Using eco-friendly green insecticides for storages pest management: Prangos ferulacea (essential oil and powder) against Callosobruchus maculatus (Col. : Chrysomelidae)

Using eco-friendly green insecticides for storages pest management: Prangos ferulacea (essential oil and powder) against Callosobruchus maculatus (Col. : Chrysomelidae) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Using eco-friendly green insecticides for storages pest management: Prangos ferulacea (essential oil and powder) against Callosobruchus maculatus (Col. : Chrysomelidae) Zeinab Hosseini, Gholamhossein Shahraki, Amin Sedaratian-Jahromi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7967791/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract To promote the use of eco-friendly green pesticides as storage pests, this study was designed to evaluate the insecticidal effects of Prangos ferulacea Lindl. essential oil and powder on Callosobruchus maculatus F in vitro. The LC 50 value of the essential oil was 16.28 µL/L, and the LD 50 value of the powder was equal to 1.6 g/kg food after 72 h. The LT 50 value of the essential oil was 36.623 h for stability and analysis of the probit slope (1.596 ± 0.291), and the logarithm of time and mortality rate were significant (95% CI). The LT 50 value was determined to be 38.72 h for the powder and 50.85 h for the aluminum phosphide tablets; thus, the essential oil had a greater effect on the powder formulation as well as the aluminum phosphide. A comparison of the durability of the treatments revealed that during 24 h, the essential oil with a mortality rate of 80.55 ± 6.10% was significantly superior to the aluminum phosphide tablets (40.50 ± 7.43% at 99% CI). The results of this study revealed that P. ferulacea essential oil has acceptable respiratory toxicity to the examined storage pest. Physical sciences/Chemistry Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences Biological sciences/Plant sciences Prangos ferulacea Callosobruchus maculatus aluminum phosphide essential oil insecticide Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction Legumes are attacked by various insect mite pests during storage, and 50% of the beans are sometimes destroyed by pests during the 3–4 month storage period. The cowpea seed weevil ( Callosobruchus maculatus F. (Col. : Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) is one of the most important storage pests that damages legumes such as beans, peas, mung beans ( Vigna radiata (L.)), lentils, etc. (Shakarami et al., 2004 ). In some countries, pesticides such as aluminum phosphide are used to preserve legumes from insects. Rice pellets (aluminum phosphide) are highly toxic substances and dangerous combinations of phosphides that are used as pesticides, insecticides, and fumigants in the agricultural industry to preserve grains, cereals and rice(Daglish et al., 2018 ). Annually, more than 300,000 deaths from pesticide poisoning occur worldwide, most of which are caused by aluminum phosphide poisoning (Gunnell & Eddleston, 2003). According to a forensic medicine report from Iran, mortality due to aluminum phosphide poisoning is increasing, and the number of people who die because of aluminum phosphide poisoning has increased from 214 cases in 2008 to 598, 636, 825 and 919 cases in 2012, 2014, 2018 and 2019, respectively (Organization, 2020 ; Soltani nejad, 2019). Aluminum phosphide poisoning is one of the deadliest poisonings, and no solution has yet been found to save patients' lives. The most severe form of acute poisoning with this substance is caused by eating half a 3-gram tablet. This toxic substance is easily absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and produces dangerous phosphine gas after being dissolved in body fluids and stomach moisture. The resulting phosphine disrupts the cytochrome oxidase enzyme and causes cell death in various organs, including the heart, liver and lungs, in less than 6 h after ingestion (Shadnia et al., 2006 ). In general, it has been proven that some plants have compounds leading to fast insect death in addition to repellent effects, antifeeding and inhabitation of oviposition. Among the plants with extraordinary toxic potential for storage pests, those with essential oil and medicinal and nutritional properties and rapid degradation in nature, in addition to being low risk to humans and other mammals, are known (Karahroudi et al., 2010 ; Negahban & Moharamipour, 2007 ). Since plant compounds affect the physiology and behavior of pests, the use of these compounds and their products has attracted much attention for controlling pests, particularly storage pests. However, some of these compounds are terpenoids found in plant essential oils and seem to be safe alternatives to chemical pesticides (Taghizadeh & Moharramipour, 2011 ). Among these plants, Prangos ferulacea (L.) (Apiaceae) is notable. The Prangos genus has approximately 30 species, of which 15 are in Iran and only 5 are native to Iran (Sajjadi & Mehregan, 2003 ). In addition to Iran, other species of this genus are distributed in Turkey, the Balkans, Italy, Syria, Kazakhstan and the Caucasus (Coşkun et al., 2004 ; Rechinger, 1982 ). Prangos ferulacea is distributed in the provinces of East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Kermanshah, Hamedan, Semnan, and the southern regions of the Alborz, Isfahan, Lorestan, Ilam, Kohgiluyeh and BoyerAhmad, Kerman and the mountains of Fars Province in Iran (Zargari, 1997 ). Prangos ferulacea is a long, tall and fragrant plant belonging to the Umbelliferae family that grows in many mountainous areas of Iran and is used as one of the main plants supplying winter fodder for livestock (H Amiri, 2007 ; Hamzeh Amiri, 2007 ; Kafash-Farkhad et al., 2013 ; Mozafari et al., 2007 ). Prangos ferulacea is a moisture-friendly plant that needs plenty of moisture, cold and frost to complete its life cycle and is often found in areas that are cold and snowy. Its growth rate in clay soils is better than that in other soils. These climatic needs are met at relatively high altitudes and slope directions (Hasani & Shahmoradi, 2007 ; Rechinger, 1982 ; Zargari, 1997 ). terpenoid compounds, especially monoterpenoids, can be used as low-risk compounds for humans and the environment and as alternatives to synthetic chemical compounds in the control of storage pests (H Amiri, 2007 ; Kafash-Farkhad et al., 2013 ; Mobarakian et al., 2016 ). The identification of compounds found in P. ferulacea essential oils in all three phases (before flowering, flowering, fruiting) has shown that the main components of the essential oils of this plant in all three phases are monoterpene compounds, especially alpha- and beta-pinene, such that these two compounds constitute more than 65% of the essential oils (Hamzeh Amiri, 2007 ). The insecticidal effects of P. ferulacea on the flour moth Ephestia kuehniella (Ercan et al., 2013 ), its antimicrobial effects (Hamzeh Amiri, 2007 ; Badalamenti et al., 2022 ) and its antioxidant activity (Badalamenti et al., 2022 ; Bruno et al., 2021 ) have already been studied. Thus, in the present research, the insecticidal effects of P. ferulacea essential oils and powders on C. maculatus were analyzed as alternatives to aluminum phosphide tablets, which have been used for many years as fumigants to protect stored grains from insects in some Middle East countries. Materials and methods Insect rearing The storage pest C. maculatus was prepared from the laboratory of the Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Yasouj University. To rear and reproduce the insects, 100 male and female insects (50:50 ratio) were transferred to 250 g of mung bean ( Vigna radiata ) in a container (approximately 3 liters) and kept at 25±2 °C in darkness. To eliminate possible contamination, first, the V. radiata used in the present study were kept at -18 °C for 72 h and then used in the experiments. After one day, the adult insects were removed via an electric aspirator from the breeding containers and transferred to new containers containing healthy, noncontaminated V. radiata . The V. radiata seeds containing one-day-old weevil larvae were subsequently kept at ambient temperature in darkness until a new generation of insects emerged. Notably, one- to three-day-old adult insects ( C. maculatus ) were used for the bioassay experiments. Collection of P. ferulacea At the end of May 2018, the aerial parts of P. ferulacea were collected from mountains located in Ab-Nahr, Yasuj (lat: 30.68183, Lon: 51.68183), and dried under appropriate shading and ventilation conditions. P. ferulacea samples were purchased from a local farmer with permission. No wild plants were collected, and all procedures complied with national and international guidelines (IUCN and CITES). The dried plants collected for the experiments weighed approximately 20 kg. The collected plant species ( P. ferulacea ) was approved by Dr. Azizolah Jafari, Assistant Professor of Plant Systematics, Yasouj University. A voucher specimen of P. ferulacea (voucher no. HYU 350–1750) has been deposited in the Herbarium of Yasouj University (HYU), Iran. Preparing essential oils To prepare the essential oil, the aerial parts of P. ferulacea were fully pulverized by an electric shredder (Pars Khazar, Iran) in the shortest time before essential oil extraction. To extract the essential oil, 100 g of plant powder with 1200 ml of distilled water was poured into a Clevenger essential oil extractor (Pyrex Fan, 2000 cc, Iran). The extraction of essential oil after boiling the suspension of dried plant powder was continued for 3 h at 100 °C. The essential oils enriched with anhydrous sodium sulfate were dehydrated and stored in 2 ml microtubes with an aluminum coating in a refrigerator (4 °C). Preparing powder Prior to each experiment, an amount of P. ferulacea that had previously been dried under appropriate conditions was powdered with an electric grinder and sieved through 70 mesh. Aluminum phosphide tablet Aluminum phosphide tablets were purchased from pesticide distribution centers in 10-tube packaging sealed by necessary licenses. Testing conditions The experiments were performed at a temperature of 25 ± 2 °C, a relative humidity of 75 ± 5% and darkness in a laboratory incubator (Rad Teb, Iran). Evaluation of the respiratory toxicity of essential oils to C. maculatus adults The bioassay was performed in dark McCarthy containers (70 ml). Given that the probit model is used in data analysis, basic tests were conducted to find a range of concentrations associated with 20–80% mortality in all the experiments. The different concentrations studied included 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, and 8.8 μl. By performing primary assays, low concentrations (20% mortality) and high concentrations (80% mortality) of essential oils were determined, and appropriate concentrations ranging from 20–80% mortality were selected. The selected concentrations are as follows: 0.50, 0.60, 0.70, 0.90, 1.00, 2.00, 2.50, 3.00, 3.50 and 4.50 μl (equivalent to 7.14, 8.57, 10, 12.85, 14.28, 28.57, 35.71, 42.85, 50 and 64.28 μl/l air, respectively). The essential oil used at the aforementioned concentrations was poured with a sampler (Clever, Germany) on pieces of filter paper (Watman, UK) that had previously been cut to the size of a lid, and then the filter was inserted into the lid of the container used in the experiments. Then, 10 adult insects aged 1–3 days were transferred to each container. To prevent the insects from contacting the filter paper and eliminate the effect of contact toxicity, the containers were covered with fine mesh nets that the studied insects could not pass through, and then the lid containing the filter paper impregnated with essential oil was tightly closed. To prevent the evaporation of essential oil from the container, they were properly closed with parafilm tape (American National Can Co.). The number of dead insects in the control and treatment containers was counted after 24, 48, and 72 h of essential oil extraction. At the end of this period, the insects whose appendix could not be moved after brush stimulation were considered dead. The experiments were performed in at least 5 replicates, with the control at a temperature of 25±2 °C, a relative humidity of 75±5% and darkness. In the control group, the same steps were performed, but the essential oil was not used on the filter paper pieces. Evaluating the toxicity of P. ferulacea powder to C. maculatus adults To evaluate the toxicity of P. ferulacea powder on cowpea seed weevils, experiments were performed in McCarthy containers. To find the right weight, a series of basic experiments were performed. Basic tests were performed to find a range of concentrations with a mortality range of 20–80%. The different weights studied included 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.8, 1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.8, 2, 2.3, 2.5, and 3 g of P. ferulacea powder for 10 g of food, as measured by digital scales (AND, Japan), with an accuracy of 0.001 g. The powder was mixed with V. radiata . Low concentrations (20% mortality) and high concentrations (80% mortality) were used. The selected concentrations included 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.08, 0.3, 0.5 and 1.00 g of P. ferulacea powder for every 10 g of food. In the next step, 10 adult insects (1–3 days old) were transferred to each container. After 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, the number of dead insects in each container was recorded. The experiments at this stage were performed with at least 5 replications. P. ferulacea powder was not used in the control group. Evaluating the toxicity of aluminum phosphide tablets to C. maculatus In this step, the experiments were performed in 3.5 L containers. To determine the appropriate concentration, several series of basic tests were performed. As in the previous stage, basic tests were performed to determine the range of concentrations that cause mortality of 20–80%. The different concentrations included 0.001, 0.0001, 0.0002, 0.0003, 0.0004, 0.0005, 0.0006, 0.0007, 0.0008 and 0.0009 g of aluminum phosphide tablet. By performing basic experiments, low and high concentrations of tablets were determined, and appropriate concentrations with 20–80% mortality were selected. The selected concentrations, including 0.0002, 0.0003, 0.0004, 0.0005, 0.0006, 0.0007, 0.0008, and 0.0009 g (equivalent to 0.00005, 0.00008, 0.00011, 0.00014, 0.00017, 0.00020, 0.00022, and 0.00025 g/l air), were poured into Petri dishes with two or three small holes attached to the lids of the container. A set of 10 insects was placed in another Petri dish inside the container, and then, the lid was tightly closed. The lids of the glass containers were opened 24, 48 and 72 h after the start of the experiment, and the number of dead insects per concentration was recorded. The experiments of this stage were performed in at least 5 replications. The conditions of the experimental environment were similar to those of the previous steps. Notably, no aluminum phosphide tablets were used in the control group. Evaluating the durability of the essential oils and powders of P. ferulacea and aluminum phosphide tablets To evaluate the durability of the essential oil, the LC 50 values of the respiratory toxicity of the essential oil, powder and aluminum phosphide tablets were determined via SPSS. This index for essential oil, powder and aluminum phosphide tablets was 1.14 μl per 70 ml of air (16.28 μl/l air), 0.015 g per 10 g of food (1.6 g/kg food), and 0.0006 g per 3.5 liter of air (0.00017 g/l air). To investigate the durability of P. ferulacea essential oil, 1.14 μl of essential oil was poured by a sampler on filter paper that was previously cut to the size of a container lid, and then the filter paper inside the lid of the containers was used in the experiments. As in the previous stages, the containers were covered by fine mesh nets that the studied insects could not pass through, and then, the lid was tightly closed. To prevent the essential oil from escaping, the lids were properly closed with parafilm tape (American National Can Co.). Over a period of one, 24, one, two, three or four weeks after essential oil extraction, 10 1–3-day-old adult insects were transferred to the test containers, and 24 h later, the mortality rates of the studied insects were recorded. The experiments were conducted in 5 replications under the previously mentioned conditions. To evaluate durability, 0.015 g of P. ferulacea powder was mixed with 10 g of beans, and over a period of one month, 24 h, and one, two, three and four weeks after the powder was added to the containers, 10 adult insects aged 1–3 days were left in the test containers, and mortality was recorded 24 h after each period. The method used to evaluate the durability of the studied tablets was the same as that used for P. ferulacea powder. In this stage, 0.0006 g of aluminum phosphide tablet was measured and then poured into Petri dishes with two or three small holes attached to the lids of containers. Over a period of one month, at 24 h, one-, two-, three- and four-week intervals after the tablets were added to the environment, 10 adult cowpea seed weevils aged 1--3 days were placed in another Petri dish in containers, and the lid was then tightly closed. Twenty-four hours later, the mortality rate was recorded. Data analysis A probit model was used to evaluate the lethality of the essential oils and powders of P. ferulacea and the aluminum phosphide tablets. In the analysis of this stage, SPSS (Ver.18) was used. Analysis of variance was used to evaluate the durability of the plant and chemical materials used. If a significant difference was observed between the averages at this stage, Tukey's test was used to categorize the averages ( P <0.05). Results Toxicity of P. ferulacea essential oil to C. maculatus after 24, 48 and 72 h The results of the experiments revealed that the mortality rate of adult insects increased with increasing essential oil concentration and duration of extraction. The highest mortality at the highest concentration of essential oil (64.28 µl/l air) and over a period of 48 h was approximately 100%, and the lowest mortality rate at the lowest concentration (7.14 µl/l air) and over a period of 24 h was 20%. Therefore, it can be concluded that with increasing concentration and time, the respiratory toxicity of the abovementioned plant essential oils increased (Table 1). Table 1. Toxicity of Prangos ferulacea essential oil to Callosobruchus maculatus Concentrations (µl/l air) % Mortality by time intervals 24 h 48 h 72 h 7.14 0.00 ± 20.00 22.36 ± 45.00 13.16 ± 62.00 8.57 14.14 ± 30.00 18.67 ± 53.59 17.14 ± 67.40 10 6.94 ± 43.94 2.88 ± 58.80 9.03 ± 69.09 12.85 5.00 ± 52.50 13.91 ± 59.09 0.00 ± 70.00 14.28 13.43 ± 54.43 13.56 ± 61.25 15.12 ± 73.87 28.57 4.84 ± 66.30 16.39 ± 70.66 10.87 ± 75.33 35.71 8.06 ± 68.20 10.08 ± 72.39 16.17 ± 76.74 42.58 17.07 ± 72.50 17.07 ± 77.50 10.00 ± 80.00 50 16.73 ± 76.00 22.67 ± 78.57 10.00 ± 80.00 64.28 5.77 ± 80.00 0.00 ± 100.00 0.00 ± 100.00 In this study, a lethality of 20–80% was not obtained at the concentrations selected for the LC 50 analysis after 72 h; thus, the lethal effects were reported only at 24 and 48 h (Table 1). The LC 50 values and the results of the probit analysis of the bioassay data for P. ferulacea essential oils are shown in Table 2. The logarithm of the concentration and mortality probit of C. maculatus caused by P. ferulacea essential oil after 24 and 48 h revealed that the mortality of the insects tended to increase, and with probit analysis, the LC 50 values of the essential oil were 16.28 and 12.88 µl/l air after 24 and 48 h, respectively, indicating that with increasing time, the mortality rate of C. maculatus increased. According to the results, the insecticidal power increased over time, which was due to the decrease in the LC 50 values over time. Figures 1 and 2 show that the mortality rate is different at various concentrations and that the applied concentrations are directly related to the mortality rate, which means that with increasing concentration, the mortality rate of C. maculatus increases . Table 2. LC 50 values determined via probit analysis of the bioassay data of Prangos ferulacea essential oil on Callosobruchus maculatus after 24 and 48 h P Chi-square (χ 2 ) Intercept(b)±SE Slope(a)±SE LC 50 (μL/L) Efficacy time (h) 0.996 32.66 -0.095 ± 0.059 1.672 ± 0.184 16.28 (13.85-18.84)* 24 0.655 39.729 0.054 ± 0.75 1.197 ± 0.259 12.88 (8.01-16.55)* 48 *Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error Determination of the lethality rate of P. ferulacea powder to C. maculatus after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h In this study, given that the mortality rate of C. maculatus caused by powder was less than 100%, 4 time intervals of 24--96 hours were used to evaluate the lethality rate of P. ferulacea powder on C. maculatus . The results of the experiments revealed that the mortality rate of C. maculatus increased with increasing powder concentration, and the highest mortality rate was observed at the highest concentration. The highest mortality rate at the highest concentration of powder was 78% for 1.00 g per 10 g of food after 96 h, and the lowest mortality rate was 9.54% at the lowest concentration, 0.001 g per 10 g of food after 24 h. Therefore, it can be concluded that with increasing concentration and time, the toxicity of the aforementioned plant powder increased (Table 3). Table 3. Toxicity of Prangos ferulacea powder to Callosobruchus maculatus after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h at different concentrations Concentrations (g per 10 g food) % Mortality by time intervals 24 h 48 h 72 h 96 h 0.001 9.54 ± 11.91 27.95 ± 17.71 33.33 ± 5.77 62.00 ± 10.97 0.005 13.62 ± 7.52 29.54 ± 13.82 91/4 ± 16/39 64.80 ± 8.67 0.01 20.70 ± 9.73 33.66 ± 14.73 46.83 ± 7.75 65.00 ± 3.74 0.02 22.22 ± 14.52 35.60 ± 15.53 50.40 ± 8.76 65.30 ± 5.13 0.03 26.00 ± 6.00 40.75 ± 6.99 52.33 ± 4.04 65.60 ± 6.07 0.04 30.42 ± 10.06 42.00 ± 12.02 56.42 ± 4.75 66.00 ± 5.87 0.08 32.00 ± 5.17 43.00 ± 10.00 61.33 ± 2.30 68.60 ± 13.22 0.3 33.50 ± 10.75 44.00 ± 11.43 69.00 ± 10.14 70.60 ± 6.84 0.5 33.00 ± 4.91 46.00 ± 11.43 70.00 ± 0.00 72.00 ± 4.47 1.00 33.33 ± 5.77 47.75 ± 14.55 75.75 ± 5.05 78.00 ± 13.03 In this study, according to the results shown in Table 3, at 24, 48 and 96 hours, a lethality of 20–80% was not obtained at the concentrations selected for the LC 50 analysis, so the lethal effects were reported only at 72 hours. The LD 50 values and the results of the probit analysis of the bioassay data of P. ferulacea powder on C. maculatus are given in Table 4. Table 4. The LD 50 values were computed via probit analysis of the bioassay data of Prangos ferulacea powder on Callosobruchus maculatus after 72 h. P Chi-square(χ 2 ) Intercept(b)±SE Slope(a)±SE LD 50 (g/kg) Efficacy time (h) 1.000 6.936 0.660 ± 0.128 0.366 ± 0.074 1.6 (0.6-3.3)* 72 *Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error The logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of C. maculatus caused by P. ferulacea powder after 72 h revealed that the mortality of the insects tended to increase, and after probit analysis, the LD 50 value of the powder was 1.6 g/kg food after 72 h, which indicates that, with increasing time, the mortality rate of C. maculatus increased. According to the results, the insecticidal power increased over time, which was due to declining LD 50 values over time. Figure 3 shows that with increasing concentration, the percentage of mortality in C. maculatus increased. In this study, significant mortality was observed in adults only at high concentrations of P. ferulacea powder. Toxicity of aluminum phosphide to C. maculatus after 24, 48 and 72 hours The results of the experiments revealed that the mortality rate of C. maculatus increased with increasing aluminum phosphide concentration and duration; thus, the highest mortality rate was observed at the highest dose, and the mortality rate reached 70--100% at 72 h. The highest mortality rate was 100% at the highest aluminum phosphide concentration, i.e., 0.00025 g/l air after 72 h, and the lowest mortality rate was 15.28% at the lowest concentration, i.e., 0.00005 g/l air after 24 h. Therefore, with increasing concentration and time, the toxicity of aluminum phosphide increased (Table 5). Table 5. Toxicity of aluminum phosphide to Callosobruchus maculatus after 24, 48 and 72 h Concentration (g/L air) % Mortality by time interval 24 h 48 h 72 h 0.00005 15.28 ± 5.47 33.33 ± 5.77 46.66 ± 11.54 0.00008 18.89 ± 11.14 34.00 ± 5.47 65.00 ± 14.14 0.00011 23.33 ± 5.77 40.13 ± 12.47 71.66 ± 20.20 0.00014 36.67 ± 11.55 46.66 ± 15.27 90.00 ± 0.00 0.00017 45.45 ± 31.01 57.57 ± 28.93 92.00 ± 5.77 0.00020 55.00 ± 12.90 68.33 ± 7.63 93.33 ± 8.16 0.00022 62.00 ± 16.43 90.00 ± 0.00 100.00 ± 0.00 0.00025 70.00 ± 17.32 92.00 ± 13.03 100.00 ± 0.00 In this study, according to the results shown in Table 5, a lethality of 20–80% was not obtained at the concentrations selected for LC 50 analysis after 72 h; therefore, the lethal effects were reported at 24 and 48 h. The LC 50 values and the results of the probit analysis of the aluminum phosphide bioassay data of P. ferulacea on C. maculatus are given in Table 6. The logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of C. maculatus caused by aluminum phosphide after 48 and 72 h revealed that the mortality of the insects increased, and with probit analysis (Figures 4 and 5), the LC 50 values of aluminum phosphide were 0.00017 and 0.00011 g/l air after 24 and 48 h, respectively, indicating that with increasing time, the mortality rate of C. maculatus increased. According to the results, the insecticidal power increased over time, which was due to declining LC 50 values over time. Table 6. The LD 50 values were computed via probit analysis of bioassay data of aluminum phosphide in Callosobruchus maculatus after 24 and 48 h. P Chi-square (χ 2 ) Intercept(b)±SE Slope(a)±SE LC 50 (g/L air) Efficacy time (h) 0.660 27.238 8.182 ± 1.212 2.558 ± 0.366 0.00017 (0.00017-0.00022)* 24 0.633 20.147 8.226 ± 1.474 2.435 ± 0.439 0.00011 (0.00011-0.00014)* 48 *Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error Determination of the LT 50 value of P. ferulacea essential oil for C. maculatus To determine the LT 50 value of P. ferulacea essential oil to determine its stability, the LC 20 values of the essential oils were equal to 5.11 µl/l air. The experiments were performed at various periods of 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h with the control treatment, which is shown in Figure 6 as a logarithm of time and mortality rate. With probit analysis, the LT 50 calculated for the effect of essential oil was 36.623 h, the significance of which is shown in Table 7. In other words, essential oils caused 50% mortality in adult insects after 36.623 h. Table 7. The computed LT 50 of Prangos ferulacea essential oil for Callosobruchus maculatus P Chi-square (χ 2 ) Intercept(b) ±SE Slope(a)±SE LT 50 (h) 0.919 0.170 -2.496 ± 0.504 1.596 ± 0.291 36.623 (27.24-44.45)* *Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error Determination of the LT 50 value of Prangos ferulacea powder for Callosobruchus maculatus To determine the LT 50 value of P. ferulacea powder, the LD 50 value of the powder used was 1.6 g/kg food. The experiments were performed at various concentrations, which are shown as logarithms of concentration and mortality in Figure 7. The calculated LT 50 for the effect of essential oil by probit analysis was 38.72 h, the significance of which is shown in Table 8. In other words, P. ferulacea powder caused 50% mortality in insects after 38.72 h. Table 8. The computed LT 50 of Prangos ferulacea powder against Callosobruchus maculatus P Chi-square (χ 2 ) Intercept(b)±SE Slope(a)±SE LT 50 (h) 0.902 0.577 -3.329 ± 0.452 2.096 ± 254 38.72 (31.89-44.83) *Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error Determination of the LT 50 values of aluminum phosphide tablets on C. maculatus To determine the LT 50 value of aluminum phosphide, the LC 20 value of aluminum phosphide tablets was used, which was 0.00008 g/l air. The experiment was evaluated at different times (24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 hours) with the control treatment, and the logarithms of the concentrations and mortality rates are shown in Figure 8. The calculated LT 50 for the effect of aluminum phosphide by probit data analysis was determined to be 50.85 h, the significance of which is shown in Table 9. In other words, aluminum phosphide could cause a mortality rate of 50% in adult insects after 50.85 hours. Table 9. The computed LT 50 of aluminum phosphide on Callosobruchus maculatus P Chi-square (χ 2 ) Intercept(b) ±SE Slope(a)±SE LT 50 (h) 0.714 0.674 -3.949 ± 0.547 2.314 ± 0.313 50.85 (44.069-58.188) *Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error Comparison of the durability of P. ferulacea essential oil and powder with aluminum phosphide in adult C. maculatus To compare the durability of P. ferulacea essential oil and powder with aluminum phosphide tablets, the LC 50 values (or LD 50 values for powder) used were 0.00017 g/L air for aluminum phosphide, 16.28 µl/L air for essential oil and 1.6 g/kg food for powder. The experiments were performed at different times, namely, 24 h and one, two, three and four weeks after exposure, with respect to the control group. The results of the analysis of variance revealed that there was a significant difference in the mortality rate of C. maculatus among the different durations of essential oil ( P = 0.000, d f = 4, F =15.016) and P. ferulacea powder ( P = 0.004, df = 4, F = 4.382) use. There was no significant difference in the mortality rate of C. maculatus among the different durations of aluminum phosphide use ( P = 0.056, df = 4, F = 2.77) (Table 10). According to Table 10, the results of the analysis of variance of P. ferulacea essential oil also revealed that there was a significant difference between 24 hours of exposure at all testing times (CI = 95%, P <0.05) and between the first week and fourth week ( P =0.014). The results also revealed a significant difference in the mortality rate of C. maculatus between 24 hours of contact and one week after contact (CI= 95%, P = 0.013) and the second week (CI = 95%, P = 0.020). Furthermore, there was a significant difference among the effects of essential oils, powders and aluminum phosphides on the mortality rate of the tested insects during 24 hours of exposure to 95% C. I ( P = 0.000), and Tukey's test revealed that there was a significant difference only between the essential oils and the tablets ( P = 0.047). Table 10. Durability of aluminum phosphide tablets, Prangos ferulacea essential oils and powders on adult Callosobruchus maculatus according to the efficacy time P % Mortality (Mean ± SE)** by times after exposure Samples* 4 weeks 3 weeks 2 weeks 1 week 24 h 0.000 3.00 ± 1.53 9.50 ± 3.02 12.00 ± 2.91 38.54 ± 5.38 80.55 ± 6.10 Essential oil 0.004 15.00 ± 3.07 24.00 ± 4.99 30.00 ± 2.98 31.00 ± 6.74 10.00 ± 2.98 Powder 0.060 4.00 ± 2.45 6.00 ± 2.45 14.00 ± 4.00 17.82 ± 5.89 40.50 ± 7.43 AP Tablet * P value between 3 samples is 0.000 (99% CI, ANOVA) ** SE=Standard error *** AP= aluminum phosphide According to the results and as shown in Figure 9, at 24 h of exposure, the essential oil, aluminum phosphide and powder had the highest insecticides, and the P. ferulacea essential oil, accounting for 80.55%, had a greater mortality rate than the aluminum phosphide tablets, accounting for 40.50%. Over one week, the respiratory effects of the essential oils and tablets still resulted in significant mortality rates of 38.54% and 17.82%, respectively, with a mild decreasing trend for the next week, and after one month, the effects of the essential oils and tablets were minimized by 3.00% and 4.00%, respectively, in terms of mortality. Although this decreasing trend was statistically significant until the third week for essential oil, the mortality rate did not significantly differ for aluminum phosphide after the first week. However, a fully different trend was observed for P. ferulacea powder, which can be attributed to its nature compared with that of the essential oils and tablets. Hence, the lowest insecticide effect was observed after 24 hours, and the highest insecticide effect was observed in the first week. These effects lasted until almost the second week, and in the end, the insecticide effects decreased over time. However, it showed greater durability than did the essential oils and tablets and remained at a higher level than the other two oils did at the fourth week, with an average mortality of 15%. Discussion The results of this study revealed that P. ferulacea essential oil had appropriate respiratory toxicity to C. maculatus , which has been reported by other researchers in terms of the respiratory toxicity of similar plant essential oils to insects (Ercan et al., 2013 ; Hamzavi et al., 2014 ; Owolabi et al., 2014 ; Roozbahani et al., 2014 ; Taghizadeh & Moharamipour, 2010 ; Taghizadeh & Moharramipour, 2011 ). In the present study, the toxicity of P. ferulacea essential oil to C. maculatus was significantly greater than that of aluminum phosphide, especially in the first 24 h of contact (more than 80.5% mortality versus 40.5% caused by aluminum phosphide). Additionally, essential oil has a faster effect than aluminum phosphide (LT 50 = 36.62 h for essential oil and LT50 = 50.85 h for aluminum phosphide). The durability chart also shows that P. ferulacea essential oils compete well with aluminum phosphide tablets. Taghizadeh and Moharramipour (Taghizadeh & Moharamipour, 2010 ) also confirmed that Prangos acaulis (Apiaceae) has a favorable effect on C. maculatus (LC50 = 1.31 µl/L). Many researchers have reported the resistance of storage pests to aluminum phosphide and its decreasing effect (Lee et al., 2004 ; Rajendran & Sriranjini, 2008 ; Whitacre & Ware, 2004 ). According to the results, with increasing concentrations and durations of essential oil extraction, the mortality rate of adult insects increased so that P. ferulacea essential oil caused 100% mortality at a concentration of 64.28% (the highest concentration tested) over 48 h, and as shown in previous reports, several researchers have reported the proportions of the concentration and duration of essential oil extraction with respect to the severity of storage pest losses (Ercan et al., 2013 ; Hamzavi et al., 2014 ; Roozbahani et al., 2014 ; Taghizadeh & Moharamipour, 2010 ). In this study, P. ferulacea essential oil with an LC 50 of 16.28 µl/L air was less toxic to C. maculatus after 24 h of essential oil extraction than aluminum phosphide tablets with an LC 50 of 0.00017 g/L air. In other studies, P. acaulis essential oil with an LC 50 of 1.31 µl/L air and Thymus persicus (Lamiaceae) with an LC 50 of 2.39 µl/L air were toxic to C. maculatus (Taghizadeh & Moharamipour, 2010 ). In another study, P. ferulacea essential oil with an LC 50 of 0.57 µl/L air showed desirable toxicity to another storage pest ( E. kuehniella ) ((Ercan et al., 2013 ). The pennyroyal essential oils with an LC 50 of 0.35 µl/L air, the rosemary essential oils with an LC 50 of 0.42 µl/L air, the case essential oils with an LC 50 of 0.53 µl/L air, and the mugwort essential oils with an LC 50 of 0.99 µl/L air had respiratory toxicity effects on Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (Col. : Silvanidae) over 24 h in research conducted by Roozbehani and others (Roozbahani et al., 2014 ). In this study, P. ferulacea powder can be a moderate and desirable option in terms of durability (between essential oils and aluminum phosphide) as a contact insecticide when the processing time does not matter (especially after the first week of exposure). In Africa, the leaves of essential oil-containing plants are traditionally placed on stored seeds for preservation from pest damage(Golob & Webley, 1980 ). Plant powders and essential oils are classified by the International Environment Agency as bioactive compounds from third-generation insecticides. These compounds are less harmful than conventional pesticides are and are very effective in integrated pest management (IPM) when produced and released properly. Features such as low toxicity to mammals, rapid decomposition, low molecular weight, volatility, and low durability have caused them to receive a great deal of attention today (Pérez et al., 2010 ; Rosell et al., 2008 ). In particular, they are very effective in competing with formerly popular pesticides such as aluminum phosphide for simplicity and a wide range of use. Another dimension is the cost of P. ferulacea (powder/essential oil), although its widespread use in agriculture is due to the lower price of aluminum phosphide; however, owing to its numerous therapeutic (pain relief, inflammation and diabetes), antibacterial, viral and fungal applications, it can be given to customers with mass production and at a low and competitive price with aluminum phosphide (Kafash-Farkhad et al., 2013 ). Conclusion It can be concluded that P. ferulacea essential oil has acceptable respiratory toxicity to the examined storage pest ( C. maculatus ) and could be used as an alternative to aluminum phosphide tablets. Furthermore, P. ferulacea powder after the addition of essential oil is also useful for the management of storage pests. Suggestions Although P. ferulacea has been shown to have high lethality but low durability, these studies were performed under in vitro conditions and in an environment outside the storage product mass. Moreover, many factors can affect natural storage conditions, including the type of storage product, volume and weight of the product, temperature and humidity of the storage mass used to absorb essential oil, repellent effects and durability; moreover, the unpleasant smell of P. ferulacea may have an unfavorable effect on the taste of storage products. Therefore, the above factors should be considered in future research. On the other hand, given the poor dispersing potential of essential oil compounds, novel technologies must be used to apply these compounds to prepare suitable formulations. Furthermore, a Gc/Ms analysis revealed that these essential oils could be considered promising candidates for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical preparations; however, flower essential oils are harmful at low and wide-spectrum concentrations (Badalamenti et al., 2022 ), and therefore, the toxicity safety analysis of food consumption was performed. Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Funding This study was financially supported by Yasuj University of Medical Sciences, Yasuj, Iran. Author Contribution ASJ and ZH contributed to performing the experiments. GH was a major contributor in writing the manuscript. SH and ASJ, supervised the study and contributed to the critical revision of the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement This article is derived from a research project approved by Yasuj University of Medical Sciences (ethics code IR.YUMS.REC.1396.62). This article is also resulted from collaboration of the Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Yasuj University. We would like to appreciate the sincere cooperation of Vice President for Research and Botany Department of Yasuj University of Medical Sciences. 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14:14:05","extension":"html","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":142746,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/c33c64c94f25a95bede8cb9b.html"},{"id":96854441,"identity":"4fa325c2-fa1a-45dc-992a-34f1f53ec521","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-26 18:53:08","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26945,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil after 24 h\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/8b7cfb43d51f5a84a32c7306.png"},{"id":96854447,"identity":"319d366d-f8dc-4459-8f75-e4bf9e13d63a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-26 18:53:08","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39663,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil after 48 h\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/b115d90d279126c9c3abd6af.png"},{"id":96854442,"identity":"d031a5b6-0d44-4761-9506-3b5668714774","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-26 18:53:08","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36653,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder after 72 h\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/e5b696e749687e4e23b16091.png"},{"id":96918015,"identity":"e53e5348-8129-4415-b56c-da35b1ba05b4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:11:00","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27555,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by aluminum phosphide after 24 h\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/9aca905ea0370205746bbcd1.png"},{"id":96920479,"identity":"1d93eeb6-2b2c-483f-97dd-899f561416fd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:15:12","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27177,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by aluminum phosphide after 48 h\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/a624e2ed15da7a77530447c4.png"},{"id":96918778,"identity":"5da0bd94-9185-492a-a05c-a9df8f66f082","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:12:34","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":20739,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/681e99d619ff67a659534e2e.png"},{"id":96854448,"identity":"f332d11f-8916-4d2e-8cac-3383bc713d1e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-26 18:53:08","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19550,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/c20a1eb1537eebe47e901525.png"},{"id":96920115,"identity":"1879cc22-70b6-484d-be3e-801f4df5e96e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:14:47","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28815,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e F caused by aluminum phosphide\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/d2eea19e4410a39b23408b25.png"},{"id":97135892,"identity":"480ec1bd-77ee-4f5c-8ddf-ae654e76ccd6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 09:54:22","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2325369,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/12bc079e-e966-430c-b6ba-8eccd52a1467.pdf"},{"id":96918557,"identity":"0e7fafe0-6e17-4344-b716-4ffd15ceab32","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-27 14:12:07","extension":"zip","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":341411,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Analysis.zip","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7967791/v1/54257231d7fda6b5505dc658.zip"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Using eco-friendly green insecticides for storages pest management: Prangos ferulacea (essential oil and powder) against Callosobruchus maculatus (Col. : Chrysomelidae)","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLegumes are attacked by various insect mite pests during storage, and 50% of the beans are sometimes destroyed by pests during the 3\u0026ndash;4 month storage period. The cowpea seed weevil (\u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e F. (Col. : Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) is one of the most important storage pests that damages legumes such as beans, peas, mung beans (\u003cem\u003eVigna radiata\u003c/em\u003e (L.)), lentils, etc. (Shakarami et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn some countries, pesticides such as aluminum phosphide are used to preserve legumes from insects. Rice pellets (aluminum phosphide) are highly toxic substances and dangerous combinations of phosphides that are used as pesticides, insecticides, and fumigants in the agricultural industry to preserve grains, cereals and rice(Daglish et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Annually, more than 300,000 deaths from pesticide poisoning occur worldwide, most of which are caused by aluminum phosphide poisoning (Gunnell \u0026amp; Eddleston, 2003). According to a forensic medicine report from Iran, mortality due to aluminum phosphide poisoning is increasing, and the number of people who die because of aluminum phosphide poisoning has increased from 214 cases in 2008 to 598, 636, 825 and 919 cases in 2012, 2014, 2018 and 2019, respectively (Organization, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Soltani nejad, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAluminum phosphide poisoning is one of the deadliest poisonings, and no solution has yet been found to save patients' lives. The most severe form of acute poisoning with this substance is caused by eating half a 3-gram tablet. This toxic substance is easily absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and produces dangerous phosphine gas after being dissolved in body fluids and stomach moisture. The resulting phosphine disrupts the cytochrome oxidase enzyme and causes cell death in various organs, including the heart, liver and lungs, in less than 6 h after ingestion (Shadnia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn general, it has been proven that some plants have compounds leading to fast insect death in addition to repellent effects, antifeeding and inhabitation of oviposition. Among the plants with extraordinary toxic potential for storage pests, those with essential oil and medicinal and nutritional properties and rapid degradation in nature, in addition to being low risk to humans and other mammals, are known (Karahroudi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Negahban \u0026amp; Moharamipour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Since plant compounds affect the physiology and behavior of pests, the use of these compounds and their products has attracted much attention for controlling pests, particularly storage pests. However, some of these compounds are terpenoids found in plant essential oils and seem to be safe alternatives to chemical pesticides (Taghizadeh \u0026amp; Moharramipour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong these plants, \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e (L.) (Apiaceae) is notable. The Prangos genus has approximately 30 species, of which 15 are in Iran and only 5 are native to Iran (Sajjadi \u0026amp; Mehregan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). In addition to Iran, other species of this genus are distributed in Turkey, the Balkans, Italy, Syria, Kazakhstan and the Caucasus (Coşkun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Rechinger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e is distributed in the provinces of East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Kermanshah, Hamedan, Semnan, and the southern regions of the Alborz, Isfahan, Lorestan, Ilam, Kohgiluyeh and BoyerAhmad, Kerman and the mountains of Fars Province in Iran (Zargari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e is a long, tall and fragrant plant belonging to the Umbelliferae family that grows in many mountainous areas of Iran and is used as one of the main plants supplying winter fodder for livestock (H Amiri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Hamzeh Amiri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Kafash-Farkhad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Mozafari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e is a moisture-friendly plant that needs plenty of moisture, cold and frost to complete its life cycle and is often found in areas that are cold and snowy. Its growth rate in clay soils is better than that in other soils. These climatic needs are met at relatively high altitudes and slope directions (Hasani \u0026amp; Shahmoradi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Rechinger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Zargari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). terpenoid compounds, especially monoterpenoids, can be used as low-risk compounds for humans and the environment and as alternatives to synthetic chemical compounds in the control of storage pests (H Amiri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Kafash-Farkhad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Mobarakian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The identification of compounds found in \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oils in all three phases (before flowering, flowering, fruiting) has shown that the main components of the essential oils of this plant in all three phases are monoterpene compounds, especially alpha- and beta-pinene, such that these two compounds constitute more than 65% of the essential oils (Hamzeh Amiri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The insecticidal effects of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e on the flour moth \u003cem\u003eEphestia kuehniella\u003c/em\u003e (Ercan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), its antimicrobial effects (Hamzeh Amiri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Badalamenti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and its antioxidant activity (Badalamenti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Bruno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) have already been studied.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThus, in the present research, the insecticidal effects of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oils and powders on \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e were analyzed as alternatives to aluminum phosphide tablets, which have been used for many years as fumigants to protect stored grains from insects in some Middle East countries.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003ch2\u003eInsect rearing\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe storage pest \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e was prepared from the laboratory of the Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Yasouj University. To rear and reproduce the insects, 100 male and female insects (50:50 ratio) were transferred to 250 g of mung bean (\u003cem\u003eVigna radiata\u003c/em\u003e) in a container (approximately 3 liters) and kept at 25\u0026plusmn;2 \u0026deg;C in darkness. To eliminate possible contamination, first, the \u003cem\u003eV. radiata\u003c/em\u003e used in the present study were kept at -18 \u0026deg;C for 72 h and then used in the experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter one day, the adult insects were removed via an electric aspirator from the breeding containers and transferred to new containers containing healthy, noncontaminated \u003cem\u003eV. radiata\u003c/em\u003e. The \u003cem\u003eV. radiata\u003c/em\u003e seeds containing one-day-old weevil larvae were subsequently kept at ambient temperature in darkness until a new generation of insects emerged. Notably, one- to three-day-old adult insects (\u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e) were used for the bioassay experiments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCollection of P. ferulacea\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the end of May 2018, the aerial parts of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e were collected from mountains located in Ab-Nahr, Yasuj (lat: 30.68183, Lon: 51.68183), and dried under appropriate shading and ventilation conditions. \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e samples were purchased from a local farmer with permission. No wild plants were collected, and all procedures complied with national and international guidelines (IUCN and CITES). The dried plants collected for the experiments weighed approximately 20 kg. The collected plant species (\u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e) was approved by Dr. Azizolah Jafari, Assistant Professor of Plant Systematics, Yasouj University. A voucher specimen of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e (voucher no. HYU 350\u0026ndash;1750) has been deposited in the Herbarium of Yasouj University (HYU), Iran.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePreparing essential oils\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo prepare the essential oil, the aerial parts of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e were fully pulverized by an electric shredder (Pars Khazar, Iran) in the shortest time before essential oil extraction. To extract the essential oil, 100 g of plant powder with 1200 ml of distilled water was poured into a Clevenger essential oil extractor (Pyrex Fan, 2000 cc, Iran). The extraction of essential oil after boiling the suspension of dried plant powder was continued for 3 h at 100 \u0026deg;C. The essential oils enriched with anhydrous sodium sulfate were dehydrated and stored in 2 ml microtubes with an aluminum coating in a refrigerator (4 \u0026deg;C).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003ePreparing powder\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior to each experiment, an amount of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e that had previously been dried under appropriate conditions was powdered with an electric grinder and sieved through 70 mesh.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAluminum phosphide tablet\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAluminum phosphide tablets were purchased from pesticide distribution centers in 10-tube packaging sealed by necessary licenses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eTesting conditions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experiments were performed at a temperature of 25 \u0026plusmn; 2 \u0026deg;C, a relative humidity of 75 \u0026plusmn; 5% and darkness in a laboratory incubator (Rad Teb, Iran).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEvaluation of the respiratory toxicity of essential oils to C. maculatus adults\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe bioassay was performed in dark McCarthy containers (70 ml). Given that the probit model is used in data analysis, basic tests were conducted to find a range of concentrations associated with 20\u0026ndash;80% mortality in all the experiments. The different concentrations studied included 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, and 8.8 \u0026mu;l. By performing primary assays, low concentrations (20% mortality) and high concentrations (80% mortality) of essential oils were determined, and appropriate concentrations ranging from 20\u0026ndash;80% mortality were selected. The selected concentrations are as follows: 0.50, 0.60, 0.70, 0.90, 1.00, 2.00, 2.50, 3.00, 3.50 and 4.50 \u0026mu;l (equivalent to 7.14, 8.57, 10, 12.85, 14.28, 28.57, 35.71, 42.85, 50 and 64.28 \u0026mu;l/l air, respectively).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe essential oil used at the aforementioned concentrations was poured with a sampler (Clever, Germany) on pieces of filter paper (Watman, UK) that had previously been cut to the size of a lid, and then the filter was inserted into the lid of the container used in the experiments. Then, 10 adult insects aged 1\u0026ndash;3 days were transferred to each container. To prevent the insects from contacting the filter paper and eliminate the effect of contact toxicity, the containers were covered with fine mesh nets that the studied insects could not pass through, and then the lid containing the filter paper impregnated with essential oil was tightly closed. To prevent the evaporation of essential oil from the container, they were properly closed with parafilm tape (American National Can Co.). The number of dead insects in the control and treatment containers was counted after 24, 48, and 72 h of essential oil extraction. At the end of this period, the insects whose appendix could not be moved after brush stimulation were considered dead. The experiments were performed in at least 5 replicates, with the control at a temperature of 25\u0026plusmn;2 \u0026deg;C, a relative humidity of 75\u0026plusmn;5% and darkness. In the control group, the same steps were performed, but the essential oil was not used on the filter paper pieces.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEvaluating the toxicity of P. ferulacea powder to C. maculatus adults\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the toxicity of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder on cowpea seed weevils, experiments were performed in McCarthy containers. To find the right weight, a series of basic experiments were performed. Basic tests were performed to find a range of concentrations with a mortality range of 20\u0026ndash;80%. The different weights studied included 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.8, 1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.8, 2, 2.3, 2.5, and 3 g of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder for 10 g of food, as measured by digital scales (AND, Japan), with an accuracy of 0.001 g. The powder was mixed with \u003cem\u003eV. radiata\u003c/em\u003e. Low concentrations (20% mortality) and high concentrations (80% mortality) were used. The selected concentrations included 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.08, 0.3, 0.5 and 1.00 g of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder for every 10 g of food. In the next step, 10 adult insects (1\u0026ndash;3 days old) were transferred to each container. After 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, the number of dead insects in each container was recorded. The experiments at this stage were performed with at least 5 replications. \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder was not used in the control group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEvaluating the toxicity of aluminum phosphide tablets to C. maculatus\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this step, the experiments were performed in 3.5 L containers. To determine the appropriate concentration, several series of basic tests were performed. As in the previous stage, basic tests were performed to determine the range of concentrations that cause mortality of 20\u0026ndash;80%. The different concentrations included 0.001, 0.0001, 0.0002, 0.0003, 0.0004, 0.0005, 0.0006, 0.0007, 0.0008 and 0.0009 g of aluminum phosphide tablet. By performing basic experiments, low and high concentrations of tablets were determined, and appropriate concentrations with 20\u0026ndash;80% mortality were selected. The selected concentrations, including 0.0002, 0.0003, 0.0004, 0.0005, 0.0006, 0.0007, 0.0008, and 0.0009 g (equivalent to 0.00005, 0.00008, 0.00011, 0.00014, 0.00017, 0.00020, 0.00022, and 0.00025 g/l air), were poured into Petri dishes with two or three small holes attached to the lids of the container. A set of 10 insects was placed in another Petri dish inside the container, and then, the lid was tightly closed. The lids of the glass containers were opened 24, 48 and 72 h after the start of the experiment, and the number of dead insects per concentration was recorded. The experiments of this stage were performed in at least 5 replications. The conditions of the experimental environment were similar to those of the previous steps. Notably, no aluminum phosphide tablets were used in the control group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEvaluating the durability of the essential oils and powders of P. ferulacea and aluminum phosphide tablets\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the durability of the essential oil, the LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values of the respiratory toxicity of the essential oil, powder and aluminum phosphide tablets were determined via SPSS. This index for essential oil, powder and aluminum phosphide tablets was 1.14 \u0026mu;l per 70 ml of air (16.28 \u0026mu;l/l air), 0.015 g per 10 g of food (1.6 g/kg food), and 0.0006 g per 3.5 liter of air (0.00017 g/l air). To investigate the durability of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil, 1.14 \u0026mu;l of essential oil was poured by a sampler on filter paper that was previously cut to the size of a container lid, and then the filter paper inside the lid of the containers was used in the experiments. As in the previous stages, the containers were covered by fine mesh nets that the studied insects could not pass through, and then, the lid was tightly closed. To prevent the essential oil from escaping, the lids were properly closed with parafilm tape (American National Can Co.). Over a period of one, 24, one, two, three or four weeks after essential oil extraction, 10 1\u0026ndash;3-day-old adult insects were transferred to the test containers, and 24 h later, the mortality rates of the studied insects were recorded. The experiments were conducted in 5 replications under the previously mentioned conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo evaluate durability, 0.015 g of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder was mixed with 10 g of beans, and over a period of one month, 24 h, and one, two, three and four weeks after the powder was added to the containers, 10 adult insects aged 1\u0026ndash;3 days were left in the test containers, and mortality was recorded 24 h after each period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe method used to evaluate the durability of the studied tablets was the same as that used for \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder. In this stage, 0.0006 g of aluminum phosphide tablet was measured and then poured into Petri dishes with two or three small holes attached to the lids of containers. Over a period of one month, at 24 h, one-, two-, three- and four-week intervals after the tablets were added to the environment, 10 adult cowpea seed weevils aged 1--3 days were placed in another Petri dish in containers, and the lid was then tightly closed. Twenty-four hours later, the mortality rate was recorded.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA probit model was used to evaluate the lethality of the essential oils and powders of\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;P. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e and the aluminum phosphide tablets. In the analysis of this stage, SPSS (Ver.18) was used. Analysis of variance was used to evaluate the durability of the plant and chemical materials used. If a significant difference was observed between the averages at this stage, Tukey\u0026apos;s test was used to categorize the averages (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003ch2\u003eToxicity of P. ferulacea essential oil to C. maculatus after 24, 48 and 72 h\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the experiments revealed that the mortality rate of adult insects increased with increasing essential oil concentration and duration of extraction. The highest mortality at the highest concentration of essential oil (64.28 \u0026micro;l/l air) and over a period of 48 h was approximately 100%, and the lowest mortality rate at the lowest concentration (7.14 \u0026micro;l/l air) and over a period of 24 h was 20%. Therefore, it can be concluded that with increasing concentration and time, the respiratory toxicity of the abovementioned plant essential oils increased (Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eToxicity of Prangos ferulacea essential oil to Callosobruchus maculatus\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003eConcentrations\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;(\u0026micro;l/l air)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 345px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e% Mortality by time intervals\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e24 h\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e48 h\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e72 h\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e7.14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e20.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e22.36\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e45.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e13.16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e62.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e8.57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e14.14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e30.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e18.67\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e53.59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e17.14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e67.40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e6.94\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e43.94\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e2.88\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e58.80\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n 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\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e4.84\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e66.30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e16.39\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e70.66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10.87\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e75.33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e35.71\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e8.06\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e68.20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10.08\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e72.39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e16.17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e76.74\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e42.58\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e17.07\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e72.50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e17.07\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e77.50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10.00\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e80.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e16.73\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e76.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e22.67\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e78.57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10.00\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e80.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 167px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e64.28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 107px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e5.77\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e80.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e100.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 122px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00\u003c/span\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003cspan dir=\"LTR\"\u003e100.00\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, a lethality of 20\u0026ndash;80% was not obtained at the concentrations selected for the LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e analysis after 72 h; thus, the lethal effects were reported only at 24 and 48 h (Table 1). The LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values and the results of the probit analysis of the bioassay data for \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oils are shown in Table 2. The logarithm of the concentration and mortality probit of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil after 24 and 48 h revealed that the mortality of the insects tended to increase, and with probit analysis, the LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values of the essential oil were 16.28 and 12.88 \u0026micro;l/l air after 24 and 48 h, respectively, indicating that with increasing time, the mortality rate of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e increased. According to the results, the insecticidal power increased over time, which was due to the decrease in the LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values over time. Figures 1 and 2 show that the mortality rate is different at various concentrations and that the applied concentrations are directly related to the mortality rate, which means that with increasing concentration, the mortality rate of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus increases\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eLC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values determined via probit analysis of the bioassay data of \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil on \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e after 24 and 48 h\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"93%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChi-square (\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntercept(b)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSlope(a)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e (\u0026mu;L/L)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEfficacy time (h)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.996\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e32.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e-0.095\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.059\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e1.672\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.184\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e16.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e(13.85-18.84)*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.655\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e39.729\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.054\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e1.197\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.259\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e12.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e(8.01-16.55)*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDetermination of the lethality rate of P. ferulacea powder to C. maculatus after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, given that the mortality rate of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by powder was less than 100%, 4 time intervals of 24--96 hours were used to evaluate the lethality rate of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder on \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the experiments revealed that the mortality rate of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e increased with increasing powder concentration, and the highest mortality rate was observed at the highest concentration. The highest mortality rate at the highest concentration of powder was 78% for 1.00 g per 10 g of food after 96 h, and the lowest mortality rate was 9.54% at the lowest concentration, 0.001 g per 10 g of food after 24 h. Therefore, it can be concluded that with increasing concentration and time, the toxicity of the aforementioned plant powder increased (Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eToxicity of \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder to \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e after 24, 48, 72 and 96 h at different concentrations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConcentrations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(g per 10 g food)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 468px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e% Mortality by time intervals\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e24 h\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e48 h\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e72 h\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e96 h\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e9.54\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e11.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e27.95\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e17.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e33.33\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e62.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e10.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e13.62\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e7.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e29.54\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e13.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e91/4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e16/39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e64.80\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e8.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e20.70\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e9.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e33.66\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e14.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e46.83\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e7.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e65.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e3.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e22.22\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e14.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e35.60\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e15.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e50.40\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e8.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e65.30\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e26.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e40.75\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e6.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e52.33\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e4.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e65.60\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e6.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e30.42\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e10.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e42.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e12.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e56.42\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e4.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e66.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e32.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e43.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e10.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e61.33\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e2.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e68.60\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e13.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e33.50\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e10.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e44.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e11.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e69.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e10.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e70.60\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e6.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e33.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e4.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e46.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e11.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e70.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e72.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e4.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 121px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e1.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e33.33\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e47.75\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e14.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e75.75\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e78.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e13.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, according to the results shown in Table 3, at 24, 48 and 96 hours, a lethality of 20\u0026ndash;80% was not obtained at the concentrations selected for the LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e analysis, so the lethal effects were reported only at 72 hours. The LD\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values and the results of the probit analysis of the bioassay data of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder on \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e are given in Table 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe LD\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values were computed via probit analysis of the bioassay data of \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder on \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e after 72 h.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"89%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChi-square(\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntercept(b)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSlope(a)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLD\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e (g/kg)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEfficacy time (h)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e6.936\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.660\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.366\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.074\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e(0.6-3.3)*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by \u003cem\u003eP.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder after 72 h revealed that the mortality of the insects tended to increase, and after probit analysis, the LD\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of the powder was 1.6 g/kg food after 72 h, which indicates that, with increasing time, the mortality rate of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e increased. According to the results, the insecticidal power increased over time, which was due to declining LD\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values over time. Figure 3 shows that with increasing concentration, the percentage of mortality in \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e increased. In this study, significant mortality was observed in adults only at high concentrations of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eToxicity of aluminum phosphide to C. maculatus after 24, 48 and 72 hours\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the experiments revealed that the mortality rate of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e increased with increasing aluminum phosphide concentration and duration; thus, the highest mortality rate was observed at the highest dose, and the mortality rate reached 70--100% at 72 h. The highest mortality rate was 100% at the highest aluminum phosphide concentration, i.e., 0.00025 g/l air after 72 h, and the lowest mortality rate was 15.28% at the lowest concentration, i.e., 0.00005 g/l air after 24 h. Therefore, with increasing concentration and time, the toxicity of aluminum phosphide increased (Table 5).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 5. Toxicity of aluminum phosphide to \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e after 24, 48 and 72 h\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConcentration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(g/L air)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 384px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;% Mortality by time interval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e24 h\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e48 h\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e72 h\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e15.28\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e33.33\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e46.66\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e11.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e18.89\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e11.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e34.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e65.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e14.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e23.33\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e40.13\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e12.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e71.66\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e20.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e36.67\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e11.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e46.66\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e15.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e90.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e45.45\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e31.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e57.57\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e28.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e92.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e55.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e12.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e68.33\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e7.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e93.33\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e8.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e62.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e16.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e90.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e100.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 163px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e70.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e17.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e92.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e13.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e100.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, according to the results shown in Table 5, a lethality of 20\u0026ndash;80% was not obtained at the concentrations selected for LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e analysis after 72 h; therefore, the lethal effects were reported at 24 and 48 h. The LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values and the results of the probit analysis of the aluminum phosphide bioassay data of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e on \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e are given in Table 6. The logarithm of the concentration and mortality probability of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e caused by aluminum phosphide after 48 and 72 h revealed that the mortality of the insects increased, and with probit analysis (Figures 4 and 5), the LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values of aluminum phosphide were 0.00017 and 0.00011 g/l air after 24 and 48 h, respectively, indicating that with increasing time, the mortality rate of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e increased. According to the results, the insecticidal power increased over time, which was due to declining LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values over time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 6. The LD\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values were computed via probit analysis of bioassay data of aluminum phosphide in \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e after 24 and 48 h.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"96%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChi-square (\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntercept(b)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSlope(a)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e (g/L air)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEfficacy time (h)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.660\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e27.238\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e8.182\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e1.212\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e2.558\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.366\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e(0.00017-0.00022)*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.633\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e20.147\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e8.226\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e1.474\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e2.435\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.439\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.00011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e(0.00011-0.00014)*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDetermination of the LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of P. ferulacea essential oil for C. maculatus\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine the LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil to determine its stability, the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e values of the essential oils were equal to 5.11 \u0026micro;l/l air. The experiments were performed at various periods of 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h with the control treatment, which is shown in Figure 6 as a logarithm of time and mortality rate. With probit analysis, the LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e calculated for the effect of essential oil was 36.623 h, the significance of which is shown in Table 7. In other words, essential oils caused 50% mortality in adult insects after 36.623 h.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 7. The computed LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil for \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"92%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChi-square (\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntercept(b)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSlope(a)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e(h)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.919\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.170\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e-2.496\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.504\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e1.596\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.291\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 26px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e36.623\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e(27.24-44.45)*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDetermination of the LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Prangos ferulacea powder\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efor\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Callosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine the LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder, the LD\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of the powder used was 1.6 g/kg food. The experiments were performed at various concentrations, which are shown as logarithms of concentration and mortality in Figure 7. The calculated LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e for the effect of essential oil by probit analysis was 38.72 h, the significance of which is shown in Table 8. In other words, \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder caused 50% mortality in insects after 38.72 h.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 8. The computed LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder against \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"83%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChi-square (\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntercept(b)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSlope(a)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e(h)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.902\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 24px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.577\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e-3.329\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.452\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e2.096\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e254\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e38.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e(31.89-44.83)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eDetermination of the LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values of aluminum phosphide tablets on C. maculatus\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine the LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of aluminum phosphide, the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e value of aluminum phosphide tablets was used, which was 0.00008 g/l air. The experiment was evaluated at different times (24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 hours) with the control treatment, and the logarithms of the concentrations and mortality rates are shown in Figure 8. The calculated LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e for the effect of aluminum phosphide by probit data analysis was determined to be 50.85 h, the significance of which is shown in Table 9. In other words, aluminum phosphide could cause a mortality rate of 50% in adult insects after 50.85 hours.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 9. The computed LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of aluminum phosphide on \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"83%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChi-square (\u0026chi;\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntercept(b) \u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSlope(a)\u0026plusmn;SE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e(h)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.714\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.674\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e-3.949\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.547\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e2.314\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e0.313\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 25px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e50.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e(44.069-58.188)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*Low and high 95% CIs are shown in parentheses **SE=standard error\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eComparison of the durability of P. ferulacea essential oil and powder with aluminum phosphide in adult C. maculatus\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo compare the durability of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil and powder with aluminum phosphide tablets, the LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values (or LD\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values for powder) used were 0.00017 g/L air for aluminum phosphide, 16.28 \u0026micro;l/L air for essential oil and 1.6 g/kg food for powder. The experiments were performed at different times, namely, 24 h and one, two, three and four weeks after exposure, with respect to the control group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the analysis of variance revealed that there was a significant difference in the mortality rate of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e among the different durations of essential oil (\u003cem\u003eP\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.000, \u003cem\u003ed f\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 4, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e=15.016) and \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder (\u003cem\u003eP\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.004, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 4, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e= 4.382) use. There was no significant difference in the \u003cem\u003emortality rate of C. maculatus among the different durations of aluminum phosphide use\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(\u003cem\u003eP\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.056, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e = 4, \u003cem\u003eF\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 2.77) (Table 10). According to Table 10, the results of the analysis of variance of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil also revealed that there was a significant difference between 24 hours of exposure at all testing times (CI = 95%, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt;0.05) and between the first week and fourth week (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e=0.014).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results also revealed a significant difference in the mortality rate of \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e between 24 hours of contact and one week after contact (CI= 95%, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.013) and the second week (CI = 95%, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.020). Furthermore, there was a significant difference among the effects of essential oils, powders and aluminum phosphides on the mortality rate of the tested insects during 24 hours of exposure to 95% C. I (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.000), and Tukey\u0026apos;s test revealed that there was a significant difference only between the essential oils and the tablets (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e = 0.047).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 10. Durability of aluminum phosphide tablets, \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oils and powders on adult \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e according to the efficacy time\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"\"\u003e\n \u003ctable dir=\"rtl\" border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 399px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e% Mortality (Mean\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003eSE)** by times after exposure\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eSamples*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e4 weeks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e3 weeks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e2 weeks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e1 week\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e24 h\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e3.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e1.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e9.50\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e3.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e12.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e2.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e38.54\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e80.55\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e6.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eEssential oil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e15.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e3.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e24.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e4.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e30.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e31.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e6.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e10.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003ePowder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e4.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e6.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e14.00\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 81px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e17.82\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e5.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003e40.50\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/span\u003e7.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp dir=\"LTR\"\u003eAP Tablet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e* \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;value\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sub\u003ebetween 3 samples is 0.000 (99% CI, ANOVA) ** SE=Standard error\u0026nbsp;*** AP= aluminum phosphide\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eAccording to the results and as shown in Figure 9, at 24 h of exposure, the essential oil, aluminum phosphide and powder had the highest insecticides, and the \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil, accounting for 80.55%, had a greater mortality rate than the aluminum phosphide tablets, accounting for 40.50%. Over one week, the respiratory effects of the essential oils and tablets still resulted in significant mortality rates of 38.54% and 17.82%, respectively, with a mild decreasing trend for the next week, and after one month, the effects of the essential oils and tablets were minimized by 3.00% and 4.00%, respectively, in terms of mortality. Although this decreasing trend was statistically significant until the third week for essential oil, the mortality rate did not significantly differ for aluminum phosphide after the first week. However, a fully different trend was observed for \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder, which can be attributed to its nature compared with that of the essential oils and tablets. Hence, the lowest insecticide effect was observed after 24 hours, and the highest insecticide effect was observed in the first week. These effects lasted until almost the second week, and in the end, the insecticide effects decreased over time. However, it showed greater durability than did the essential oils and tablets and remained at a higher level than the other two oils did at the fourth week, with an average mortality of 15%.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study revealed that \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil had appropriate respiratory toxicity to \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e, which has been reported by other researchers in terms of the respiratory toxicity of similar plant essential oils to insects (Ercan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Hamzavi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Owolabi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Roozbahani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Taghizadeh \u0026amp; Moharamipour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Taghizadeh \u0026amp; Moharramipour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, the toxicity of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil to \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e was significantly greater than that of aluminum phosphide, especially in the first 24 h of contact (more than 80.5% mortality versus 40.5% caused by aluminum phosphide). Additionally, essential oil has a faster effect than aluminum phosphide (LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36.62 h for essential oil and LT50\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;50.85 h for aluminum phosphide). The durability chart also shows that \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oils compete well with aluminum phosphide tablets. Taghizadeh and Moharramipour (Taghizadeh \u0026amp; Moharamipour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) also confirmed that \u003cem\u003ePrangos acaulis\u003c/em\u003e (Apiaceae) has a favorable effect on \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e (LC50\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.31 \u0026micro;l/L). Many researchers have reported the resistance of storage pests to aluminum phosphide and its decreasing effect (Lee et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Rajendran \u0026amp; Sriranjini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Whitacre \u0026amp; Ware, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the results, with increasing concentrations and durations of essential oil extraction, the mortality rate of adult insects increased so that \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil caused 100% mortality at a concentration of 64.28% (the highest concentration tested) over 48 h, and as shown in previous reports, several researchers have reported the proportions of the concentration and duration of essential oil extraction with respect to the severity of storage pest losses (Ercan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Hamzavi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Roozbahani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Taghizadeh \u0026amp; Moharamipour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 16.28 \u0026micro;l/L air was less toxic to \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e after 24 h of essential oil extraction than aluminum phosphide tablets with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 0.00017 g/L air. In other studies, \u003cem\u003eP. acaulis\u003c/em\u003e essential oil with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 1.31 \u0026micro;l/L air and \u003cem\u003eThymus persicus (Lamiaceae)\u003c/em\u003e with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 2.39 \u0026micro;l/L air were toxic to \u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e (Taghizadeh \u0026amp; Moharamipour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In another study, \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 0.57 \u0026micro;l/L air showed desirable toxicity to another storage pest (\u003cem\u003eE. kuehniella\u003c/em\u003e) ((Ercan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The pennyroyal essential oils with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 0.35 \u0026micro;l/L air, the rosemary essential oils with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 0.42 \u0026micro;l/L air, the case essential oils with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 0.53 \u0026micro;l/L air, and the mugwort essential oils with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e of 0.99 \u0026micro;l/L air had respiratory toxicity effects on \u003cem\u003eOryzaephilus surinamensis\u003c/em\u003e (L.) (Col. : Silvanidae) over 24 h in research conducted by Roozbehani and others (Roozbahani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e powder can be a moderate and desirable option in terms of durability (between essential oils and aluminum phosphide) as a contact insecticide when the processing time does not matter (especially after the first week of exposure). In Africa, the leaves of essential oil-containing plants are traditionally placed on stored seeds for preservation from pest damage(Golob \u0026amp; Webley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e). Plant powders and essential oils are classified by the International Environment Agency as bioactive compounds from third-generation insecticides. These compounds are less harmful than conventional pesticides are and are very effective in integrated pest management (IPM) when produced and released properly. Features such as low toxicity to mammals, rapid decomposition, low molecular weight, volatility, and low durability have caused them to receive a great deal of attention today (P\u0026eacute;rez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Rosell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). In particular, they are very effective in competing with formerly popular pesticides such as aluminum phosphide for simplicity and a wide range of use. Another dimension is the cost of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e (powder/essential oil), although its widespread use in agriculture is due to the lower price of aluminum phosphide; however, owing to its numerous therapeutic (pain relief, inflammation and diabetes), antibacterial, viral and fungal applications, it can be given to customers with mass production and at a low and competitive price with aluminum phosphide (Kafash-Farkhad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt can be concluded that \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil has acceptable respiratory toxicity to the examined storage pest (\u003cem\u003eC. maculatus\u003c/em\u003e) and could be used as an alternative to aluminum phosphide tablets. Furthermore, \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea powder\u003c/em\u003e after the addition of essential oil is also useful for the management of storage pests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSuggestions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough P. ferulacea has been shown to have high lethality but low durability, these studies were performed under in vitro conditions and in an environment outside the storage product mass. Moreover, many factors can affect natural storage conditions, including the type of storage product, volume and weight of the product, temperature and humidity of the storage mass used to absorb essential oil, repellent effects and durability; moreover, the unpleasant smell of \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e may have an unfavorable effect on the taste of storage products. Therefore, the above factors should be considered in future research. On the other hand, given the poor dispersing potential of essential oil compounds, novel technologies must be used to apply these compounds to prepare suitable formulations. Furthermore, a Gc/Ms analysis revealed that these essential oils could be considered promising candidates for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical preparations; however, flower essential oils are harmful at low and wide-spectrum concentrations (Badalamenti et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and therefore, the toxicity safety analysis of food consumption was performed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was financially supported by Yasuj University of Medical Sciences, Yasuj, Iran.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eASJ and ZH contributed to performing the experiments. GH was a major contributor in writing the manuscript. SH and ASJ, supervised the study and contributed to the critical revision of the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis article is derived from a research project approved by Yasuj University of Medical Sciences (ethics code IR.YUMS.REC.1396.62). This article is also resulted from collaboration of the Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Yasuj University. We would like to appreciate the sincere cooperation of Vice President for Research and Botany Department of Yasuj University of Medical Sciences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAmiri, H. (2007)\u003c/strong\u003e. Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity of Essential Oil of Prangos ferulacea (L.) 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Plant products as fumigants for stored-product insect control. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Stored Products Research\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 44\u003c/em\u003e(2), 126-135. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRechinger, K. (1982)\u003c/strong\u003e. Flora Iranica Graz-Austeria, Akademische Druck-U. In \u003cem\u003eVerlagsantalt\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 439-440). \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRoozbahani, Z., Kocheili, F., Shakarami, J., \u0026amp; Mosadegh, M. (2014).\u003c/strong\u003e Fumigant toxicity of essential oils from four plant species on adult Oryzaephilus sueinamensis(L.) (Coleoptera: Silvanidae). \u003cem\u003ePlant Protection (Scientific Journal OF Agriculture(36\u003c/em\u003e(4), 1-9. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRosell, G., Quero, C., Coll, J., \u0026amp; Guerrero, A. (2008)\u003c/strong\u003e. 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(2004).\u003c/strong\u003e Effects of three plant essential oils on biological activity of Callosobruchus maculatus F.(Coleoptera: Bruchidae). \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e[Record #8 is using a reference type undefined in this output style.]\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTaghizadeh, S. A., \u0026amp; Moharamipour, S. (2010)\u003c/strong\u003e. Fumigant toxicity of essential oil from Thymus persicus (Lamiaceae) and Prangos acaulis (Apiaceae) against Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). \u003cem\u003ePlant Protection (SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE(33\u003c/em\u003e(1), 55-68. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTaghizadeh, S. A., \u0026amp; Moharramipour, S. (2011)\u003c/strong\u003e. Oviposition deterrence and persistence of essential oils from Thymus persicus (Roniger ex Reach f.) compared to Prangos acaulis (dc.) Bornm against Callosobruchus maculatus F. in laboratory. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhitacre, D., \u0026amp; Ware, G. (2004)\u003c/strong\u003e. The pesticide book. \u003cem\u003eOhio: Meister Media Worldwide\u003c/em\u003e, 3-13. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZargari, A. (1997)\u003c/strong\u003e. Iranian medicinal plants. \u003cem\u003eTehran: Tehran University Publications\u003c/em\u003e. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Prangos ferulacea, Callosobruchus maculatus, aluminum phosphide, essential oil, insecticide","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7967791/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7967791/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eTo promote the use of eco-friendly green pesticides as storage pests, this study was designed to evaluate the insecticidal effects of \u003cem\u003ePrangos ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e Lindl. essential oil and powder on \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e F in vitro.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of the essential oil was 16.28 \u0026micro;L/L, and the LD\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of the powder was equal to 1.6 g/kg food after 72 h. The LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of the essential oil was 36.623 h for stability and analysis of the probit slope (1.596\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.291), and the logarithm of time and mortality rate were significant (95% CI). The LT\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value was determined to be 38.72 h for the powder and 50.85 h for the aluminum phosphide tablets; thus, the essential oil had a greater effect on the powder formulation as well as the aluminum phosphide. A comparison of the durability of the treatments revealed that during 24 h, the essential oil with a mortality rate of 80.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.10% was significantly superior to the aluminum phosphide tablets (40.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.43% at 99% CI).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study revealed that \u003cem\u003eP. ferulacea\u003c/em\u003e essential oil has acceptable respiratory toxicity to the examined storage pest.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Using eco-friendly green insecticides for storages pest management: Prangos ferulacea (essential oil and powder) against Callosobruchus maculatus (Col. : Chrysomelidae)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-26 18:53:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7967791/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-17T14:39:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-09T21:58:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"168922053627749773586689109652867056208","date":"2026-02-23T23:52:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-01T12:54:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"332540148503505213573961832126087598620","date":"2026-01-23T18:01:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"117962569718711927322166903114069575148","date":"2026-01-21T17:53:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-24T05:40:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"244825484493006723434279693602982811355","date":"2025-11-14T18:10:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-14T16:04:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-14T16:01:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-14T13:15:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-13T10:16:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-11-05T18:33:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"92d6cd62-aede-4cde-8669-b5c6a7e1df2b","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 26th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":58525054,"name":"Physical sciences/Chemistry"},{"id":58525055,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences"},{"id":58525056,"name":"Biological sciences/Plant sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-18T16:23:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-26 18:53:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7967791","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7967791","identity":"rs-7967791","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}