c","order_by":1,"name":"Rachel Sui Kei Lee","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Chung Hsing University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rachel","middleName":"Sui Kei","lastName":"Lee","suffix":""},{"id":559181911,"identity":"98db690f-fcc6-4167-84c4-6a7d7b199e0c","order_by":2,"name":"Wan-Yu Liu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAt0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAC5oYDDBUMDAYgNg9xWhiBWs4gtEgQpYWBsY0ULQY3EhsP8867I28ukcD44G0bQ53BAcJaGg7zbntmuHNGArPh3DYGCYJazCBaDicY3Ehgk+YFajEjTsscsBb23yRoaYDYwkyUFvszDxsOzjl22HDDmYfNknPOSUjuJ6RFsj358Ic3NYflDY4nH/zwpsyGX7KBgBYGgQQYixGklpiY5CfkjlEwCkbBKBgFABIXRo0AtQkmAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"National Chung Hsing University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wan-Yu","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-19 01:53:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8149786/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8149786/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":98432345,"identity":"43ac98af-54dd-467c-af55-41c7fdd9e39f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:49:26","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2201055,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PESmanuscriptwAuthors.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/fd87eeb717c080aa26e2ec1d.docx"},{"id":98431218,"identity":"9c6d4b83-246b-4f23-887e-889a97bbeb39","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:47:17","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4831,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"5cbdee0f6b074d9caac0762d5e64918c.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/a1889535878f9d2562e33c8f.json"},{"id":98432416,"identity":"9a0780d7-2ff6-4999-b9e3-dec7e1ee1c34","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:49:31","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":24167,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PESsupplementary.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/381278df6f5cdeedfd88b234.docx"},{"id":98204643,"identity":"c714f2de-f30f-4c87-afc4-45f3641026dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:29","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":275668,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"5cbdee0f6b074d9caac0762d5e64918c1enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/15c8282e3fdad1ccdc3f16f8.xml"},{"id":98432789,"identity":"5f2605fa-e8f6-41d4-a72c-a41b86c3540c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:49:58","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1332345,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/fe0918f1aad9d7c22a431bdc.png"},{"id":98432399,"identity":"34bb669d-695f-4d32-891b-f2a103465a7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:49:30","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":357575,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/42a2898152b31bc519dab1f1.jpeg"},{"id":98204645,"identity":"d59cb50e-f203-4049-8563-9f37d28c2b04","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":204161,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/1fb942fa5d1e55d173782e71.jpeg"},{"id":98204647,"identity":"452fc26b-73f8-46b0-b88f-bd2171bfd4f9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:29","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":536179,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/87b9f210f84d28f85844f87b.png"},{"id":98432732,"identity":"c2f3e7d8-103a-4dbc-bc8c-e2b96d10926e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:49:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":156840,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/f8e6d6da32a9bde2a1e6c796.jpeg"},{"id":98433000,"identity":"18b3b1c9-c4f6-44b8-ad32-ebdbc5acb00f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:50:11","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":20191,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/93aacaacc82542ad2119f38e.jpeg"},{"id":98432043,"identity":"cf1374c8-d936-4a65-880d-e5f63fd5fbcf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:48:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":161372,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/2eeb0d56f12cefe27dce0a15.jpeg"},{"id":98204652,"identity":"893b8e70-301a-4352-bc37-eae062aa4a03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:29","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4480,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/4c7a403d5b679ed6d4038258.jpeg"},{"id":98431898,"identity":"6733253c-bcc6-4ecf-aa8d-240864f19200","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:48:35","extension":"jpeg","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":201074,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/df71ba9708940d2cb9b80de5.jpeg"},{"id":98204663,"identity":"5ea54880-ca28-4f5c-8de6-0f386af8e4c1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:30","extension":"jpeg","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":4379,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/7689c7783817c7be55f35daf.jpeg"},{"id":98431330,"identity":"3019ae80-edb8-46e9-bc40-ddb01179b42f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:47:32","extension":"jpeg","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":385413,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/bb7ac0b2ef8ba398fc1c2721.jpeg"},{"id":98431776,"identity":"52bbc2cf-9fed-406f-bfa7-34ec52e41930","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:48:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":92720,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/bb506c1a86ca1150b02c2569.jpeg"},{"id":98204664,"identity":"c7d7d164-1901-40a0-a4d6-d2425bc93c4f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:30","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":158380,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/bedaefe03be15269e458cacd.png"},{"id":98431292,"identity":"2562c265-7aee-4d8b-a1bf-0bdee3c24878","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:47:29","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":77003,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/916c7285be7b93f42eca0371.png"},{"id":98432859,"identity":"b30068c7-f552-47bb-a962-7bbb046bc08b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:50:03","extension":"png","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":25751,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/4b425fdf1211b9f78c429f69.png"},{"id":98431230,"identity":"e2441eb9-e3fb-4e66-9ff3-30e1b184edcc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:47:19","extension":"png","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":90360,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/66f6cf9f35d27b07ce71742b.png"},{"id":98432344,"identity":"cb32dbd8-d9c3-46d9-ba75-3af19048014f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:49:26","extension":"png","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":32799,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/a660a313e686b91f57171d75.png"},{"id":98432121,"identity":"803c7a75-422c-4b7c-9365-1f19e3676dde","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:49:02","extension":"png","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":3348,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/2e9521e3a670597d561da744.png"},{"id":98432446,"identity":"48571a45-d20b-49ba-843e-bfab59bf5c60","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:49:34","extension":"png","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":34820,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/f2c0e22b79abdca098568844.png"},{"id":98204660,"identity":"3c9a496f-87c9-4b5e-a120-d1dd87cd4410","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:30","extension":"png","order_by":23,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1857,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/b2d1e4888e7f9b385d7890bb.png"},{"id":98204658,"identity":"380d4799-20b1-48b8-b5a5-69e528533b9a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:29","extension":"png","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":44018,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/240e348e072542917743e8c2.png"},{"id":98204667,"identity":"b5c8e6c6-35dd-4322-8596-1d6517121c58","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:30","extension":"png","order_by":25,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1881,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/0663e6f2a849b4c96c16469d.png"},{"id":98204671,"identity":"2366fb14-26c9-400d-aaf9-88e047e0e962","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:30","extension":"png","order_by":26,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":63054,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/6684930b1314d0e777656b1b.png"},{"id":98432834,"identity":"0c7601aa-e183-46fc-8edf-23859f6ea8e2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:50:02","extension":"png","order_by":27,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":35326,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/bf344b40eb1a2c050a1a0ea1.png"},{"id":98433082,"identity":"a4ba6c6d-3a4d-4e66-8310-836507bd0d50","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-17 16:50:14","extension":"xml","order_by":28,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":268045,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"5cbdee0f6b074d9caac0762d5e64918c1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/bed660d69f03045db0374f6d.xml"},{"id":98204670,"identity":"15b19099-4ef7-4e27-b1b1-a20abbda706a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:30","extension":"html","order_by":29,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":296164,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/4d68398a1dfcd1ef3bdcc5fc.html"},{"id":105185723,"identity":"a5d5be27-30e9-41fc-8797-e947218a50bd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-23 08:29:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":900376,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PESmanuscriptwAuthors.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1_covered_e4e758a6-17c7-4f82-a0ae-28a53801cd24.pdf"},{"id":98204640,"identity":"ceb07979-08a3-4c1b-a4d6-3b61a02d653c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-15 08:29:29","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":24167,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"PESsupplementary.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8149786/v1/8bebf4caab3607246caf135a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"PES Results in the Tropics Are Region-Specific and Not Universal","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Tropical Forest Carbon Stock, Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), Economic Growth and Deforestation, Climate Change Mitigation Policies","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8149786/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8149786/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePayment for Ecosystem Services (PES) programs are widely advocated as scalable climate mitigation tools, yet their effectiveness varies dramatically across regions. This study analyzes forest carbon dynamics in 86 tropical countries from 1990 to 2020, revealing sharp regional divergence that single-country studies have not captured. PES programs in Africa show positive associations with forest carbon stocks, while those in Asia and the Americas exhibit weak or negative relationships. These contrasting outcomes reflect differences in governance quality, rent distribution structures, and enforcement capacity rather than inherent policy design. Where commodity extraction pressures, weak oversight, or unstable property rights dominate, PES fails to produce carbon gains. This finding challenges the assumption that PES effectiveness transfers uniformly across contexts. International climate policy has extrapolated success cases from Africa into global strategy without adequately addressing institutional prerequisites. Our results demonstrate that PES viability depends on institutional fit, not universal scalability, with direct implications for climate finance mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"PES Results in the Tropics Are Region-Specific and Not Universal","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-15 08:29:24","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8149786/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6c81abf8-3474-4d81-b313-7d720dd30212","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 15th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":59529790,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences"},{"id":59529791,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology"},{"id":59529792,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology"},{"id":59529793,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"},{"id":59529794,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences"},{"id":59529795,"name":"Scientific community and society/Social sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-23T08:27:25+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-15 08:29:24","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8149786","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8149786","identity":"rs-8149786","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}