Brachiaria brizantha in Silvopastoral and Monoculture Systems: Soil, Trees, and Microclimate in an Altitudinal Gradient of the Amazon

Brachiaria brizantha in Silvopastoral and Monoculture Systems: Soil, Trees, and Microclimate in an Altitudinal Gradient of the Amazon | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Brachiaria brizantha in Silvopastoral and Monoculture Systems: Soil, Trees, and Microclimate in an Altitudinal Gradient of the Amazon Hipolito Murga-Orrillo, Marco Antonio Mathios Flores, Jorge Cáceres Coral, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6558677/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 06 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Agroforestry Systems → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The aim was to determine the edaphic and microclimatic influence of an altitudinal gradient on the production of Brachiaria brizantha in monoculture (MCS) and silvopastoral systems (SPS). Twenty-four farms were located along an altitudinal gradient from 150 to 1260 masl. Soil properties were found to be similar between MCS and SPS, but with significant differences (95% CI) along the altitudinal gradient, with higher values of pH, electrical conductivity, phosphorus, potassium, cation exchange capacity and clay at 503 and 661 m in alkaline soils associated with CaCO 3 , while soils at 170 and 1110 m were acidic. In the SPS, over 20 tree families and 40 species were identified, with 58% of the families consisting of Simaroubaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae, and the highest number of families and species found at the mid-altitude of 170 m. SPS regulate the microclimate by decreasing temperature and solar radiation while increasing relative humidity, contrary to MCS. These microclimatic conditions in SPS resulted in higher plant height, leaf length, and leaf width compared to MCS. The growth and development of B. brizantha did not respond to soil properties in either MCS or SPS, showing similar behavior in slightly alkaline soils as in acidic soils, nor did it respond to higher availability of phosphorus, potassium, and higher cation exchange capacity. However, the altitudinal gradient influenced both SPS and MCS, where the highest values for plant height, leaf length, and leaf width were found at mid-altitudes. Temperature Solar Radiation Altitude Pasture Soil Properties Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Introduction Pastures are globally significant biomes, covering approximately 40% of the Earth's surface and playing a crucial role in global food supply and security (O'Mara 2012 ). In the Neotropical region, pastures consist of 85% species from the Brachiaria genus, a forage grass widely used by ranchers since the 1950s (Jank et al., 2014 ). This genus shows high plasticity to edaphoclimatic conditions (Rodrigues et al., 2020 ); however, they face challenges such as seasonality, low fertility, soil acidity, and climate variability (Hoekstra et al., 2005; Hughes et al., 2013 ), increasingly accentuated environmental problems due to climate change and resource overexploitation. In the Peruvian Amazon, B. brizantha is the most widely cultivated pasture for forage production, notable for its pest resistance and versatility regarding soil fertility. This species, compared to other Brachiarias , has demonstrated similar biomass yield performance (Gómez-Marín et al., 2023 ), while also having a high nutritional value (Guerra et al., 2019 ). Studies have shown that B. brizantha adapts well to acidic soils, is drought-resistant, and contributes to improving soil fertility, aggregation, and carbon content (Pérez Brandan et al., 2017 ; Gemeda et al., 2022 ). The robust root system of this species is an effective strategy for the physical recovery of soils, reducing bulk density and improving soil structure (Cavalieri-Polizeli et al., 2022 ; Lima et al., 2023 ). These soil conservation benefits make B. brizantha a promising option for livestock production systems in the Peruvian Amazon (Pizarro et al., 2020 ; Rivera Damacio, 2023 ), showing potential to enhance the sustainability of agricultural systems (Merloti et al., 2023 ). The sustainable management of pastures is crucial for improving productivity and reducing the conversion of natural forests into grazing lands, thereby decreasing the environmental footprint of the livestock sector (Foley et al. 2011 ). In the Peruvian Amazon, SPS conserve soil properties, offering ecosystem benefits such as nutrient cycling and maintaining soil biology comparable to or even better than that of natural forests (Murga-Orrillo et al. 2024 ). Additionally, these systems contribute to the conservation of tree biodiversity. The integration of trees in SPS with B. brizantha improves the microclimate for livestock and pastures (Casanova-Lugo et al., 2020), enhances soil fertility, and promotes greater water retention, resulting in more sustainable production and highlighting benefits for soil quality and ecosystem health (Polanía-Hincapié, 2021; Broom, 2017 ; Salazar et al., 2024 ; Smith et al., 2021 ). In contrast, MCS are more vulnerable to overgrazing, which can degrade and alter soil properties, reducing nutrient availability (Abdalla et al., 2018 ). However, in MCS with B. brizantha , proper grazing management can conserve soil and water similarly to SPS (Pérez Brandan et al., 2017 ; Galdos et al., 2020 ; Cavalieri-Polizeli et al., 2022 ; Lima et al., 2023 ). The production of B. brizantha in the Peruvian Amazon occurs in MCS or SPS along an altitudinal gradient. Research comparing B. brizantha production in SPS and MCS has yielded diverse results. Some studies found no significant differences in forage accumulation between MCS and SPS (Nascimento et al., 2019 ; Carvalho et al., 2019 ), while others reported higher forage and biomass production in SPS (Azar et al., 2013 ; Xavier et al., 2011 ). However, the presence of trees in SPS alters the morphophysiological characteristics of the pastures (Sousa et al., 2023 ), due to the shading from tree canopies that create different microclimates compared to MCS. Along an altitudinal gradient, temperature has been observed to vary between 0.4 and 0.6°C for every 100 m of increase in altitude (Murga-Orrillo et al., 2023). Additionally, soil pH, organic matter, and humidity increase with altitude (Murga-Orrillo et al., 2021 ). However, there are no reports explaining how edaphoclimatic variation influences B. brizantha in the Peruvian Amazon. Therefore, the combined effects of edaphoclimatic variation on the functioning of pastures are not fully understood (Siebert et al., 2019), both along altitudinal gradients and in MCS and SPS. Pasture production must increasingly focus on sustainability. However, in the Peruvian Amazon, studies on the management of B. brizantha in SPS and MCS, especially along altitudinal gradients, are limited. There are also few reports on its behavior in relation to soil's physical and chemical properties. This study hypothesizes that both altitudinal variation and soil properties influence B. brizantha production in MCS and SPS. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the edaphoclimatic influence of the altitudinal gradient on B. brizantha production in MCS and SPS in the Loreto and San Martin regions of the Peruvian Amazon. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Area The study was conducted from March 2023 to March 2024 at altitudes of 170 m in the Yurimaguas district, 503 m in the Cuñumbuqui district, 661 meters in the Zapatero district, and 1110 m in the Calzada district, in the Loreto and San Martin regions (Table 1 ). In these districts, SPS were classified as those combining timber trees, soil conservation trees, and fruit trees (> 15 trees/ha) with B. brizantha and other pastures. In contrast, MCS were those with no significant presence of trees, where B. brizantha dominated the pasture areas. Considering these classifications, six livestock farms were selected in each district (three in SPS and three in MCS), making a total of 12 farms in SPS and 12 in MCS (Table 1 , Fig. 1 ). The farms were georeferenced using a GPS, Model Rtk-U22T.The climatic conditions at the lower part of the gradient, at 170 m in Yurimaguas (Fig. 1 ), for the period from 1990 to 2019, show that the mean monthly temperatures reach their lowest values in July (25.5°C), with the highest values occurring in September and October (27°C). Monthly precipitation increases starting in September (120 mm), reaching peak values in May (280 mm), and decreases from April (260 mm), with the lowest levels in August (100 mm) (Murga-Orrillo et al., 2024 ). At the upper part of the gradient, at 1110 m in Calzada (Fig. 1 ), mean monthly temperatures are lowest in July (21.5°C) and highest in October (22.5°C). Monthly precipitation is lowest in August (70 mm) and highest in February (180 mm) (SENAMHI, 2024). Table 1 Location of the experimental units in the Loreto (Yurimaguas) and San Martin (Cuñumbuqui, Zapatero, and Calzada) regions. District Management Latitude Longitude Altitude Area Cattle ……..°……. masl ha Heads Breed Yurimaguas (170 masl) SPS 5.56 76.80 155 20 35 HxBS, BSxG y G 5.98 76.19 178 40 18 5.90 76.17 170 25 40 SMC 5.89 76.20 192 87 109 BSxG, HxG y BRxBS 5.97 76.18 157 425 86 5.89 76.19 169 16 36 Cuñumbuqui (503 masl) SSP 6.52 76.52 571 20 40 HxG, BSxG y G 6.53 76.52 373 23 40 6.54 76.48 554 72 85 SMC 6.51 76.51 572 74 110 H y JxBS 6.52 76.50 466 29 34 6.55 76.49 483 18 40 Zapatero (661 masl) SSP 6.61 76.49 648 25 38 HxG 6.55 76.52 724 35 62 6.60 76.49 652 42 104 SMC 6.55 76.51 651 44 34 HxG 6.51 76.54 637 69 118 6.35 76.30 652 72 113 Calzada (1110 masl) SSP 6.04 77.05 1112 10 12 BSxG, BSxCR y HxCR 6.04 77.08 1035 20 20 6.05 77.06 1260 12 18 SMC 6.04 77.04 1009 10 60 HxG y HxBr 6.04 77.01 1138 20 85 6.08 77.01 1104 20 30 SPS- Silvopastoral System, MCS- Monoculture System, HxBS- Holstein x Brown Swiss, BSxG- Brown Swiss x Gyr, G- Gyr, BRxBS- Brahman x Brown Swiss, HxG-Holstein x Gyr, H- Holstein, JxBS- Jersey x Brown Swiss, BSxCR- Brown Swiss x Criollo, HxCR- Holstein x Criollo and HxBR- Holstein x Brahman 2.2. Soil Sampling and Analysis Soil samples were collected from the geolocated farms listed in Table 1 and Fig. 1 . The chemical analysis of the soil was conducted on composite samples made from 10 subsamples, which were collected using an auger (Riverside Brand, Peru) with a diameter of 2.5 cm to a depth of 20 cm. The samples were then air-dried, ground, and sieved through a 2 mm mesh. Organic matter content was determined using the Walkley and Black ( 1934 ) method, while phosphorus (P) was analyzed using the Olsen et al. ( 1954 ) method. Exchangeable cations (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺) were extracted with a 1 N potassium chloride (KCl) solution and determined by spectroscopy, following the protocol described by Hunter ( 1986 ). Soil texture was also evaluated using the hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1979). Additionally, to assess bulk density (Eq. 1) and porosity (Eq. 2), soil samples were collected from a depth of 0 to 10 cm using a cylinder of known volume (Solís et al., 2019 ; Blake and Hartge, 1986 ). The samples were then placed in an oven (MEMMERT, UN110) at 105°C for 48 hours until a constant weight was achieved, following the methodology of Blake and Hartge ( 1986 ). \(\:Bd=Dm/Tv\) Eq. 1 \(\:PT=[1-\frac{Bd}{Rd}]*100\) Eq. 2 Where: Bd - bulk density (g/cm³), Dm - dry soil mass (g), Tv - total volume (cm³), TP - total porosity (%), Rd - real density (2.65 g/cm³) 2.3. Tree Dendrometry in SPS In the 12 SPS farms, dendrometric variables of the trees were assessed, including total height, diameter at breast height (1.3 m above the ground), and conapy area. Total height was determined using a clinometer (Suunto, PM-5/1520, Finland), following the equation (Eq. 3) according to the methodology of Korning and Balslev ( 1994 ). Conapy area was calculated by multiplying the diagonals of the conapy projection. The trunk diameter was obtained by measuring the circumference length (Eq. 4). \(\:TH=Do*\left(Tag\beta\:\right)+Ao\) Eq. 3 \(\:TD=2\pi\:*Tc\) Eq. 4 Where: TH - total height (m), Do - distance from the observer to the tree, Ao - observer's height (m), β - observation angle. TD - trunk diameter (m), Tc - trunk circumference length (m). 2.4. Microclimatic Data Eight automatic weather stations (HUNAN Rika, RK900-05, China) were installed throughout the experimental area, with two stations in each district. In Yurimaguas, an MCS station was installed at 5.974°S and 76.172°W at an altitude of 157 m, while an SPS station was set up at 5.905°S and 76.178°W at an altitude of 170 m. In Cuñumbuqui, an MCS station was located at 6.515°S and 76.515°W at 572 m altitude, and an SPS station was installed at 6.524°S and 76.515°W at 571 m altitude. Similarly, in Zapatero, an MCS station was positioned at 6.509°S and 76.536°W at 648 m altitude, and an SPS station was set up at 6.605°S and 76.49°W at 637 m altitude. Finally, in Calzada, an MCS station was placed at 6.041°S and 77.048°W at 1009 m altitude, and an SPS station was installed at 6.044°S and 77.053°W at 1112 m altitude. The thermometers and hygrometers were installed 1.5 m above the ground on flat terrain, following the technical recommendations of the World Meteorological Organization (Bekiashev and Serebriakov, 1981 ). These stations recorded daily microclimatic data on temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation throughout the study period. Data treatment and validation followed the procedures suggested by Estévez et al. ( 2011 ). 2.5. Growth and Biomass of B. brizantha The evaluations were conducted on B. brizantha plants that had been established for 5 to 15 years on the farms (Table 1 ). In both MCS and SPS, 24 experimental plots of 5m x 5m (25 m²) each were isolated. A uniform cutting at 5 cm above the ground surface was performed in each experimental plot. Sampling was carried out in 1 m² using a 1-meter square PVC frame. Pasture samples were collected at 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 days after the uniform cutting, with samples taken 5 cm above the ground surface, resulting in 5 samples per plot, totaling 120 samples. Fresh samples were evaluated for plant height, leaf length, and width using a millimeter ruler; stem diameters were measured using a digital caliper (Kamasa, KM-447). All evaluations were carried out on 10 tillers and 10 physiologically developed leaves. After these evaluations, the samples were placed in Kraft paper bags to air-dry for 2 days, and then were transferred to a hot air oven at 60°C (KertLab, ODHG-9070A) for 3 days until a constant weight was achieved. 2.6. Statistical Data Analysis To assess the discrimination between MCS and SPS, and between the altitudes of the districts (Yurimaguas, Cuñumbuqui, Zapatero, and Calzada) with respect to soil properties, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used. For the soil variables that showed discrimination in the PCA, means and non-parametric confidence intervals (CI:95%) were determined. Microclimatic data on temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation were analyzed using boxplots for MCS and SPS. Regression analysis (p < 0.05) was conducted, including residual analysis of the model, collinearity, and residual normality, for dry biomass, plant height, leaf length, and width of B. brizantha based on cutting cycle and altitude. All analyses were performed using FactoMineR, factoextra, ggplot2, tidyverse, ggpubr, car, grid, patchwork, gridExtra, scales, and RStudio's starter packages (R Core Team, 2021 ). 3. Results 3.1. Soil Properties Figure 2 shows the PCA of the physical and chemical soil properties at 4 altitudes, in both MCS and SPS, explaining 81.5% of the variability. Soil properties at different altitudes exhibit marked differences, explaining 63.5% of the variability (Dim1 of the PCA), with soils at 170 m and 1110 m differing from those at 503 m and 661 m. The latter altitudes exhibit higher values of K, CaCO₃, P, CEC, pH, EC, clay, organic matter, and porosity (Fig. 2 A). On the other hand, when soil properties are analyzed by management type, no differences are observed, meaning soil properties are similar under both MCS and SPS conditions (Fig. 2 B). More detailed analyses were performed using 95% confidence intervals (CI:95%) (Fig. 3 ) to identify significant differences in soil properties between altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m. Differences were confirmed in soils at 503 and 661 m, which had higher values of pH, EC, CaCO₃, P, K, CEC, and clay content compared to soils at 170 and 1110 m, respectively (Figs. 3 A, 3 B, 3 C, 3 E, 3 F, 3 G, and 3 L). At the same time, similar values (CI:95%) were observed along the altitude gradient for organic matter content, porosity, bulk density, silt, and sand (Figs. 3 D, 3 H, 3 I, 3 J, and 3 K). 3.2. Trees in SPS Cattle production in the Peruvian Amazon, whether in MCS or SPS, generally involves crosses of Holstein, Brown Swiss, Gyr, Brahman, Jersey, and Criollo breeds. Depending on the production purpose, cattle for meat are found at lower altitudes, while those for milk production are at higher altitudes of the gradient (Table 1 ). In the evaluated SPS, the predominant tree families are: Simaroubaceae (20%), Asteraceae (14%), Fabaceae (14%), Malvaceae (10%), Apocynaceae (6%), Melastomataceae (6%), Rubiaceae (5%), Sapindaceae (4%), Rutaceae (3%), Anacardiaceae (2%), Proteaceae (2%), Meliaceae (2%), Vochysiaceae (2%), Anonaceae (1%), Euphorbiaceae (1%), Mimosaceae (1%), Urticaceae (1%), and Others (5%) (Fig. 4 A). 58% of the composition is concentrated in the families Simaroubaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae. The highest number of families, species, and individuals were found at an altitude of 170 m (Figs. 4 B, 4 C, and 4 D), with the Simaroubaceae family standing out, particularly the species Simarouba amara , which had 28 individuals, followed by the Asteraceae family, with the species Pollalestra discolor , which had 20 individuals (Table 2 ). Table 2 Families and species of trees identified in the districts of Yurimaguas (Loreto region), Cuñumbuqui, Zapatero, and Calzada (San Martin region). District Family Species n TD CA TH …………….m…..…..…… Yurimaguas (170 masl) Apocynaceae Himatanthus sucuuba 3 0.2 ± 0.1 42.2 ± 32.0 10.8 ± 4.1 Arecaceae Bactris gasipaes 1 0.1 8.1 14.2 Asteraceae Pollalestra discolor 20 0.2 ± 0.1 40.3 ± 36.5 11.3 ± 2.9 Bignonaceae Tabebuia rosea 1 0.4 116.90 18.4 Bixaceae Cochlospermum orinocense 1 0.2 28.3 10.6 Euphorbiaceae Croton matourensis 1 0.3 155.04 13.2 Fabaceae Ormosia arborea 1 0.4 67.9 9.3 Ormosia coccinea 1 0.4 48.4 9.3 Apuleia leiocarpa 3 0.2 ± 0.1 46.9 ± 37.7 11.1 ± 3.4 Malvaceae Ceiba pentandra 1 0.1 22.00 6.5 Meliaceae Cedrela odorata 2 0.3 ± 0.2 10.8 ± 6.9 14.1 ± 2.5 Mimosaceae Inga ruiziana 2 0.2 ± 0.1 49.3 ± 29.8 9.9 ± 4.1 Myristicaceae Virola sp 1 0.2 20.4 11.4 Rhamnaceae Colubrina glandulosa 1 0.1 25.5 8.6 Rubiaceae Capirona decorticans 1 0.2 4.4 10.6 Genipa americana 2 0.4 ± 0.1 97.4 ± 42.8 17.5 ± 1.2 Callycophyllum spruceanum 3 0.2 ± 0.1 15.7 ± 1.9 11.0 ± 1.0 Rutaceae Citrus sp 1 0.3 58.1 6.9 Sapindaceae Cupania cinerea 3 0.2 ± 0.1 53.0 ± 46.2 11.7 ± 2.6 Simaroubaceae Simarouba amara 28 0.2 ± 0.1 35.1 ± 35.0 11.3 ± 2.4 Cuñumbuqui (503 masl) Fabaceae Pterocarpus sp 2 0.2 ± 0.1 60.1 ± 7.8 7.5 ± 1.5 Ormosia sp 3 0.2 ± 0.1 25.9 ± 21.1 9.1 ± 2.3 Inga sp 2 0.2 ± 0.1 61.6 ± 0.5 6.5 ± 3.4 Apuleia leiocarpa 1 0.4 85.8 12.9 Malvaceae Guazuma ulmifolia 9 0.2 ± 0.1 62.8 ± 7.1 6.7 ± 1.5 Guazuma crinita 2 0.3 ± 0.1 67.4 ± 10.3 13.1 ± 2.9 Rutaceae Zanthoxylum riedelianum 2 0.2 ± 0.1 23.0 ± 11.6 8.7 ± 2.6 Sapindaceae Cupania dentata 2 0.4 37.4 7.2 Vochysiaceae Vochysia sp 2 0.2 ± 0.1 41.3 ± 4.0 12.5 ± 1.1 Zapatero (661 masl) Anacardiaceae Manguifera indica 3 0.4 ± 0.1 122.9 ± 58.7 13.7 ± 4.9 Euphorbiaceae Hura crepitans 1 0.5 143.2 21.6 Fabaceae Parkia sp 1 0.4 78.5 12.5 Ormosia sp 1 0.2 17.4 12.3 Malvaceae Guazuma ulmifolia 1 0.3 24.6 12.1 Proteaceae Roupala montana 3 0.2 ± 0.1 27.0 ± 12.0 8.0 ± 1.6 Rubiaceae Genipa americana 1 0.4 70.2 11.4 Rutaceae Zanthoxylum riedelianum 1 0.4 122.7 17.8 Sapotaceae Chrysophyllum cainito 1 0.3 67.2 18.3 Verbenaceae Vitex sp 1 0.2 16.6 8.9 Vochysiaceae Vochysia sp 1 0.4 201.1 17.2 Calzada (1110 masl) Anonaceae Annona sp 1 0.4 118.8 15.6 Apocynaceae Aspidosperma album 1 0.3 79.3 20.9 Himatanthus sucuuba 4 0.2 ± 0.1 77.0 ± 63.3 12.0 ± 5.7 Fabaceae Apuleia leiocarpa 1 0.3 52.17 21.6 Inga sp 2 0.2 ± 0.3 57.1 ± 21.0 8.0 ± 1.1 Malvaceae Ceiba pentandra 1 0.3 44.2 9.25 Melastomataceae Miconia amazonica 8 0.3 ± 0.1 89.2 ± 59.3 15.6 ± 5.6 Meliaceae Cedrela odorata 1 0.4 40.7 17.2 Sapindaceae Cupania cineria 1 0.2 86.6 5.4 Urticaceae Cecropia obtusifolia 2 0.2 ± 0.1 67.1 ± 53.3 8.9 ± 2.3 TD- trunk diameter, CA- canopy area, TH- tree height These trees, integrated into SPS, are mostly remnants of natural forests and were primarily preserved to provide shade for cattle, thereby reducing heat stress during hours and days of intense solar radiation. Additionally, the trees were conserved for various uses such as obtaining timber, fuel, and other forest products. Reforested trees, on the other hand, were mainly planted for timber production, in addition to providing shade and contributing to soil conservation. These trees are distributed in live fences, marking pastures and property boundaries, in rows or scattered within pastures, as well as in steeper areas to prevent landslides. Regarding the dendrometric variables of the evaluated trees, trunk diameter ranges from 0.06 m to 0.64 m, with an average of 0.24 m. The canopy area varies between 3.63 m² and 220.35 m², with an average of 52.54 m², while tree height ranges from 4.09 m to 21.6 m, with an average height of 11.21 m (Table 2 , Figs. 4 B, 4 C, 4 D). Knowing the canopy area and tree height is crucial for properly managing shade and microclimate in agricultural production. 3.3. Microclimate in MCS and SPS In the study of the microclimate for B. brizantha , the daily mean values of temperature, relative humidity, and radiation were evaluated in MCS and SPS at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 me along the altitudinal gradient (Figs. 5 A, 5 B, and 5 C). Both in MCS and SPS, a decrease in temperature was observed as altitude increased (Fig. 5 A). However, relative humidity and solar radiation did not show a clear pattern concerning altitude (Figs. 5 B and 5 C). Additionally, when comparing the microclimatic conditions between management systems, it was found that temperature and solar radiation were lower in SPS compared to MCS (Figs. 5 A and 5 C), while relative humidity was higher in SPS (Fig. 5 B). 3.4. Growth and Production of B. brizantha Figure 6 presents regression analyses (p < 0.05) of dry biomass, plant height, and leaf length of B. brizantha for a 75-day cutting cycle, evaluated at four altitudes. The dry biomass in MCS is estimated at 5022.5, 4873.8, 4217.2, and 5387.5 kg/ha, while in SPS it is estimated at 4962.5, 4920.0, 4425.0, and 4177.5 kg/ha at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m respectively (Figs. 6 A and 6 D). These results show that dry matter production in MCS does not maintain a clear pattern regarding altitude; however, in SPS, dry matter production increases as altitude decreases. Regarding plant height in MCS, it is estimated at 69.0, 57.4, 53.9, and 55.0 cm, and in SPS, it is estimated at 72.9, 88.7, 59.4, and 54.3 cm at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m respectively (Figs. 6 B and 6 E). A greater plant height is observed in MCS at 170 m, while in SPS, a greater plant height is reached at 503 m. Finally, leaf length in MCS is estimated at 22.8, 30.5, 22.8, and 24.1 cm, and in SPS, it is estimated at 37.1, 50.4, 34.8, and 31.1 cm at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m respectively (Figs. 6 C and 6 F). In both MCS and SPS, the greatest leaf length is observed at 503 m. The evaluations up to grazing age for the variables of plant height, leaf length, and leaf width concerning altitude are presented in Figs. 7 A, 7 B, and 7 C. Using the second derivative (b/2a) of the quadratic models (p < 0.05) to determine the optimal altitude for these variables, it was found that in MCS, the greatest plant height is 58.1 cm (R 2 adj = 0.24) at 663.5 m, and in SPS, it is 80 cm (R 2 adj = 0.67) at 418.2 m (Fig. 7 A). Similarly, in MCS, the greatest leaf length is 32.14 cm (R 2 adj = 0.87) at 646.2 m, while in SPS, it is 43.5 cm (R 2 adj = 0.5) at 500 m (Fig. 7 B). Finally, the greatest leaf width in MCS is 1.16 cm (R 2 adj = 0.48) at 700 m, and in SPS, it is 1.26 cm (R 2 adj = 0.35) at 590.9 m (Fig. 7 C). The estimates indicate that the plant height, leaf length, and leaf width of B. brizantha will be greater in SPS than in MCS along the altitudinal gradient of 150 m to 1260 m in the Peruvian Amazon, specifically in the Loreto and San Martin regions 4. Discussion 4.1. Soil and Pasture Management in Altitudinal Gradient The soil's chemical properties show better agricultural suitability at altitudes of 503 and 661 m, with pH levels of 7.5 to 7 (Fig. 3 A) associated with CaCO 3 (Fig. 3 C), compared to altitudes of 170 and 1110 m, which have acidic soils with a pH of 4 and 0% CaCO 3 . These findings suggest that altitude did not have a significant influence on the formation of these soils, due to the wide variation within a relatively small altitudinal gradient. Therefore, the existing differences in soil properties are due to the parent material, such as CaCO 3 , which resulted in a neutral to slightly alkaline pH and higher availability of P, K, and greater CEC (Figs. 3 E, 3 F, and 3 G) for B. brizantha and other associated plants. Studies on altitudinal gradients in agroforestry systems have determined that variations in soil properties do not depend on the altitudinal gradient but on the conditions of the parent material (Murga-Orrillo et al., 2023a ). Pourbabaei et al. ( 2020 ) also point out that there is no clear pattern of soil properties in relation to an altitudinal gradient. However, in larger altitudinal gradients of 0 to 2000 m (Bayranvand et al., 2021 ) and 0 to 4400 m (Murga-Orrillo et al., 2021 ), it has been found that organic matter generally increases with altitude, although it begins to decrease beyond 3000 m. Similarly, the type of management in MCS and SPS did not show a significant influence on soil properties (Fig. 2 B). This may be because the soils in both systems have been managed for over 10 years with B. brizantha , a plant that has favorable characteristics for soil conservation. The cultivation of B. brizantha can improve soil nutrient content and organic matter (Nascente et al., 2015 ). The extensive root system of B. brizantha contributes to improving soil quality, especially when used as a long-term crop (Abán et al., 2022). 4.2. Trees Associated with SPS The trees in SPS belong to more than 20 families and over 40 species, with the greatest diversity found at lower altitudes (Fig. 4 and Table 1 ). SPS maintain the original tree diversity of the Amazon, while also moderating the microclimate, providing a more comfortable environment for cattle by reducing temperature and solar radiation (Figs. 5 A and 5 C). In the Ecuadorian Amazon, studies have determined that tree diversity in SPS decreases with altitude, with higher tree density at lower altitudes (Torres et al., 2024 ; Torres et al., 2022 ). SPS are crucial for intensifying livestock production and conserving the environment, enhancing economic and social contributions while promoting the conservation of tree species and supporting local livelihoods (Torres et al., 2024 ). Additionally, SPS help cattle adapt to rising temperatures by providing more hours of thermal comfort compared to MCS (Pezzopane et al., 2019 ). 4.3. Microclimate in MCS and SPS The microclimate in SPS and MCS varies due to management conditions and the altitudinal gradient (Figs. 5 A, 5 B, and 5 C). The microclimatic differences between SPS and MCS in terms of temperature were − 0.3, -0.8, -0.4, and − 1.0°C; in relative humidity were 3.6, 3.6, 2.3, and 5.6%; and in solar radiation were − 106.9, -37.3, -103.2, and − 108.6 W/m² at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 meters respectively. Although these microclimatic variations seem small as they are based on daily averages, it is important to note that nighttime temperatures in MCS are lower than in SPS due to the trees' ability to buffer temperatures better than the open fields of MCS. During peak temperature hours (11 to 15 h), the temperature variation between SPS and MCS can be up to 10°C, especially under trees with high branch and leaf density in the canopy. During these periods, cattle seek thermal comfort in the shade of the trees. In SPS, maximum temperatures and wind speed are reduced, humidity patterns are altered, and light levels are lower, especially under the tree canopies (Vieira et al., 2021 ; Sousa et al., 2015 ; Gomes et al., 2020 , Pezzopane et al., 2015 ). Additionally, Aalto et al. (2021) demonstrated a strong negative relationship between canopy density and temperature, with differences of up to 5.7°C in average temperatures between trees with 0% and 100% canopy density. These microclimatic changes positively impact cattle behavior (Sousa et al., 2015 ). Microclimate temperatures decrease in both MCS and SPS as altitude increases (Fig. 5 A). However, relative humidity and solar radiation do not follow a clear pattern with altitude (Figs. 5 B and 5 C), possibly due to varied geographical conditions such as proximity to hills, rivers, and forests. In agroforestry systems along an altitudinal gradient, temperature decreases at a rate of 0.56°C for every 100 m increase in altitude (Murga-Orrillo et al., 2023b ). 4.4. Growth and Production of B. brizantha Pasture production for livestock purposes in the Peruvian Amazon is dominated by B. brizantha , which represents 83%, followed by B. decumbens at 10% and B. humidicola at 4%. Since B. brizantha is the most representative species, various parameters such as dry matter, plant height, leaf length, and leaf width have been observed (Fig. 6 ). The results from both MCS and SPS show that the physiology of B. brizantha is not directly influenced by soil properties (Fig. 2 A), showing similar responses in both calcareous and acidic soils (Fig. 3 A and 3 C). It also does not excel in better soil fertility conditions (Figs. 3 E, 3 F, and 3 G), as the soil properties at an altitude of 503 m are similar to those at 661 m (Fig. 3 ). However, at an altitude of 661 m, results for dry matter, plant height, and leaf length were not comparable to those at 503 m. These findings suggest that B. brizantha is versatile regarding soil pH and fertility. Olivera et al. ( 2007 ) showed that B. brizantha has good development and potential yield in acidic and low-fertility soils. This species is the most widely used due to its resistance to biotic and abiotic factors, rapid establishment, high biomass production, and high forage quality (Costa et al., 2005 ; Silva et al., 2013 ). The growth variables of B. brizantha presented altitudinal and microclimatic constraints (Fig. 7 ). Optimal altitudes in MCS were determined to be 663.5, 646.2, and 700 m, and in SPS, they were 418.2, 500, and 590.9 m for plant height, leaf length, and leaf width, respectively (Fig. 7 ). In other species, it has been determined that plant height and leaf area decrease with increasing altitude (Mao et al., 2016; Woodward and Jones, 1984 ). Additionally, plant height, leaf length, and leaf width showed higher values in SPS compared to MCS (Fig. 7 ). These results can be attributed to microclimatic conditions (Fig. 5 ), due to shading from tree canopies in SPS, with lower solar radiation availability for B. brizantha (Fig. 5 C), inducing etiolation. In SPS, moderate shading of approximately 20% does not significantly reduce forage production in B. brizantha (Nascimento et al., 2019 ; Santos et al., 2020 ). Shading modifies microclimatic conditions, reducing illuminance and soil surface temperature (Vieira et al., 2021 ). This condition influences plant morphology, increasing leaf elongation rates (Anjos and Chaves, 2021 ). 5. Conclusions The altitudinal gradient from 150 to 1260 m did not influence the physical and chemical properties of the soil, nor did it have significant effects on the management differences between MCS and SPS; the differences found were due to CaCO 3 at mid-altitudes. In the SPS, over 20 tree families and 40 species were identified, with 58% of the families consisting of Simaroubaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae, and the highest number of families and species found at the mid-altitude of 170 meters. SPS regulate the microclimate by decreasing temperature and solar radiation while increasing relative humidity, contrary to MCS. These microclimatic conditions in SPS resulted in higher plant height, leaf length, and leaf width compared to MCS. The growth and development of B. brizantha did not respond to soil properties in either MCS or SPS, showing similar behavior in slightly alkaline soils (pH 7.5 associated with CaCO 3 ) as in acidic soils (pH 4), nor did it respond to higher availability of P, K, and higher CEC. However, the altitudinal gradient influenced both SPS and MCS, where the highest values for plant height, leaf length, and leaf width were found at mid-altitudes. Declarations Author Contribution HMO- problem statement, literature review, experimental design, data analysis, results writing, scientific discussion, preparation of figures and tables, supervision or mentoring, project management and results presentation, MAMF- project management, resource or material management and supervision or mentoring , JCC-fieldwork or laboratory work, project management, literature review and resource or material management, MRG-fieldwork or laboratory wor, problem statement and literature review, AAGT- project management and results presentation, BPA- fieldwork or laboratory work and preparation of tables, CDQ-fieldwork or laboratory work and preparation of tables, LAAL- problem statement, literature review, experimental design, fieldwork or laboratory work, data analysis, results writing, scientific discussion and manuscript review. Acknowledgments We thank the “Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Tecnológica” (CONCYTEC), through the “Programa Nacional de Investigación Científica y Estudios Avanzados” (PROCIENCIA), for funding the research. We also thank the farmers of Yurimaguas (Loreto Region), Cuñumbuque, Zapatero and Calzada (San Martin Region) for making their cattle ranches available for this research. References Aalto J, Tyystjärvi V, Niittynen P, Kemppinen J, Rissanen T, Gregow H, Luoto M (2022) Microclimate temperature variations from boreal forests to the tundra. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 323: 109037. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2022.109037 Abán CL, Larama G, Ducci A, Huidobro J, Abanto M, Vargas-Gil S, Pérez-Brandan C (2023)Soil Properties and Bacterial Communities Associated with the Rhizosphere of the Common Bean after Using Brachiaria brizantha as a Service Crop: A 10-Year Field Experiment. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6558677","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":460072137,"identity":"39d7f869-3448-445d-a8e6-1a52bfb77872","order_by":0,"name":"Hipolito Murga-Orrillo","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwhlA+MzE60ljXQth0nQYi52xuzjl5rzidvZDz/8wFBhndgg3XwArxbL2TnGs2WO3U7c2ZNmLMFwJj2xQeZYAn6H3c4xZpZgu5244UCCgQRj2+HEBokcAyK0/DuXuOH8888/GP+BtOR/IKiF8WPbgcQNN3LMJBgbwLbg1QHUklbMzNiXbLzhxpsyi4Rj6cZtMscIOSx5M+OPb3ayG86nb77xocZatl+6+QF+a4CAmQfGSgBiNgmCGhgYGH+gcInRMgpGwSgYBSMKAABAaUr1t935xwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Alto Amazonas","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hipolito","middleName":"","lastName":"Murga-Orrillo","suffix":""},{"id":460072138,"identity":"5aece986-262e-40aa-8a45-bc1d09260d20","order_by":1,"name":"Marco Antonio Mathios Flores","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Alto Amazonas","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marco","middleName":"Antonio Mathios","lastName":"Flores","suffix":""},{"id":460072139,"identity":"b8b8863e-05e0-4fa8-b070-8a64b37d9bcb","order_by":2,"name":"Jorge Cáceres Coral","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Alto Amazonas","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jorge","middleName":"Cáceres","lastName":"Coral","suffix":""},{"id":460072140,"identity":"b16a2c0e-9393-4050-8de2-7047b143ba35","order_by":3,"name":"Melissa Rojas García","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Agrarian University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Melissa","middleName":"Rojas","lastName":"García","suffix":""},{"id":460072141,"identity":"c03fb3fd-598d-4404-9890-f8aef83b84fd","order_by":4,"name":"Aldi Alida Guerra Teixeira","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aldi","middleName":"Alida Guerra","lastName":"Teixeira","suffix":""},{"id":460072142,"identity":"0dd3ed98-2729-4e74-ad4d-6f7522b7c0bd","order_by":5,"name":"Beto Pashanasi Amasifuén","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Alto Amazonas","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Beto","middleName":"Pashanasi","lastName":"Amasifuén","suffix":""},{"id":460072143,"identity":"6f7c47c3-7cdf-45fa-8396-e4dfe089cf0c","order_by":6,"name":"Clavel Diaz Quevedo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agraria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Clavel","middleName":"Diaz","lastName":"Quevedo","suffix":""},{"id":460072144,"identity":"71be3a2c-2df8-487c-801c-f516ecb3e373","order_by":7,"name":"Luis Alberto Arévalo López","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Alto Amazonas","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Luis","middleName":"Alberto Arévalo","lastName":"López","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-29 17:38:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6558677/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6558677/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-025-01307-4","type":"published","date":"2025-09-06T15:56:59+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":83278563,"identity":"c7c0472e-94e3-41c2-804f-dffcfc1e69c1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-22 09:47:33","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":313088,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation of the experimental plots of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e in monoculture (MCS) and silvopastoral systems (SPS) in the Loreto and San Martin regions, including the Yurimaguas, Cuñumbuqui, Zapatero, and Calzada districts.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6558677/v1/44e6f8686ea69dd12f49b026.png"},{"id":83278562,"identity":"4b7357db-3f26-4d7f-ad50-0b5b046f58ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-22 09:47:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":553105,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePrincipal Component Analysis (PCA) of the physical (BD- bulk density, porosity, and texture) and chemical (pH, EC- electrical conductivity, OM- organic matter, CEC- cation exchange capacity, CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e- calcium carbonate, K- potassium, and P-phosphorus) soil properties at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m (A) and under monoculture and silvopastoral management systems (B) in the regions of Loreto and San Martin.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6558677/v1/4f00ffb057e8d811dac2aa0f.jpeg"},{"id":83278280,"identity":"f56083da-6760-4690-a146-8a78fd177204","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-22 09:39:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":509142,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e95% confidence intervals (CI: 95%) for soil properties at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m. A) pH, B) EC- electrical conductivity, C) CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e- calcium carbonate, D) OM- organic matter, E) P- phosphorus, F) K- potassium, G) CEC- cation exchange capacity, H) bulk density, I) porosity, J) silt, K) sand, and L) clay.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6558677/v1/7c9b2ee1d8d584ab84ee5434.jpeg"},{"id":83278281,"identity":"b3ac8651-3acf-4a49-9d83-63c2f005faca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-22 09:39:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":594670,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentual and altitudinal distribution of tree families in the management of silvopastoral systems in the districts of Yurimaguas (170 masl), Cuñumbuqui (503 masl), Zapatero (661 masl), and Calzada (1110 masl) in the Loreto and San Martin regions.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6558677/v1/57aba043e0784c7b8fcaae32.jpeg"},{"id":83278284,"identity":"da26be51-a099-4dec-8703-f9f625c1853e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-22 09:39:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":242217,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDaily mean microclimatic conditions of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e in the management of monoculture and silvopastoral systems. A) Temperature, B) Relative humidity, and C) Solar radiation in the districts of Yurimaguas (170 masl), Cuñumbuqui (503 masl), Zapatero (661 masl), and Calzada (1110 masl) in the Loreto and San Martin regions.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6558677/v1/fa1dcf5ee04b694de89f7689.jpeg"},{"id":83279055,"identity":"e407c5af-f4a0-4c7a-a881-6fb7c3d321ef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-22 09:55:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":755706,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRegression analysis (p\u0026lt;0.05) of physiological variables of B. brizantha at 75 days of the cutting cycle, in the management of monoculture and silvopastoral systems, in the districts of Yurimaguas (170 masl), Cuñumbuqui (503 masl), Zapatero (661 masl), and Calzada (1110 masl) in the Loreto and San Martin regions.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6558677/v1/90c6bfda69c579753bf0a3a3.jpeg"},{"id":83278286,"identity":"091ad86a-9b33-4e54-bef6-b54b2f04e150","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-22 09:39:33","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":313509,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRegression analysis (p\u0026lt;0.05) of plant height, leaf length, and leaf width of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e at the cutting age in the management of monoculture and silvopastoral systems in the districts of Yurimaguas (170 masl), Cuñumbuqui (503 masl), Zapatero (661 masl), and Calzada (1110 masl) in the Loreto and San Martin regions.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6558677/v1/e9b299c0e5b5ff43a2da3797.jpeg"},{"id":90827905,"identity":"dbcd7213-8ac2-484d-94d3-e371ab6910ef","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 16:02:23","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4317600,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6558677/v1/27592857-2d99-441d-bb28-ce78d6599e69.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Brachiaria brizantha in Silvopastoral and Monoculture Systems: Soil, Trees, and Microclimate in an Altitudinal Gradient of the Amazon","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePastures are globally significant biomes, covering approximately 40% of the Earth's surface and playing a crucial role in global food supply and security (O'Mara \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In the Neotropical region, pastures consist of 85% species from the Brachiaria genus, a forage grass widely used by ranchers since the 1950s (Jank et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This genus shows high plasticity to edaphoclimatic conditions (Rodrigues et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e); however, they face challenges such as seasonality, low fertility, soil acidity, and climate variability (Hoekstra et al., 2005; Hughes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), increasingly accentuated environmental problems due to climate change and resource overexploitation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Peruvian Amazon, \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e is the most widely cultivated pasture for forage production, notable for its pest resistance and versatility regarding soil fertility. This species, compared to other \u003cem\u003eBrachiarias\u003c/em\u003e, has demonstrated similar biomass yield performance (G\u0026oacute;mez-Mar\u0026iacute;n et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), while also having a high nutritional value (Guerra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have shown that \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e adapts well to acidic soils, is drought-resistant, and contributes to improving soil fertility, aggregation, and carbon content (P\u0026eacute;rez Brandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Gemeda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The robust root system of this species is an effective strategy for the physical recovery of soils, reducing bulk density and improving soil structure (Cavalieri-Polizeli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Lima et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These soil conservation benefits make \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e a promising option for livestock production systems in the Peruvian Amazon (Pizarro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Rivera Damacio, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), showing potential to enhance the sustainability of agricultural systems (Merloti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sustainable management of pastures is crucial for improving productivity and reducing the conversion of natural forests into grazing lands, thereby decreasing the environmental footprint of the livestock sector (Foley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In the Peruvian Amazon, SPS conserve soil properties, offering ecosystem benefits such as nutrient cycling and maintaining soil biology comparable to or even better than that of natural forests (Murga-Orrillo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, these systems contribute to the conservation of tree biodiversity. The integration of trees in SPS with \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e improves the microclimate for livestock and pastures (Casanova-Lugo et al., 2020), enhances soil fertility, and promotes greater water retention, resulting in more sustainable production and highlighting benefits for soil quality and ecosystem health (Polan\u0026iacute;a-Hincapi\u0026eacute;, 2021; Broom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Salazar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, MCS are more vulnerable to overgrazing, which can degrade and alter soil properties, reducing nutrient availability (Abdalla et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, in MCS with \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e, proper grazing management can conserve soil and water similarly to SPS (P\u0026eacute;rez Brandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Galdos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cavalieri-Polizeli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Lima et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe production of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e in the Peruvian Amazon occurs in MCS or SPS along an altitudinal gradient. Research comparing \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e production in SPS and MCS has yielded diverse results. Some studies found no significant differences in forage accumulation between MCS and SPS (Nascimento et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Carvalho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), while others reported higher forage and biomass production in SPS (Azar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Xavier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). However, the presence of trees in SPS alters the morphophysiological characteristics of the pastures (Sousa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), due to the shading from tree canopies that create different microclimates compared to MCS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlong an altitudinal gradient, temperature has been observed to vary between 0.4 and 0.6\u0026deg;C for every 100 m of increase in altitude (Murga-Orrillo et al., 2023). Additionally, soil pH, organic matter, and humidity increase with altitude (Murga-Orrillo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, there are no reports explaining how edaphoclimatic variation influences \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e in the Peruvian Amazon. Therefore, the combined effects of edaphoclimatic variation on the functioning of pastures are not fully understood (Siebert et al., 2019), both along altitudinal gradients and in MCS and SPS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePasture production must increasingly focus on sustainability. However, in the Peruvian Amazon, studies on the management of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e in SPS and MCS, especially along altitudinal gradients, are limited. There are also few reports on its behavior in relation to soil's physical and chemical properties. This study hypothesizes that both altitudinal variation and soil properties influence B. brizantha production in MCS and SPS. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the edaphoclimatic influence of the altitudinal gradient on \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e production in MCS and SPS in the Loreto and San Martin regions of the Peruvian Amazon.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted from March 2023 to March 2024 at altitudes of 170 m in the Yurimaguas district, 503 m in the Cu\u0026ntilde;umbuqui district, 661 meters in the Zapatero district, and 1110 m in the Calzada district, in the Loreto and San Martin regions (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). In these districts, SPS were classified as those combining timber trees, soil conservation trees, and fruit trees (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;15 trees/ha) with \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e and other pastures. In contrast, MCS were those with no significant presence of trees, where \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e dominated the pasture areas. Considering these classifications, six livestock farms were selected in each district (three in SPS and three in MCS), making a total of 12 farms in SPS and 12 in MCS (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The farms were georeferenced using a GPS, Model Rtk-U22T.The climatic conditions at the lower part of the gradient, at 170 m in Yurimaguas (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), for the period from 1990 to 2019, show that the mean monthly temperatures reach their lowest values in July (25.5\u0026deg;C), with the highest values occurring in September and October (27\u0026deg;C). Monthly precipitation increases starting in September (120 mm), reaching peak values in May (280 mm), and decreases from April (260 mm), with the lowest levels in August (100 mm) (Murga-Orrillo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). At the upper part of the gradient, at 1110 m in Calzada (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), mean monthly temperatures are lowest in July (21.5\u0026deg;C) and highest in October (22.5\u0026deg;C). Monthly precipitation is lowest in August (70 mm) and highest in February (180 mm) (SENAMHI, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation of the experimental units in the Loreto (Yurimaguas) and San Martin (Cu\u0026ntilde;umbuqui, Zapatero, and Calzada) regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistrict\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLongitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAltitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCattle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;..\u0026deg;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emasl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeads\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYurimaguas\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(170 masl)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSPS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHxBS,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBSxG y G\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSMC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e192\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBSxG, HxG y BRxBS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e425\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu\u0026ntilde;umbuqui\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(503 masl)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSSP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e571\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHxG, BSxG y G\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e554\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSMC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e572\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH y\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJxBS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e466\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e483\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZapatero\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(661 masl)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSSP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e648\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e 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colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSSP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBSxG, BSxCR y HxCR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1035\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1260\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSMC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHxG y HxBr\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003eSPS- Silvopastoral System, MCS- Monoculture System, HxBS- Holstein x Brown Swiss, BSxG- Brown Swiss x Gyr, G- Gyr, BRxBS- Brahman x Brown Swiss, HxG-Holstein x Gyr, H- Holstein, JxBS- Jersey x Brown Swiss, BSxCR- Brown Swiss x Criollo, HxCR- Holstein x Criollo and HxBR- Holstein x Brahman\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Soil Sampling and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil samples were collected from the geolocated farms listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The chemical analysis of the soil was conducted on composite samples made from 10 subsamples, which were collected using an auger (Riverside Brand, Peru) with a diameter of 2.5 cm to a depth of 20 cm. The samples were then air-dried, ground, and sieved through a 2 mm mesh. Organic matter content was determined using the Walkley and Black (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1934\u003c/span\u003e) method, while phosphorus (P) was analyzed using the Olsen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1954\u003c/span\u003e) method. Exchangeable cations (Ca\u0026sup2;⁺, Mg\u0026sup2;⁺, K⁺, and Na⁺) were extracted with a 1 N potassium chloride (KCl) solution and determined by spectroscopy, following the protocol described by Hunter (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). Soil texture was also evaluated using the hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1979). Additionally, to assess bulk density (Eq.\u0026nbsp;1) and porosity (Eq.\u0026nbsp;2), soil samples were collected from a depth of 0 to 10 cm using a cylinder of known volume (Sol\u0026iacute;s et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Blake and Hartge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). The samples were then placed in an oven (MEMMERT, UN110) at 105\u0026deg;C for 48 hours until a constant weight was achieved, following the methodology of Blake and Hartge (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:Bd=Dm/Tv\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e Eq.\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:PT=[1-\\frac{Bd}{Rd}]*100\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e Eq.\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere: Bd - bulk density (g/cm\u0026sup3;), Dm - dry soil mass (g), Tv - total volume (cm\u0026sup3;), TP - total porosity (%), Rd - real density (2.65 g/cm\u0026sup3;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Tree Dendrometry in SPS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the 12 SPS farms, dendrometric variables of the trees were assessed, including total height, diameter at breast height (1.3 m above the ground), and conapy area. Total height was determined using a clinometer (Suunto, PM-5/1520, Finland), following the equation (Eq.\u0026nbsp;3) according to the methodology of Korning and Balslev (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Conapy area was calculated by multiplying the diagonals of the conapy projection. The trunk diameter was obtained by measuring the circumference length (Eq.\u0026nbsp;4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:TH=Do*\\left(Tag\\beta\\:\\right)+Ao\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e Eq.\u0026nbsp;3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:TD=2\\pi\\:*Tc\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e Eq.\u0026nbsp;4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere: TH - total height (m), Do - distance from the observer to the tree, Ao - observer's height (m), β - observation angle. TD - trunk diameter (m), Tc - trunk circumference length (m).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Microclimatic Data\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEight automatic weather stations (HUNAN Rika, RK900-05, China) were installed throughout the experimental area, with two stations in each district. In Yurimaguas, an MCS station was installed at 5.974\u0026deg;S and 76.172\u0026deg;W at an altitude of 157 m, while an SPS station was set up at 5.905\u0026deg;S and 76.178\u0026deg;W at an altitude of 170 m. In Cu\u0026ntilde;umbuqui, an MCS station was located at 6.515\u0026deg;S and 76.515\u0026deg;W at 572 m altitude, and an SPS station was installed at 6.524\u0026deg;S and 76.515\u0026deg;W at 571 m altitude. Similarly, in Zapatero, an MCS station was positioned at 6.509\u0026deg;S and 76.536\u0026deg;W at 648 m altitude, and an SPS station was set up at 6.605\u0026deg;S and 76.49\u0026deg;W at 637 m altitude. Finally, in Calzada, an MCS station was placed at 6.041\u0026deg;S and 77.048\u0026deg;W at 1009 m altitude, and an SPS station was installed at 6.044\u0026deg;S and 77.053\u0026deg;W at 1112 m altitude. The thermometers and hygrometers were installed 1.5 m above the ground on flat terrain, following the technical recommendations of the World Meteorological Organization (Bekiashev and Serebriakov, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e). These stations recorded daily microclimatic data on temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation throughout the study period. Data treatment and validation followed the procedures suggested by Est\u0026eacute;vez et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Growth and Biomass of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe evaluations were conducted on \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e plants that had been established for 5 to 15 years on the farms (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). In both MCS and SPS, 24 experimental plots of 5m x 5m (25 m\u0026sup2;) each were isolated. A uniform cutting at 5 cm above the ground surface was performed in each experimental plot. Sampling was carried out in 1 m\u0026sup2; using a 1-meter square PVC frame. Pasture samples were collected at 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 days after the uniform cutting, with samples taken 5 cm above the ground surface, resulting in 5 samples per plot, totaling 120 samples. Fresh samples were evaluated for plant height, leaf length, and width using a millimeter ruler; stem diameters were measured using a digital caliper (Kamasa, KM-447). All evaluations were carried out on 10 tillers and 10 physiologically developed leaves. After these evaluations, the samples were placed in Kraft paper bags to air-dry for 2 days, and then were transferred to a hot air oven at 60\u0026deg;C (KertLab, ODHG-9070A) for 3 days until a constant weight was achieved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6. Statistical Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess the discrimination between MCS and SPS, and between the altitudes of the districts (Yurimaguas, Cu\u0026ntilde;umbuqui, Zapatero, and Calzada) with respect to soil properties, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used. For the soil variables that showed discrimination in the PCA, means and non-parametric confidence intervals (CI:95%) were determined. Microclimatic data on temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation were analyzed using boxplots for MCS and SPS. Regression analysis (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) was conducted, including residual analysis of the model, collinearity, and residual normality, for dry biomass, plant height, leaf length, and width of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e based on cutting cycle and altitude. All analyses were performed using FactoMineR, factoextra, ggplot2, tidyverse, ggpubr, car, grid, patchwork, gridExtra, scales, and RStudio's starter packages (R Core Team, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Soil Properties\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the PCA of the physical and chemical soil properties at 4 altitudes, in both MCS and SPS, explaining 81.5% of the variability. Soil properties at different altitudes exhibit marked differences, explaining 63.5% of the variability (Dim1 of the PCA), with soils at 170 m and 1110 m differing from those at 503 m and 661 m. The latter altitudes exhibit higher values of K, CaCO₃, P, CEC, pH, EC, clay, organic matter, and porosity (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA). On the other hand, when soil properties are analyzed by management type, no differences are observed, meaning soil properties are similar under both MCS and SPS conditions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore detailed analyses were performed using 95% confidence intervals (CI:95%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) to identify significant differences in soil properties between altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m. Differences were confirmed in soils at 503 and 661 m, which had higher values of pH, EC, CaCO₃, P, K, CEC, and clay content compared to soils at 170 and 1110 m, respectively (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eB, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eC, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eE, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eF, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eG, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eL). At the same time, similar values (CI:95%) were observed along the altitude gradient for organic matter content, porosity, bulk density, silt, and sand (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eD, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eH, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eI, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eJ, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eK).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Trees in SPS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCattle production in the Peruvian Amazon, whether in MCS or SPS, generally involves crosses of Holstein, Brown Swiss, Gyr, Brahman, Jersey, and Criollo breeds. Depending on the production purpose, cattle for meat are found at lower altitudes, while those for milk production are at higher altitudes of the gradient (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the evaluated SPS, the predominant tree families are: Simaroubaceae (20%), Asteraceae (14%), Fabaceae (14%), Malvaceae (10%), Apocynaceae (6%), Melastomataceae (6%), Rubiaceae (5%), Sapindaceae (4%), Rutaceae (3%), Anacardiaceae (2%), Proteaceae (2%), Meliaceae (2%), Vochysiaceae (2%), Anonaceae (1%), Euphorbiaceae (1%), Mimosaceae (1%), Urticaceae (1%), and Others (5%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA). 58% of the composition is concentrated in the families Simaroubaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae. The highest number of families, species, and individuals were found at an altitude of 170 m (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eB, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eC, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eD), with the Simaroubaceae family standing out, particularly the species \u003cem\u003eSimarouba amara\u003c/em\u003e, which had 28 individuals, followed by the Asteraceae family, with the species \u003cem\u003ePollalestra discolor\u003c/em\u003e, which had 20 individuals (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamilies and species of trees identified in the districts of Yurimaguas (Loreto region), Cu\u0026ntilde;umbuqui, Zapatero, and Calzada (San Martin region).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistrict\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpecies\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;.m\u0026hellip;..\u0026hellip;..\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"19\" rowspan=\"20\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYurimaguas\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(170 masl)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApocynaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHimatanthus sucuuba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;32.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArecaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBactris gasipaes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePollalestra discolor\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;36.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBignonaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTabebuia rosea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBixaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCochlospermum orinocense\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton matourensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrmosia arborea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrmosia coccinea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApuleia leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;37.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalvaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCeiba pentandra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeliaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCedrela odorata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMimosaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInga ruiziana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;29.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyristicaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVirola sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRhamnaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColubrina glandulosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRubiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCapirona decorticans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGenipa americana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;42.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCallycophyllum spruceanum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRutaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrus sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSapindaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCupania cinerea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;46.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimaroubaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSimarouba amara\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;35.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"8\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu\u0026ntilde;umbuqui\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(503 masl)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePterocarpus sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrmosia sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInga sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApuleia leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalvaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGuazuma ulmifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGuazuma crinita\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRutaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZanthoxylum riedelianum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSapindaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCupania dentata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVochysiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVochysia sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZapatero\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(661 masl)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnacardiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eManguifera indica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;58.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHura crepitans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParkia sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOrmosia sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalvaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGuazuma ulmifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProteaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRoupala montana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRubiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGenipa americana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRutaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZanthoxylum riedelianum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e122.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSapotaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChrysophyllum cainito\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVerbenaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitex sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVochysiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVochysia sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e201.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"9\" rowspan=\"10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalzada\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1110 masl)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnonaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnnona sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApocynaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspidosperma album\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHimatanthus sucuuba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;63.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApuleia leiocarpa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eInga sp\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;21.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalvaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCeiba pentandra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMelastomataceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMiconia amazonica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;59.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeliaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCedrela odorata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSapindaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCupania cineria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrticaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCecropia obtusifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;53.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eTD- trunk diameter, CA- canopy area, TH- tree height\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese trees, integrated into SPS, are mostly remnants of natural forests and were primarily preserved to provide shade for cattle, thereby reducing heat stress during hours and days of intense solar radiation. Additionally, the trees were conserved for various uses such as obtaining timber, fuel, and other forest products. Reforested trees, on the other hand, were mainly planted for timber production, in addition to providing shade and contributing to soil conservation. These trees are distributed in live fences, marking pastures and property boundaries, in rows or scattered within pastures, as well as in steeper areas to prevent landslides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the dendrometric variables of the evaluated trees, trunk diameter ranges from 0.06 m to 0.64 m, with an average of 0.24 m. The canopy area varies between 3.63 m\u0026sup2; and 220.35 m\u0026sup2;, with an average of 52.54 m\u0026sup2;, while tree height ranges from 4.09 m to 21.6 m, with an average height of 11.21 m (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eB, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eC, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eD). Knowing the canopy area and tree height is crucial for properly managing shade and microclimate in agricultural production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Microclimate in MCS and SPS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the study of the microclimate for \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e, the daily mean values of temperature, relative humidity, and radiation were evaluated in MCS and SPS at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 me along the altitudinal gradient (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eB, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC). Both in MCS and SPS, a decrease in temperature was observed as altitude increased (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA). However, relative humidity and solar radiation did not show a clear pattern concerning altitude (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eB and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC). Additionally, when comparing the microclimatic conditions between management systems, it was found that temperature and solar radiation were lower in SPS compared to MCS (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC), while relative humidity was higher in SPS (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Growth and Production of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e presents regression analyses (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) of dry biomass, plant height, and leaf length of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e for a 75-day cutting cycle, evaluated at four altitudes. The dry biomass in MCS is estimated at 5022.5, 4873.8, 4217.2, and 5387.5 kg/ha, while in SPS it is estimated at 4962.5, 4920.0, 4425.0, and 4177.5 kg/ha at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m respectively (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eA and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eD). These results show that dry matter production in MCS does not maintain a clear pattern regarding altitude; however, in SPS, dry matter production increases as altitude decreases. Regarding plant height in MCS, it is estimated at 69.0, 57.4, 53.9, and 55.0 cm, and in SPS, it is estimated at 72.9, 88.7, 59.4, and 54.3 cm at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m respectively (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eB and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eE). A greater plant height is observed in MCS at 170 m, while in SPS, a greater plant height is reached at 503 m. Finally, leaf length in MCS is estimated at 22.8, 30.5, 22.8, and 24.1 cm, and in SPS, it is estimated at 37.1, 50.4, 34.8, and 31.1 cm at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 m respectively (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eC and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eF). In both MCS and SPS, the greatest leaf length is observed at 503 m. The evaluations up to grazing age for the variables of plant height, leaf length, and leaf width concerning altitude are presented in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eA, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eB, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eC. Using the second derivative (b/2a) of the quadratic models (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) to determine the optimal altitude for these variables, it was found that in MCS, the greatest plant height is 58.1 cm (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e adj\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.24) at 663.5 m, and in SPS, it is 80 cm (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e adj\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.67) at 418.2 m (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eA). Similarly, in MCS, the greatest leaf length is 32.14 cm (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e adj\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.87) at 646.2 m, while in SPS, it is 43.5 cm (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003eadj\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.5) at 500 m (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eB). Finally, the greatest leaf width in MCS is 1.16 cm (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e adj\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.48) at 700 m, and in SPS, it is 1.26 cm (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e adj\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.35) at 590.9 m (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eC). The estimates indicate that the plant height, leaf length, and leaf width of B. brizantha will be greater in SPS than in MCS along the altitudinal gradient of 150 m to 1260 m in the Peruvian Amazon, specifically in the Loreto and San Martin regions\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1. Soil and Pasture Management in Altitudinal Gradient\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe soil's chemical properties show better agricultural suitability at altitudes of 503 and 661 m, with pH levels of 7.5 to 7 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA) associated with CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eC), compared to altitudes of 170 and 1110 m, which have acidic soils with a pH of 4 and 0% CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. These findings suggest that altitude did not have a significant influence on the formation of these soils, due to the wide variation within a relatively small altitudinal gradient. Therefore, the existing differences in soil properties are due to the parent material, such as CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, which resulted in a neutral to slightly alkaline pH and higher availability of P, K, and greater CEC (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eE, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eF, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eG) for \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e and other associated plants. Studies on altitudinal gradients in agroforestry systems have determined that variations in soil properties do not depend on the altitudinal gradient but on the conditions of the parent material (Murga-Orrillo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023a\u003c/span\u003e). Pourbabaei et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) also point out that there is no clear pattern of soil properties in relation to an altitudinal gradient. However, in larger altitudinal gradients of 0 to 2000 m (Bayranvand et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and 0 to 4400 m (Murga-Orrillo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), it has been found that organic matter generally increases with altitude, although it begins to decrease beyond 3000 m. Similarly, the type of management in MCS and SPS did not show a significant influence on soil properties (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB). This may be because the soils in both systems have been managed for over 10 years with \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e, a plant that has favorable characteristics for soil conservation. The cultivation of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e can improve soil nutrient content and organic matter (Nascente et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The extensive root system of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e contributes to improving soil quality, especially when used as a long-term crop (Ab\u0026aacute;n et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2. Trees Associated with SPS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe trees in SPS belong to more than 20 families and over 40 species, with the greatest diversity found at lower altitudes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). SPS maintain the original tree diversity of the Amazon, while also moderating the microclimate, providing a more comfortable environment for cattle by reducing temperature and solar radiation (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC). In the Ecuadorian Amazon, studies have determined that tree diversity in SPS decreases with altitude, with higher tree density at lower altitudes (Torres et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Torres et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). SPS are crucial for intensifying livestock production and conserving the environment, enhancing economic and social contributions while promoting the conservation of tree species and supporting local livelihoods (Torres et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, SPS help cattle adapt to rising temperatures by providing more hours of thermal comfort compared to MCS (Pezzopane et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3. Microclimate in MCS and SPS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe microclimate in SPS and MCS varies due to management conditions and the altitudinal gradient (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eB, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC). The microclimatic differences between SPS and MCS in terms of temperature were \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.3, -0.8, -0.4, and \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u0026deg;C; in relative humidity were 3.6, 3.6, 2.3, and 5.6%; and in solar radiation were \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;106.9, -37.3, -103.2, and \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;108.6 W/m\u0026sup2; at altitudes of 170, 503, 661, and 1110 meters respectively. Although these microclimatic variations seem small as they are based on daily averages, it is important to note that nighttime temperatures in MCS are lower than in SPS due to the trees' ability to buffer temperatures better than the open fields of MCS. During peak temperature hours (11 to 15 h), the temperature variation between SPS and MCS can be up to 10\u0026deg;C, especially under trees with high branch and leaf density in the canopy. During these periods, cattle seek thermal comfort in the shade of the trees. In SPS, maximum temperatures and wind speed are reduced, humidity patterns are altered, and light levels are lower, especially under the tree canopies (Vieira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sousa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Gomes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Pezzopane et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, Aalto et al. (2021) demonstrated a strong negative relationship between canopy density and temperature, with differences of up to 5.7\u0026deg;C in average temperatures between trees with 0% and 100% canopy density. These microclimatic changes positively impact cattle behavior (Sousa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicroclimate temperatures decrease in both MCS and SPS as altitude increases (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eA). However, relative humidity and solar radiation do not follow a clear pattern with altitude (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eB and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC), possibly due to varied geographical conditions such as proximity to hills, rivers, and forests. In agroforestry systems along an altitudinal gradient, temperature decreases at a rate of 0.56\u0026deg;C for every 100 m increase in altitude (Murga-Orrillo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4. Growth and Production of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePasture production for livestock purposes in the Peruvian Amazon is dominated by \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e, which represents 83%, followed by \u003cem\u003eB. decumbens\u003c/em\u003e at 10% and \u003cem\u003eB. humidicola\u003c/em\u003e at 4%. Since \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e is the most representative species, various parameters such as dry matter, plant height, leaf length, and leaf width have been observed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). The results from both MCS and SPS show that the physiology of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e is not directly influenced by soil properties (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA), showing similar responses in both calcareous and acidic soils (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eC). It also does not excel in better soil fertility conditions (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eE, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eF, and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eG), as the soil properties at an altitude of 503 m are similar to those at 661 m (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). However, at an altitude of 661 m, results for dry matter, plant height, and leaf length were not comparable to those at 503 m. These findings suggest that \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e is versatile regarding soil pH and fertility. Olivera et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) showed that \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e has good development and potential yield in acidic and low-fertility soils. This species is the most widely used due to its resistance to biotic and abiotic factors, rapid establishment, high biomass production, and high forage quality (Costa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe growth variables of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e presented altitudinal and microclimatic constraints (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). Optimal altitudes in MCS were determined to be 663.5, 646.2, and 700 m, and in SPS, they were 418.2, 500, and 590.9 m for plant height, leaf length, and leaf width, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). In other species, it has been determined that plant height and leaf area decrease with increasing altitude (Mao et al., 2016; Woodward and Jones, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, plant height, leaf length, and leaf width showed higher values in SPS compared to MCS (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). These results can be attributed to microclimatic conditions (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), due to shading from tree canopies in SPS, with lower solar radiation availability for \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003eC), inducing etiolation. In SPS, moderate shading of approximately 20% does not significantly reduce forage production in \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e (Nascimento et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Santos et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Shading modifies microclimatic conditions, reducing illuminance and soil surface temperature (Vieira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This condition influences plant morphology, increasing leaf elongation rates (Anjos and Chaves, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe altitudinal gradient from 150 to 1260 m did not influence the physical and chemical properties of the soil, nor did it have significant effects on the management differences between MCS and SPS; the differences found were due to CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e at mid-altitudes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the SPS, over 20 tree families and 40 species were identified, with 58% of the families consisting of Simaroubaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae, and the highest number of families and species found at the mid-altitude of 170 meters. SPS regulate the microclimate by decreasing temperature and solar radiation while increasing relative humidity, contrary to MCS. These microclimatic conditions in SPS resulted in higher plant height, leaf length, and leaf width compared to MCS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe growth and development of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e did not respond to soil properties in either MCS or SPS, showing similar behavior in slightly alkaline soils (pH 7.5 associated with CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) as in acidic soils (pH 4), nor did it respond to higher availability of P, K, and higher CEC. However, the altitudinal gradient influenced both SPS and MCS, where the highest values for plant height, leaf length, and leaf width were found at mid-altitudes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eHMO- problem statement, literature review, experimental design, data analysis, results writing, scientific discussion, preparation of figures and tables, supervision or mentoring, project management and results presentation, MAMF- project management, resource or material management and supervision or mentoring , JCC-fieldwork or laboratory work, project management, literature review and resource or material management, MRG-fieldwork or laboratory wor, problem statement and literature review, AAGT- project management and results presentation, BPA- fieldwork or laboratory work and preparation of tables, CDQ-fieldwork or laboratory work and preparation of tables, LAAL- problem statement, literature review, experimental design, fieldwork or laboratory work, data analysis, results writing, scientific discussion and manuscript review.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe thank the \u0026ldquo;Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnolog\u0026iacute;a e Innovaci\u0026oacute;n Tecnol\u0026oacute;gica\u0026rdquo; (CONCYTEC), through the \u0026ldquo;Programa Nacional de Investigaci\u0026oacute;n Cient\u0026iacute;fica y Estudios Avanzados\u0026rdquo; (PROCIENCIA), for funding the research. We also thank the farmers of Yurimaguas (Loreto Region), Cu\u0026ntilde;umbuque, Zapatero and Calzada (San Martin Region) for making their cattle ranches available for this research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAalto J, Tyystj\u0026auml;rvi V, Niittynen P, Kemppinen J, Rissanen T, Gregow H, Luoto M (2022) Microclimate temperature variations from boreal forests to the tundra. 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Journal of Hydrology, 402(2): 144-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhidrol.2011.02.031 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"agroforestry-systems","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"agfo","sideBox":"Learn more about [Agroforestry Systems](http://link.springer.com/journal/10457)","snPcode":"10457","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10457/3","title":"Agroforestry Systems","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Temperature, Solar Radiation, Altitude, Pasture, Soil Properties","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6558677/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6558677/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe aim was to determine the edaphic and microclimatic influence of an altitudinal gradient on the production of \u003cem\u003eBrachiaria brizantha\u003c/em\u003e in monoculture (MCS) and silvopastoral systems (SPS). Twenty-four farms were located along an altitudinal gradient from 150 to 1260 masl. Soil properties were found to be similar between MCS and SPS, but with significant differences (95% CI) along the altitudinal gradient, with higher values of pH, electrical conductivity, phosphorus, potassium, cation exchange capacity and clay at 503 and 661 m in alkaline soils associated with CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, while soils at 170 and 1110 m were acidic. In the SPS, over 20 tree families and 40 species were identified, with 58% of the families consisting of Simaroubaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Malvaceae, and the highest number of families and species found at the mid-altitude of 170 m. SPS regulate the microclimate by decreasing temperature and solar radiation while increasing relative humidity, contrary to MCS. These microclimatic conditions in SPS resulted in higher plant height, leaf length, and leaf width compared to MCS. The growth and development of \u003cem\u003eB. brizantha\u003c/em\u003e did not respond to soil properties in either MCS or SPS, showing similar behavior in slightly alkaline soils as in acidic soils, nor did it respond to higher availability of phosphorus, potassium, and higher cation exchange capacity. However, the altitudinal gradient influenced both SPS and MCS, where the highest values for plant height, leaf length, and leaf width were found at mid-altitudes.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Brachiaria brizantha in Silvopastoral and Monoculture Systems: Soil, Trees, and Microclimate in an Altitudinal Gradient of the Amazon","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-22 09:39:28","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6558677/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-07-07T10:29:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-22T12:46:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"194931821786743326646710002427467108380","date":"2025-06-12T15:11:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-08T20:24:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"52467862627372433544792631845410470155","date":"2025-05-21T12:37:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-20T09:38:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-07T14:57:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-07T13:19:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Agroforestry Systems","date":"2025-04-29T17:26:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"agroforestry-systems","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"agfo","sideBox":"Learn more about [Agroforestry Systems](http://link.springer.com/journal/10457)","snPcode":"10457","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10457/3","title":"Agroforestry Systems","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dfa98b2b-ab2f-455a-afb2-83f0cc57d20a","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-08T15:58:43+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6558677","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-025-01307-4","journal":{"identity":"agroforestry-systems","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Agroforestry Systems"},"publishedOn":"2025-09-06 15:56:59","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 6th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-22 09:39:28","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10457-025-01307-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-025-01307-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6558677","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6558677","identity":"rs-6558677","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}