No evidence for a relationship between Emotional Connection to God and Emotional Intelligence in a sample of male combat veterans with Brain injury

No evidence for a relationship between Emotional Connection to God and Emotional Intelligence in a sample of male combat veterans with Brain injury | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Short Report No evidence for a relationship between Emotional Connection to God and Emotional Intelligence in a sample of male combat veterans with Brain injury Irene Cristofori, Shira Cohen-Zimerman, Alya Abderrahmane, Barry Gordon, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7556287/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Religious and spiritual experiences are deeply intertwined with neural, cognitive, and emotional processes. Among different emotional processes, emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in the way individuals connect with supernatural entities. This study investigates the impact of penetrating traumatic brain injury (pTBI) on an individuals’ emotional connection to God and in particular, explores its relationship with emotional intelligence. We compared pTBI patients and healthy controls (HC) using a standardized measure of emotional intelligence (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test; MSCEIT). No significant differences were found between groups in emotional connection to God levels, and no relationship was found between emotional intelligence and emotional connection to God, in our sample. These findings provide no evidence of an association between emotional intelligence and the individual capacity for establishing a strong connection to God. Other cognitive and emotional constructs may mediate or moderate this relationship. Cognitive Neuroscience penetrating traumatic brain injury religious beliefs emotional intelligence Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 INTRODUCTION A crucial aspect of religious beliefs is the individual’s ability to establish a personal relationship with divinity, also referred as c onnection to God . The ability to establish a deep and strong connection to God has been linked to a specific neural network in the prefrontal cortex. For instance, studies on traumatic brain injury patients have demonstrated that lesions in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Cohen-Zimerman et al., 2020 ; Cristofori et al., 2021 ) and the right orbitofrontal cortex (Cohen-Zimerman et al 2025) can enhance a person’s perceived relationship with God. These findings suggest that neural damage to emotional and social regulation networks may increase spiritual connectedness. Emotions play a crucial role in influencing cognition and behavior and may be critical in fostering a connection to God. Emotional Intelligence — the capacity to perceive, understand, regulate, and utilize emotions — encompasses both intrapersonal and interpersonal emotional processing (Mayer et al. 2008 ). Neuroimaging and lesion studies suggest that emotional intelligence is supported by an integrated network involving the frontal, temporal and parietal cortex (Frith and Frith, 2007 ; Blakemore, 2008 ; Krueger et al., 2009 ; Hogeveen et al., 2016 ; He et al., 2018 ). Although the neural basis of emotional intelligence has been examined, it remains unclear whether emotional intelligence is directly related to one’s perceived connection to God, particularly in individuals with penetrating traumatic brain injury. Only a few studies have explored the association between emotional intelligence and religious beliefs. For example, Paek ( 2006 ) reported that individuals with higher emotional intelligence are more likely to participate in religious practices and adopt an intrinsic religious orientation [an attitude of considering religion as an end in itself (Allport and Ross, 1967 )]. Subsequent studies have replicated this association, linking perceived emotional ability and intrinsic religious orientation (Liu, 2010 ), and emotional intelligence and religious beliefs (Łowicki and Zajenkowski, 2017 ). The relationship between religious beliefs and emotional intelligence has also been supported by studies on theory of mind (the ability to understand other individuals’ intentions and beliefs). Theory of mind has been identified as a prerequisite for religious beliefs, since individuals often conceptualize deities as intentional agents with mental states (Waytz et al., 2010 ; Gervais and Norenzayan, 2012 ; Willard and Norenzayan, 2013 ). Neuroimaging studies supported these findings, and associated religious beliefs (particularly when judging God’s perceived emotion) with theory of mind neural network, including the middle temporal and frontal gyrus (Kapogiannis et al 2009). Theory of mind ability is also positively associated with emotional intelligence (Barlow et al., 2010 ; Ferguson and Austin, 2010 ), and individuals with impaired theory of mind, such as those with autism, tend to report lower levels of belief in God (Norenzayan et al., 2012 ). These findings further support a potential link between religiosity and emotional intelligence. However, the association between one’s emotional intelligence and their emotional connection to God is largely unexplored. In this study, we aimed to explore this potential association. Given the literature described above, we hypothesized that higher emotional intelligence will be associated with stronger emotional connection to God. To examine this hypothesis, we obtained self-report ratings regarding a personal connection to God, as well as objective measures of emotional intelligence. METHODS Participants Data was collected during Phase 4 of the VHIS (2008–2012), a prospective study of male Vietnam War veterans with penetrating traumatic brain injuries (pTBI), and non-brain-injured combat veterans (Raymont et al., 2011 ; Cristofori et al., 2024 ). In total, target measures were collected from 113 patients with TBI and 32 healthy control participants matched for Vietnam combat experience. All of the participants were matched for age (U(145) = 1993 ; p = .184, d = .102 ; BF 10 = .234), education (U(145) = 1960 ; p = .414, d = .094 ; BF 10 = .317) preinjury intelligence (AFQT, Department of Defense, 1960 ) (U(129) = 1328.5 ; p = .343, d = .129 ; BF 10 = .367) and handedness (U(145) = 1800.5 ; p = .961, d = − .004 ; BF 10 = .245). See Table 1 . Participants were evaluated 45 years after injury, so it can be assumed that they were stable because most of the compensatory mechanisms observed after TBI had likely occurred in the 3 years immediately after injury (Han et al., 2007). Table 1 reports pTBI and HC group demographics and results from selected neuropsychological tests that were administered over a 5-day testing period. The Institutional Review Board at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke in Bethesda approved all study procedures, and participants provided written consent for inclusion in the study. Neuropsychological Testing Phase 4 participants were assessed from 2009 to 2012 at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, MD, over a 5- to 7-day period with tests that measured a wide variety of neuropsychological functions, including memory, language, executive functioning, and social cognition. For this study, we focused on the assessment of connection to God, emotional intelligence/competence, which will be described next. Emotional Connection to God measure The emotional connection to God score (CTG Score) includes 15 items that focus on ones’ relationship with God, regardless of their specific religious affiliation (see Appendix A ). Items include five items from the Religious Experience Questionnaire (Geffner and Gross, 1984 ), 8 from the God Image Inventory (Lawrence, 1997 ), and 2 from the Religiosity Measure Questionnaire (Rohrbaugh and Jessor, 1975 ). For each participant, a z-score was calculated to sum their responses on all 15 items. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted and showed that 15 items represent one factor. The number of items (15) and the sample size (145) align with recent guidelines for exploratory factor analysis (de Winter JCF, et al 2009). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) To assess the participant’s emotional intelligence/competence, we used the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test [(MSCEIT; (Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso 2002 )] which is a 141-item widely used standardized task battery measuring emotional intelligence and two main components of emotional intelligence: Strategic and Experiential. Strategic emotional intelligence refers to the ability to understand and manage emotions, whereas Experiential emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and use emotions. The scoring of MSCEIT responses relies on their alignment with responses given by a normative sample from the general population. Higher scores indicate greater emotional intelligence. Control measures We evaluated pre- and post-injury general intelligence using the Armed Forces Qualification Test [AFQT-7A; (Department of Defense, 1960 )], basic verbal comprehension using Token Test (McNeil and Prescott,1994), object naming using the Boston naming task (Kaplan, Goodglass, & Weintraub, 1983), and depression using the Beck Depression Inventory-II [BDI-II; (Beck et al., 1996 )]. These measures were used to control for general cognition, language, and depression in our sample. The lesion overlay density map for all participants in the pTBI group can be found in Fig. 1 . All participants in this study provided their written informed consent to participate. An institutional review board at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke at the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA approved the VHIS protocol. ------- Fig. 1 and Table 1 around here------ CT Acquisition and analysis We acquired Axial CT scans without contrast on a GE Medical Systems Light Speed Plus CT scanner in helical mode at the Bethesda Naval Hospital, Bethesda, MD. All scans were performed during Phase III of the Vietnam Head Injury Study [VHIS; (2003–2006)]. MRI scanning was precluded due to the likelihood of our pTBI participants having retained metal in their brains due to the injury or surgery. While more recent CT scans were completed at Phase 4 (2008–2012) for clinical purposes, an NIH staff radiologist who viewed them reported no new lesions or significant pathological changes compared to Phase 3. Structural neuroimaging data were reconstructed with an in-plane voxel size of 0.4 x 0.4 mm, an overlapping slice thickness of 2.5 mm, and a 1-mm slice interval. Lesion location and volume from CT images were determined using the interactive ABLe software (Solomon et al., 2007 ) implemented in MEDx v3.44 (Medical Numerics) with enhancements to support the Automated Anatomical Labeling (AAL) atlas (Tzourio-Mazoyer et al., 2002 ). The CT image of each subject’s brain was normalized to a CT template brain image in Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) space. Lesion volume was calculated by manually tracing the lesion in all relevant slices of the CT image in native space and then summing the trace areas and multiplying by slice thickness. Manual tracing was performed by a trained neuropsychiatrist with extensive clinical experience reading CT scans. It was then reviewed by an observer who was blind to the results of the clinical evaluation and neuropsychological testing (J.G.), enabling a consensus decision to be reached regarding the extent of each lesion. Statistical analysis For statistical analyses, we performed classical hypothesis tests and Bayesian hypothesis tests, as recent advances in quantitative psychology have criticized the practice of wholly relying on p-values for statistical evidence (Kass and Raftery, 1995 ). We also performed correlation tests such as bivariate Spearman correlation’s tests. All inferential analyses were carried out using SPSS (Version 26) and JASP (Version 0.17.1). The Bayes factor (BF) represents an odds ratio, i.e., the probability of the data under one hypothesis relative to another. As example, a value of BF10 = 6 designates the data are six times more likely under H1 than H0. While a value of BF01 = 3 designates the data are three times more likely under H0 than H1. Our interpretation of BF values follows the standard recommendations (Robert et al., 2008 );Jarosz and Wiley 2014 ), i.e., a BF value ranging from 1 to 3 infers moderate evidence, from 3 to 10 substantial evidence, and from 10 to 30 strong evidence. BF10 calculates evidence for the alternative hypothesis (H1) relative to the null hypothesis (H0), while BF01 calculates evidence for the null hypothesis (H0) relative to the alternative hypothesis (H1). Behavioral data analysis was carried out for the MSCEIT. Effect sizes (Cohen’s d, d = 0.2 indicates a small effect size, d = 0.5 a medium effect size and d = 0.8 a large effect size) and confidence intervals (95% CI) for the difference between the means were calculated representing the observed difference performances between groups. Depending if the outcome measures did fulfill normality (Kolgomorov–Smirnov test) and homogeneity of variance (Bartlett homogeneity test) assumptions or not, parametric and non-parametric analyses were performed: First, the overall difference between the two groups (pTBI and HC) was assessed applying a Student’s or Mann-Whitney t-test. Then, bivariate Pearson or Spearman correlation’s tests were performed to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between the behavioral scores and the Connection to God one. Fisher's Z-transformation was used to compare the strength of the correlations when the two group correlations were significant. RESULTS Neuropsychological results Significant differences between the two groups were observed for the post-injury intelligence (AFQT) score [U(140) = 1041 ; p = .002, d = .369 ; BF 10 = .977)], with HC having higher scores than pTBI. Yet, both groups performed within the normal range for this test (the average score for each group is above the 50th percentile). Significant differences were also observed on the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1996 ) [U(144) = 2162.5 ; p = .045, d = .235 ; BF 10 = 1.581)], with HC reporting higher levels of depression compared to individuals with pTBI [U(144) = 1340.5 ; p = .045, d = .235 ; BF 10 = 5.463)]. Nonetheless, both pTBI and HC fell within the normal range of the Beck Depression Inventory. Emotional Connection to God pTBI patients (.067 ± .802) and HC (-.321 ± .976) did not differ in the emotional connection to God measure compared to HC, [U(145) = 1412; p = .059 ; d = − .219 ; 95% CI = − .422 to .005; BF 10 = 1.373]. (See Fig. 2 ). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) The overall scores of the MSCEIT, which include the two components of the battery of tasks (strategic and experiential), were compared between the pTBI and HC groups. This comparison revealed no significant difference between the two groups [t(129)= -1.819; p = .184; d = .102 ; 95% CI = 57.14 to 156.93 ; BF 10 = 0.477]. When comparing pTBI and HC groups based on their scores from the strategic and experiential components of the MSCEIT, we did not observe any significant difference (Strategic : t(128) = 1.494 ; p = .138; d = .308 ; 95% CI = − .098 to .713 ; BF 10 = 0.319 ; Experiential : t(128) = .934 ; p = .352; d = .193 ; 95% CI = − .212 to .597 ; BF 10 = 0.618). This would indicate that both pTBI and HC participants had the same ability to understand, manage, perceive, and use their emotions. Relationship between Emotional Connection to God and Emotional Intelligence To test our primary hypothesis, a correlation analysis was conducted on the entire sample of participants, revealing no significant association between the MSCEIT score and Emotional Connection to God score, when using the total score (n = 128, r = − .085, p = .338), and also no significant correlation when using the strategic (n = 128, r = − .120, p = .210) and the experiential (n = 128, r = − .014, p = .764) scores ( Supplementary Table 1 ). Within the pTBI patients, we did not find a significant correlation between Emotional Connection to God and strategic (n = 98 ; r=-.068 ; p = .506) or experiential (n = 98; r = .148 ; p = .145 ) MSCEIT scores ( Supplementary Table 2 ). For the HC group, we found a negative relationship between MSCEIT score and the Emotional Connection to God score when considering the total MSEIT score (n = 30; r = − .428; p < .001) and the experiential component (n = 30; r = − .475; p = .008) but not for the strategic component (n = 30; r = − .105 ; p = .581). See Fig. 3 and Supplementary Table 2. The results remained stable when ruling out patients and HC presenting moderate to severe depression (BDI score > 20). Given this null result, we did not further assess for neural mediation of the relation between emotional connection to God and emotional intelligence. DISCUSSION This study sought to examine whether emotional intelligence plays a role in shaping individuals’ self-reported emotional connection to God in a unique sample of male Vietnam veterans with penetrating traumatic brain injuries (pTBI). Contrary to our initial hypothesis, we found no significant positive correlation between emotional intelligence, as measured by the MSCEIT and CTG, either across the full sample or within the pTBI group. Interestingly, among healthy controls (HC), there was a significant negative correlation between Emotional Connection to God and the total MSCEIT score and its experiential component, suggesting that those with higher emotional sensitivity reported a weaker connection to God. These findings contrast with prior studies that have proposed a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and religiosity or intrinsic religious orientation (Paek, 2006 ; Łowicki & Zajenkowski, 2017 ). While earlier work emphasized that greater emotional competencies might support richer spiritual or religious experiences, our results suggest that this may not generalize to all populations, particularly to those with significant neurological injury. The absence of a correlation between Emotional Connection to God and emotional intelligence in the pTBI group could be attributed to structural and functional changes in brain regions involved in emotional and social cognition. Previous lesion studies have shown that damage to areas such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and right orbitofrontal cortex can lead to an enhanced connection to God (Cohen-Zimerman et al., 2020 ; Cristofori et al., 2021 ), especially in individuals with a secure attachment (Cohen-Zimerman et al., 2025). This suggests that in cases of neural damage, spirituality may arise or be maintained through alternate, potentially compensatory, pathways not directly dependent on traditional emotional intelligence networks. It is important to note that a null finding does not necessarily indicate the absence of an association; rather, it reflects that no statistically significant relationship was detected under the specific conditions, measures, and sample used in this study. This result may be due to a true lack of association or other factors. The observed negative relationship between emotional intelligence and Emotional Connection to God in healthy controls adds nuance to the theoretical understanding of spirituality. Individuals with lower experiential emotional intelligence may seek emotional support or regulation through a spiritual connection, thus forming a stronger Emotional Connection to God. This interpretation aligns with the compensatory model proposed by Schnitker et al. (2012), where insecure attachment or emotional deficits prompt individuals to seek divine connection as a substitute for interpersonal emotional bonds. An important factor, warranting consideration, is gender. Studies have consistently shown that women tend to score higher than men in emotional intelligence and empathy (Brackett et al., 2004 ; Śmieja et al., 2014 ), and also tend to report stronger religious involvement (Felty and Paloma, 1991). Our sample included only male participants, which may limit the generalizability of these findings and may have influenced the lack of significant emotional intelligence– Emotional Connection to God correlations. Future studies should incorporate gender-balanced samples to explore potential moderating effects. Lastly, the broader literature suggests that religion can influence self-regulatory processes, including self-control and goal regulation (McCullough and Willoughby, 2009 ). While these constructs were not directly assessed in our study, they may represent more relevant psychological mechanisms in sustaining a connection to God, particularly when emotional intelligence does not appear to play a central role. In sum, our findings suggest that emotional intelligence, as measured by the MSCEIT, is not positively associated with a connection to God in male veterans, especially those with penetrating traumatic brain injuries. These results invite a reconsideration of the cognitive and emotional foundations of religious experience, suggesting a greater role for relational and affective mechanisms over abstract emotional competencies (Cristofori et al., 2021 ). It could also be possible that emotional attachment (the feeling of closeness and affection that helps sustain significant relations over time), rather than emotional competence, guides attachment to God. Declarations ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research was supported by a John F. Templeton Foundation grant (J. Grafman and P. McNamara) and the Therapeutic Cognitive Neuroscience Fund (B. Gordon). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, publication decisions, or manuscript preparation. The authors thank all the Vietnam veterans who participated in this study and the National Naval Medical Center and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke for providing their facilities and supporting this research. We thank V. Raymont, S. Bonifant, B. Cheon, C. Ngo, A. Greathouse, K. Reding, G. Tasick, S. Bonifant, M. Tierney, L. Glass, L. Yozawitz, C. Noury, V. Tsen, and A. Leopold for testing participants and organizing the study References Allport GW, Ross JM (1967) Personal religious orientation and prejudice. J Pers Soc Psychol 5:432–443. 10.1037/h0021212 Barlow A, Qualter P, Stylianou M (2010) Relationships between Machiavellianism, emotional intelligence and theory of mind in children. Personal Individ Differ 48:78–82. 10.1016/j.paid.2009.08.021 Beck AT, Steer RA, Brown GK (1996) Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX Blakemore S-J (2008) The social brain in adolescence. 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Group n Mean SD p-value Cohen’s d Age (years) pTBI HC 113 32 58.27 58.81 2.991 3.605 .374 .102 Education (years) pTBI HC 113 32 14.933 15.328 2.406 2.412 .414 .094 Handedness (Right, Left, Ambidextrous) pTBI HC 113 32 (92;18;3) (25;5;2) .961 -.004 Pre-injury AFQT pTBI HC 107 22 65.841 71.591 23.265 17.646 .343 .129 Post-injury AFQT pTBI HC 110 30 57.35 72.97 25.393 19.779 .002* .369 Depression (BDI) II pTBI HC 113 31 7.33 10.71 7.554 8.745 .045* .235 Boston Naming (BN) pTBI HC 110 31 54,17 55,65 5,960 3,929 .255 .133 Token Test pTBI HC 110 31 98,08 98,55 2,664 1,841 .650 .051 Emotional Connection to God pTBI HC 113 32 -.067 -.321 .802 .970 .059 -.219 MSCEIT Total score pTBI HC 98 31 92.18 96.42 14.85 17.03 .184 .102 MSCEIT Strategic score TBI HC 98 31 88.46 94.81 12.122 17.148 .138 .308 MSCEIT Experiential score TBI HC 98 31 98.49 100.83 18.621 19.006 .352 .193 Pre-injury IQ (AFQT), percentile score of Armed Forces Qualification Test. Post-injury IQ (AFQT), percentile score of Armed Forces Qualification Test on phase 4. Depression (BDI), total score of beck depression inventory. Boston Naming (BN), total score. Token Test, total score. Connection to God, z-score. MSCEIT, emotional intelligence total score. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files S1andS2Table.docx AppendixA.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7556287","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Short Report","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":511585931,"identity":"5ecb2c4a-13f5-4a97-b9e0-0367b22c9907","order_by":0,"name":"Irene Cristofori","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6klEQVRIie3QsWoCMRzH8V8Q4hK89S+CfYWbnA6f5S9Cuha6dJIrwrm0zoIvcxLQpd0dSrnDF9Atwg2mR9FBL9KtQ76QDIEP+SdAKPQPk27lbkWAeC34fJ7cI4xuCjGNL0Tfu6smkHQ58ZBO+7NcHW1CUc9kL0U1RLR83+3B382DqcfYKNbUnY+y7Sgbg742AwI/NxOSMGAziT+EI2mOmLSEsOwlK8uGfsgTVzVpucH8JFe/BCxrAvISpWGUdm95E1Nyb1G01ZLYQx5m69bBJu7HVLs82GrYjxZusL2HXKXq/Q8gFAqFQjc6AXRfSZNfocnqAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2339-1457","institution":"Institute of Cognitive Sciences Marc Jeannerod","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Irene","middleName":"","lastName":"Cristofori","suffix":""},{"id":511588537,"identity":"ca0cc1ec-858e-494b-8baa-333c5684335a","order_by":1,"name":"Shira Cohen-Zimerman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northwestern University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shira","middleName":"","lastName":"Cohen-Zimerman","suffix":""},{"id":511588538,"identity":"afaf5930-0608-4f8a-b376-3e6aeaba935a","order_by":2,"name":"Alya Abderrahmane","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Cognitive Sciences Marc Jeannerod","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alya","middleName":"","lastName":"Abderrahmane","suffix":""},{"id":511588539,"identity":"d4e0cffe-7f97-4380-8aa9-23877a91c480","order_by":3,"name":"Barry Gordon","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Johns Hopkins University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Barry","middleName":"","lastName":"Gordon","suffix":""},{"id":511588540,"identity":"fbc125e0-d033-4241-8ad6-f4665d5c1bc9","order_by":4,"name":"Frank Krueger","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"George Mason University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Frank","middleName":"","lastName":"Krueger","suffix":""},{"id":511588541,"identity":"48b71dc4-5ccc-4132-b5a1-4f319b3fa400","order_by":5,"name":"Patrick McNamara","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Boston University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Patrick","middleName":"","lastName":"McNamara","suffix":""},{"id":511588542,"identity":"31df4d8a-12a4-4063-b0ab-ce044cef24a3","order_by":6,"name":"Jordan Grafman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northwestern University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jordan","middleName":"","lastName":"Grafman","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-07 12:49:27","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7556287/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7556287/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":90896953,"identity":"aad3f230-9ead-4119-b90f-7a0bd50a77d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 11:39:00","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":415297,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOverlay density map of the TBI (Traumatic Brain Injury) patient’s lesion (n=113). The color legend indicates the number of patients with damage to a particular voxel. Images are in radiological space (i.e., right is left). Z values from left to right: -28, -19, -10, 2, 10, 27, 38 (3 threshold).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7556287/v1/c4a59cd013f2fa0e96bffd1a.jpeg"},{"id":90896990,"identity":"bb20132e-d613-440c-b07b-3ba29185cc88","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 11:39:05","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":226381,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eViolin chart of the Connection to God z-score distribution among pTBI and HC showing the median, the lower and upper quartile and the 95% IC for each group. There is no significant difference between the groups.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7556287/v1/8530bb6d1364c00b46f87098.jpeg"},{"id":90896959,"identity":"5c7a0bf9-36f1-4d86-bfb4-f003b4976a54","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 11:39:01","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":627200,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCorrelation between the Emotional Connection to God (CTG) Z-score and the MSCEITI total (A), strategic (B), and experiential (C) ) z-score for the all sample (left) and the pTBI and HC groups (right).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7556287/v1/77cab377208f086a9280f694.jpeg"},{"id":90897634,"identity":"1b65ee5d-1ef6-420c-8498-0dc1902c2bab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 11:46:51","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2083356,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7556287/v1/c980121b-63a5-4b18-b285-409dd5493a35.pdf"},{"id":90896960,"identity":"3f8c1389-f6ab-4358-ba15-6c84d35bec70","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 11:39:02","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":21704,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"S1andS2Table.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7556287/v1/0662fda0267b123374ce25be.docx"},{"id":90897021,"identity":"c4e51b89-b7f0-4428-9940-9c614b83ad9e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-09 11:39:05","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":16579,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"AppendixA.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7556287/v1/7798e2b85512992e918b37e5.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo evidence for a relationship between Emotional Connection to God and Emotional Intelligence in a sample of male combat veterans with Brain injury\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eA crucial aspect of religious beliefs is the individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to establish a personal relationship with divinity, also referred as c\u003cem\u003eonnection to God\u003c/em\u003e. The ability to establish a deep and strong connection to God has been linked to a specific neural network in the prefrontal cortex. For instance, studies on traumatic brain injury patients have demonstrated that lesions in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Cohen-Zimerman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cristofori et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and the right orbitofrontal cortex (Cohen-Zimerman et al 2025) can enhance a person\u0026rsquo;s perceived relationship with God. These findings suggest that neural damage to emotional and social regulation networks may increase spiritual connectedness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmotions play a crucial role in influencing cognition and behavior and may be critical in fostering a connection to God. Emotional Intelligence \u0026mdash; the capacity to perceive, understand, regulate, and utilize emotions \u0026mdash; encompasses both intrapersonal and interpersonal emotional processing (Mayer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Neuroimaging and lesion studies suggest that emotional intelligence is supported by an integrated network involving the frontal, temporal and parietal cortex (Frith and Frith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Blakemore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Krueger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Hogeveen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; He et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Although the neural basis of emotional intelligence has been examined, it remains unclear whether emotional intelligence is directly related to one\u0026rsquo;s perceived connection to God, particularly in individuals with penetrating traumatic brain injury. Only a few studies have explored the association between emotional intelligence and religious beliefs. For example, Paek (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) reported that individuals with higher emotional intelligence are more likely to participate in religious practices and adopt an intrinsic religious orientation [an attitude of considering religion as an end in itself (Allport and Ross, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1967\u003c/span\u003e)]. Subsequent studies have replicated this association, linking perceived emotional ability and intrinsic religious orientation (Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), and emotional intelligence and religious beliefs (Łowicki and Zajenkowski, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe relationship between religious beliefs and emotional intelligence has also been supported by studies on theory of mind (the ability to understand other individuals\u0026rsquo; intentions and beliefs). Theory of mind has been identified as a prerequisite for religious beliefs, since individuals often conceptualize deities as intentional agents with mental states (Waytz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Gervais and Norenzayan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Willard and Norenzayan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Neuroimaging studies supported these findings, and associated religious beliefs (particularly when judging God\u0026rsquo;s perceived emotion) with theory of mind neural network, including the middle temporal and frontal gyrus (Kapogiannis et al 2009). Theory of mind ability is also positively associated with emotional intelligence (Barlow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Ferguson and Austin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), and individuals with impaired theory of mind, such as those with autism, tend to report lower levels of belief in God (Norenzayan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). These findings further support a potential link between religiosity and emotional intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the association between one\u0026rsquo;s emotional intelligence and their emotional connection to God is largely unexplored. In this study, we aimed to explore this potential association. Given the literature described above, we hypothesized that higher emotional intelligence will be associated with stronger emotional connection to God. To examine this hypothesis, we obtained self-report ratings regarding a personal connection to God, as well as objective measures of emotional intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eData was collected during Phase 4 of the VHIS (2008\u0026ndash;2012), a prospective study of male Vietnam War veterans with penetrating traumatic brain injuries (pTBI), and non-brain-injured combat veterans (Raymont et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Cristofori et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In total, target measures were collected from 113 patients with TBI and 32 healthy control participants matched for Vietnam combat experience. All of the participants were matched for age (U(145)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1993 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.184, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.102 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.234), education (U(145)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1960 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.414, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.094 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.317) preinjury intelligence (AFQT, Department of Defense, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1960\u003c/span\u003e) (U(129)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1328.5 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.343, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.129 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.367) and handedness (U(145)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1800.5 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.961, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.004 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.245). See Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Participants were evaluated 45 years after injury, so it can be assumed that they were stable because most of the compensatory mechanisms observed after TBI had likely occurred in the 3 years immediately after injury (Han et al., 2007). Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e reports pTBI and HC group demographics and results from selected neuropsychological tests that were administered over a 5-day testing period. The Institutional Review Board at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke in Bethesda approved all study procedures, and participants provided written consent for inclusion in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eNeuropsychological Testing\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhase 4 participants were assessed from 2009 to 2012 at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, MD, over a 5- to 7-day period with tests that measured a wide variety of neuropsychological functions, including memory, language, executive functioning, and social cognition. For this study, we focused on the assessment of connection to God, emotional intelligence/competence, which will be described next.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEmotional Connection to God measure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe emotional connection to God score (CTG Score) includes 15 items that focus on ones\u0026rsquo; relationship with God, regardless of their specific religious affiliation (see \u003cstrong\u003eAppendix A\u003c/strong\u003e). Items include five items from the Religious Experience Questionnaire (Geffner and Gross, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e), 8 from the God Image Inventory (Lawrence, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), and 2 from the Religiosity Measure Questionnaire (Rohrbaugh and Jessor, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e). For each participant, a z-score was calculated to sum their responses on all 15 items. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted and showed that 15 items represent one factor. The number of items (15) and the sample size (145) align with recent guidelines for exploratory factor analysis (de Winter JCF, et al 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess the participant\u0026rsquo;s emotional intelligence/competence, we used the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test [(MSCEIT; (Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)] which is a 141-item widely used standardized task battery measuring emotional intelligence and two main components of emotional intelligence: Strategic and Experiential. Strategic emotional intelligence refers to the ability to understand and manage emotions, whereas Experiential emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and use emotions. The scoring of MSCEIT responses relies on their alignment with responses given by a normative sample from the general population. Higher scores indicate greater emotional intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eControl measures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe evaluated pre- and post-injury general intelligence using the Armed Forces Qualification Test [AFQT-7A; (Department of Defense, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1960\u003c/span\u003e)], basic verbal comprehension using Token Test (McNeil and Prescott,1994), object naming using the Boston naming task (Kaplan, Goodglass, \u0026amp; Weintraub, 1983), and depression using the Beck Depression Inventory-II [BDI-II; (Beck et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e)]. These measures were used to control for general cognition, language, and depression in our sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe lesion overlay density map for all participants in the pTBI group can be found in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. All participants in this study provided their written informed consent to participate. An institutional review board at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke at the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA approved the VHIS protocol.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e------- Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e around here------\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCT Acquisition and analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe acquired Axial CT scans without contrast on a GE Medical Systems Light Speed Plus CT scanner in helical mode at the Bethesda Naval Hospital, Bethesda, MD. All scans were performed during Phase III of the Vietnam Head Injury Study [VHIS; (2003\u0026ndash;2006)]. MRI scanning was precluded due to the likelihood of our pTBI participants having retained metal in their brains due to the injury or surgery. While more recent CT scans were completed at Phase 4 (2008\u0026ndash;2012) for clinical purposes, an NIH staff radiologist who viewed them reported no new lesions or significant pathological changes compared to Phase 3. Structural neuroimaging data were reconstructed with an in-plane voxel size of 0.4 x 0.4 mm, an overlapping slice thickness of 2.5 mm, and a 1-mm slice interval. Lesion location and volume from CT images were determined using the interactive ABLe software (Solomon et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) implemented in MEDx v3.44 (Medical Numerics) with enhancements to support the Automated Anatomical Labeling (AAL) atlas (Tzourio-Mazoyer et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe CT image of each subject\u0026rsquo;s brain was normalized to a CT template brain image in Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI) space. Lesion volume was calculated by manually tracing the lesion in all relevant slices of the CT image in native space and then summing the trace areas and multiplying by slice thickness. Manual tracing was performed by a trained neuropsychiatrist with extensive clinical experience reading CT scans. It was then reviewed by an observer who was blind to the results of the clinical evaluation and neuropsychological testing (J.G.), enabling a consensus decision to be reached regarding the extent of each lesion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor statistical analyses, we performed classical hypothesis tests and Bayesian hypothesis tests, as recent advances in quantitative psychology have criticized the practice of wholly relying on p-values for statistical evidence (Kass and Raftery, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). We also performed correlation tests such as bivariate Spearman correlation\u0026rsquo;s tests. All inferential analyses were carried out using SPSS (Version 26) and JASP (Version 0.17.1). The Bayes factor (BF) represents an odds ratio, i.e., the probability of the data under one hypothesis relative to another. As example, a value of BF10\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6 designates the data are six times more likely under H1 than H0. While a value of BF01\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3 designates the data are three times more likely under H0 than H1. Our interpretation of BF values follows the standard recommendations (Robert et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e);Jarosz and Wiley \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), i.e., a BF value ranging from 1 to 3 infers moderate evidence, from 3 to 10 substantial evidence, and from 10 to 30 strong evidence. BF10 calculates evidence for the alternative hypothesis (H1) relative to the null hypothesis (H0), while BF01 calculates evidence for the null hypothesis (H0) relative to the alternative hypothesis (H1).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavioral data analysis was carried out for the MSCEIT. Effect sizes (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.2 indicates a small effect size, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.5 a medium effect size and d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.8 a large effect size) and confidence intervals (95% CI) for the difference between the means were calculated representing the observed difference performances between groups. Depending if the outcome measures did fulfill normality (Kolgomorov\u0026ndash;Smirnov test) and homogeneity of variance (Bartlett homogeneity test) assumptions or not, parametric and non-parametric analyses were performed: First, the overall difference between the two groups (pTBI and HC) was assessed applying a Student\u0026rsquo;s or Mann-Whitney t-test. Then, bivariate Pearson or Spearman correlation\u0026rsquo;s tests were performed to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between the behavioral scores and the Connection to God one. Fisher\u0026apos;s Z-transformation was used to compare the strength of the correlations when the two group correlations were significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eNeuropsychological results\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSignificant differences between the two groups were observed for the post-injury intelligence (AFQT) score [U(140)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1041 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.002, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.369 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.977)], with HC having higher scores than pTBI. Yet, both groups performed within the normal range for this test (the average score for each group is above the 50th percentile). Significant differences were also observed on the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) [U(144)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2162.5 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.045, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.235 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.581)], with HC reporting higher levels of depression compared to individuals with pTBI [U(144)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1340.5 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.045, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.235 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.463)]. Nonetheless, both pTBI and HC fell within the normal range of the Beck Depression Inventory.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEmotional Connection to God\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003epTBI patients (.067\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.802) and HC (-.321\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;.976) did not differ in the emotional connection to God measure compared to HC, [U(145)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1412; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.059 ; d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.219 ; 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.422 to .005; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.373]. (See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe overall scores of the MSCEIT, which include the two components of the battery of tasks (strategic and experiential), were compared between the pTBI and HC groups. This comparison revealed no significant difference between the two groups [t(129)= -1.819; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.184; d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.102 ; 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;57.14 to 156.93 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.477]. When comparing pTBI and HC groups based on their scores from the strategic and experiential components of the MSCEIT, we did not observe any significant difference (Strategic : t(128)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.494 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.138; d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.308 ; 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.098 to .713 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.319 ; Experiential : t(128)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.934 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.352; d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.193 ; 95% CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.212 to .597 ; BF\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.618). This would indicate that both pTBI and HC participants had the same ability to understand, manage, perceive, and use their emotions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRelationship between Emotional Connection to God and Emotional Intelligence\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo test our primary hypothesis, a correlation analysis was conducted on the entire sample of participants, revealing no significant association between the MSCEIT score and Emotional Connection to God score, when using the total score (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;128, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.085, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.338), and also no significant correlation when using the strategic (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;128, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.120, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.210) and the experiential (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;128, r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.014, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.764) scores (\u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWithin the pTBI patients, we did not find a significant correlation between Emotional Connection to God and strategic (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;98 ; r=-.068 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.506) or experiential (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;98; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.148 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.145 ) MSCEIT scores (\u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/b\u003e). For the HC group, we found a \u003cem\u003enegative\u003c/em\u003e relationship between MSCEIT score and the Emotional Connection to God score when considering the total MSEIT score (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.428; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and the experiential component (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.475; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.008) but not for the strategic component (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.105 ; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.581). See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003eand Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;2.\u003c/b\u003e The results remained stable when ruling out patients and HC presenting moderate to severe depression (BDI score\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven this null result, we did not further assess for neural mediation of the relation between emotional connection to God and emotional intelligence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study sought to examine whether emotional intelligence plays a role in shaping individuals\u0026rsquo; self-reported emotional connection to God in a unique sample of male Vietnam veterans with penetrating traumatic brain injuries (pTBI). Contrary to our initial hypothesis, we found no significant positive correlation between emotional intelligence, as measured by the MSCEIT and CTG, either across the full sample or within the pTBI group. Interestingly, among healthy controls (HC), there was a significant negative correlation between Emotional Connection to God and the total MSCEIT score and its experiential component, suggesting that those with higher emotional sensitivity reported a weaker connection to God.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings contrast with prior studies that have proposed a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and religiosity or intrinsic religious orientation (Paek, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Łowicki \u0026amp; Zajenkowski, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). While earlier work emphasized that greater emotional competencies might support richer spiritual or religious experiences, our results suggest that this may not generalize to all populations, particularly to those with significant neurological injury.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe absence of a correlation between Emotional Connection to God and emotional intelligence in the pTBI group could be attributed to structural and functional changes in brain regions involved in emotional and social cognition. Previous lesion studies have shown that damage to areas such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and right orbitofrontal cortex can lead to an enhanced connection to God (Cohen-Zimerman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cristofori et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), especially in individuals with a secure attachment (Cohen-Zimerman et al., 2025). This suggests that in cases of neural damage, spirituality may arise or be maintained through alternate, potentially compensatory, pathways not directly dependent on traditional emotional intelligence networks. It is important to note that a null finding does not necessarily indicate the absence of an association; rather, it reflects that no statistically significant relationship was detected under the specific conditions, measures, and sample used in this study. This result may be due to a true lack of association or other factors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe observed negative relationship between emotional intelligence and Emotional Connection to God in healthy controls adds nuance to the theoretical understanding of spirituality. Individuals with lower experiential emotional intelligence may seek emotional support or regulation through a spiritual connection, thus forming a stronger Emotional Connection to God. This interpretation aligns with the compensatory model proposed by Schnitker et al. (2012), where insecure attachment or emotional deficits prompt individuals to seek divine connection as a substitute for interpersonal emotional bonds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn important factor, warranting consideration, is gender. Studies have consistently shown that women tend to score higher than men in emotional intelligence and empathy (Brackett et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Śmieja et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), and also tend to report stronger religious involvement (Felty and Paloma, 1991). Our sample included only male participants, which may limit the generalizability of these findings and may have influenced the lack of significant emotional intelligence\u0026ndash; Emotional Connection to God correlations. Future studies should incorporate gender-balanced samples to explore potential moderating effects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLastly, the broader literature suggests that religion can influence self-regulatory processes, including self-control and goal regulation (McCullough and Willoughby, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). While these constructs were not directly assessed in our study, they may represent more relevant psychological mechanisms in sustaining a connection to God, particularly when emotional intelligence does not appear to play a central role.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn sum, our findings suggest that emotional intelligence, as measured by the MSCEIT, is not positively associated with a connection to God in male veterans, especially those with penetrating traumatic brain injuries. These results invite a reconsideration of the cognitive and emotional foundations of religious experience, suggesting a greater role for relational and affective mechanisms over abstract emotional competencies (Cristofori et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It could also be possible that emotional attachment (the feeling of closeness and affection that helps sustain significant relations over time), rather than emotional competence, guides attachment to God.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eACKNOWLEDGMENT\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by a John F. Templeton Foundation grant (J. Grafman and P. McNamara) and the Therapeutic Cognitive Neuroscience Fund (B. Gordon). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, publication decisions, or manuscript preparation. The authors thank all the Vietnam veterans who participated in this study and the National Naval Medical Center and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke for providing their facilities and supporting this research. We thank V. Raymont, S. Bonifant, B. Cheon, C. Ngo, A. Greathouse, K. Reding, G. Tasick, S. Bonifant, M. Tierney, L. Glass, L. Yozawitz, C. Noury, V. Tsen, and A. Leopold for testing participants and organizing the study\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAllport GW, Ross JM (1967) Personal religious orientation and prejudice. 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Cognition 129:379\u0026ndash;391. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1016/j.cognition.2013.07.016\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.cognition.2013.07.016\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTable 1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDemographical and neuropsychological variables (mean; s.d. ; p-value; cohen\u0026rsquo;s d) for veterans with no-head injury (HC) and veterans with penetrating traumatic brain injuries (pTBI).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"673\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGroup\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep-value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge (years)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.991\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.605\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.374\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.102\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEducation (years)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.933\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.328\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.406\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.412\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.414\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.094\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHandedness (Right, Left, Ambidextrous)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(92;18;3)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(25;5;2)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.961\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePre-injury AFQT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e107\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.841\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.591\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.265\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.646\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.343\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.129\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePost-injury AFQT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.393\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.779\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.002*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.369\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDepression (BDI) II\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.554\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.745\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.045*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.235\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBoston Naming (BN)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54,17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55,65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5,960\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3,929\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.255\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.133\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eToken Test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98,08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98,55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2,664\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,841\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.650\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.051\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmotional Connection to God\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.321\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.802\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.970\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.059\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.219\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMSCEIT\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal score\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.184\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.102\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMSCEIT\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStrategic score\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.122\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.148\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.138\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.308\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22.4368%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMSCEIT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExperiential score\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9.36107%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTBI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11.1441%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.621\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.006\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.352\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14.2645%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.193\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePre-injury IQ (AFQT), percentile score of Armed Forces Qualification Test.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePost-injury IQ (AFQT), percentile score of Armed Forces Qualification Test on phase 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDepression (BDI), total score of beck depression inventory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoston Naming (BN), total score.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eToken Test, total score.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConnection to God, z-score.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMSCEIT, emotional intelligence total score.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"penetrating traumatic brain injury, religious beliefs, emotional intelligence","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7556287/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7556287/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eReligious and spiritual experiences are deeply intertwined with neural, cognitive, and emotional processes. Among different emotional processes, emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in the way individuals connect with supernatural entities. This study investigates the impact of penetrating traumatic brain injury (pTBI) on an individuals\u0026rsquo; emotional connection to God and in particular, explores its relationship with emotional intelligence. We compared pTBI patients and healthy controls (HC) using a standardized measure of emotional intelligence (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test; MSCEIT). No significant differences were found between groups in emotional connection to God levels, and no relationship was found between emotional intelligence and emotional connection to God, in our sample. These findings provide no evidence of an association between emotional intelligence and the individual capacity for establishing a strong connection to God. Other cognitive and emotional constructs may mediate or moderate this relationship.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"No evidence for a relationship between Emotional Connection to God and Emotional Intelligence in a sample of male combat veterans with Brain injury","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-09 11:38:33","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7556287/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ccf1f650-1ef7-4c70-a2c8-0aa960f9957b","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":54330082,"name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-09T11:38:33+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-09 11:38:33","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7556287","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7556287","identity":"rs-7556287","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}