`Virtual EMO-Mind´ for Primary School Students: Effects on Mindfulness Skills, Attention, Impulsiveness, and Emotional Stability

`Virtual EMO-Mind´ for Primary School Students: Effects on Mindfulness Skills, Attention, Impulsiveness, and Emotional Stability | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article `Virtual EMO-Mind´ for Primary School Students: Effects on Mindfulness Skills, Attention, Impulsiveness, and Emotional Stability Amaiur Olarza, Aitor Aritzeta, Goretti Soroa, Ainara Aranberri-Ruiz, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4545628/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Mindfulness, though beneficial, faces engagement challenges, particularly in children. Recognising the potential of virtual reality, this study pioneers a virtual mindfulness intervention called `Virtual EMO-Mind´ for school-aged students, aiming to enhance attention, impulsivity regulation, and emotional stability. With 511 participants aged 9 to 12 ( M age = 10.65 years; SD age = 0.69; 51.9% girls; 48.1% boys), a quasi-experimental design compared the intervention group ( n = 432) to a control group ( n = 79). The four-session `Virtual EMO-Mind´ programme included three phases: 1) A preliminary concentration activity, 2) The immersive mindfulness experiences in virtual environments representing different seasons, and 3) The conscious breathing activity. We used Student’s t statistic to compare the initial and final scores obtained in the experimental group. In addition, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted to explore differences between the experimental and control groups, as well as to analyse the differential effects of the programme on girls and boys, and on participants in Years 5 and 6. The results showed significant improvements in mindfulness skills, attention span, impulsivity regulation, and emotional stability. Participants reported motivation and a positive experience with virtual reality, indicating a well-received and engaging intervention. These findings support the potential of `Virtual EMO-Mind´ as an effective intervention for enhancing psychological well-being in school settings. Mindfulness Virtual reality Childhood Attention Impulsivity regulation Emotional stability Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Middle childhood is a period of life characterised by biological, psychological and social changes and the establishment of personality (Sawyer et al. 2018 ). Some of these changes become predictors of later difficulties, such as school dropout (Nese et al. 2016 ) or adult psychiatric problems (Richard and Derevensky 2017 ). Furthermore, middle childhood or early adolescence is a vulnerable period for mental health problems, with around half of all mental illnesses manifesting before the age of 14 (Kuyken et al. 2016 ), including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), emotional disorders, and oppositional behavior disorders (Straßburg and Bode 2014 ). Consequently, there is a need for understanding the impact of interventions on cognitive, behavioural and emotional variables to prevent mental health problems and to promote well-being in childhood. Mindfulness is becoming increasingly popular as a way to improve mental health, particularly in school settings (Villalba et al. 2022 ). Researchers suggest that short-term mindfulness training can produce noticeable changes in brain function and structure. For example, it improves the brain's ability to selectively focus attention (Jha et al. 2007 ) and enhances behaviour regulation (Burg et al. 2012 ) and emotional stability (Bajaj et al. 2019 ). It leads to personal development in children and promotes quality of life, general well-being and satisfaction (Parra and Tébar 2015 ). However, some practitioners have encountered difficulties in using mindfulness interventions. One problem is the struggle to maintain full attention on breathing, particularly for those children with concentration difficulties. External factors such as noise can also interfere with focus and concentration. Moreover, mindfulness practice requires consistent repetition and time, which can be a barrier to independent practice. Meditation may also be perceived as boring or difficult. Therefore, despite the potential benefits, many people drop out of mindfulness training prematurely (Navarro-Haro et al. 2017 ). Given the situation described above, there is a need for innovative ways to increase engagement in mindfulness interventions (Chandrasiri et al. 2020 ). Virtual Reality (VR) offers immersive experiences that support the cultivation of mindfulness practices. The use of VR has a number of advantages in the field of psychology (Corrigan et al. 2023 ); in particular, it helps to increase the students´ motivation for the intervention, and it permits the transfer of skills from the virtual to the real world (Delgado and Moreno 2012 ). Although VR-supported Mindfulness-Based Interventions (VRMBIs) may constitute a potential resource in childhood, they have been explored very little to date. It is therefore necessary to conduct research that analyses the benefits of virtual mindfulness using robust methodologies. Arpaia et al. ( 2021 ) reviewed the literature on virtual mindfulness interventions and found 53 papers involving 1652 subjects. However, more than 90% of the studies reviewed were considered to be of low quality, mainly due to the lack of robust research designs, comprehensive data, or robust evidence to support the findings presented. Therefore, the main purpose of the present study is to design, implement and evaluate the effectiveness of a VRMBI called `Virtual EMO-Mind´ targeted at children in school settings. The study aims to analyse the effects of this intervention on three specific variables: attention, impulsivity regulation and emotional stability. We also explore previously unexamined variables, such as the presence, acceptance, and tolerance of VR, and differences in these variables in accordance with gender and academic year. Taking into account the proposed aims, it is hypothesised that participants will show significant improvements in attention, impulsivity regulation and emotional stability. It is also expected that participants will show good presence, acceptance and tolerance of VR, with no adverse side effects. On the other hand, according to previous studies (Gustin-García and Alegre-Bravo 2021 ), no significant differences are expected between girls and boys, and between academic years. 1.1. Virtual Reality Mindfulness-Based Interventions (VRMBIs) Studies on mindfulness have largely been inspired by the work of Dr Jon Kabat-Zinn, who was a pioneer in this field and proposed the first therapeutic intervention based on the concept (Kabat-Zinn 1982 ). Jon Kabat-Zinn described mindfulness as a state of being fully aware and present, achieved by consciously bringing attention to the moment without judgement. There is a growing use of digital technologies, such as VR, for the support and enhancement of mindfulness practice (Navarro-Haro et al. 2017 ). VR aims to create an immersive experience that closely resembles reality using computer-generated three-dimensional images (Udo-Obrist and Alcides-Martínez 2015). In recent years, VR has gained popularity and has been used in the diagnosis and treatment of various psychological disorders, including phobias, eating disorders, anxiety disorders, trauma, and ADHD. VR has been found to generate benefits such as increased interest, motivation and concentration in students, as well as the ability to apply learned skills in different contexts (Navarro-Haro et al. 2016 ). 1.2. Benefits of Mindfulness and VRMBIs 1.2.1. Attention Attention improves students' work habits, organisational skills and academic performance and speeds up information processing (López et al. 2016 ). Improved attention has been associated with memory, cognitive restructuring of thoughts and cognitive flexibility (Shemesh et al. 2023 ). In the context of cognition, mindfulness improves concentration by increasing selective and sustained attention and reducing distractors (Guiote et al. 2022 ). Verhaeghen ( 2021 ) concluded that individuals who have practised meditation for an extended period demonstrate better objective attentional performance than those who have little or no experience with meditation. These findings are potentially significant because attention is often considered the gateway to other cognitive functions. In particular, attention plays a crucial role in fluid intelligence tasks and has implications for various aspects of cognition in everyday life (Smilek et al. 2010 ). Huguet and Alda ( 2019 ) conducted a notable study involving 90 children between the ages of 7 and 12. The study found that VRMBIs generate improvements in attention, concentration, and processing speed, as well as significant enhancements in working memory, inhibition, and organisational skills. Moreover, Asati and Miyachi ( 2019 ) created a short (10-minute) and effective VR mindfulness meditation, concluding that it improved participants' sustained attention. We hypothesise that the `Virtual EMO-Mind programme´ will provide participants with effective attention maintenance tools, resulting in improved sustained attention skills. 1.2.2. Impulsivity Impulsivity is a multidimensional concept characterised by the inability to control one's thoughts and behaviour, especially in childhood. Moreover, impulsivity is considered a core component of many internalising symptoms associated with negative affect-laden disorders which can lead to dysfunctional emotional and behavioural regulation. Impulsivity is linked to a range of behavioural changes, including sudden outbursts of anger, risky behaviour and self-harm (Johnson et al. 2020 ). Mindfulness-based strategies offer a means of reducing the likelihood of impulsive decision-making. These strategies involve helping participants to focus their attention on crucial elements in their environment, enabling them to align their decisions with their broader, future-oriented goals and personal values (Dixon et al. 2019 ). Extensive research has found a bidirectional, negative relationship between mindfulness skills and impulsivity, which is a significant predictor of elevated levels of stress and anxiety (Tingaz et al. 2020 ). In the same vein, Huguet and Alda ( 2019 ) found that VRMBIs have benefits in reducing over-activation and impulsivity in children. On the other hand, a systematic review of 29 studies concluded that mindfulness through virtual reality improved participants' inhibitory control (Mitsea et al. 2023 ). In this sense, we expect that the `Virtual EMO-Mind´ programme will improve participants´ impulsivity control index. 1.2.3. Neuroticism Neuroticism has been associated with increased vulnerability to stress and a tendency to experience distress, including sadness, moodiness and emotional instability (Cuartero and Tur 2021 ). This trait has also been linked to the risk of developing various forms of psychopathology. Therefore, reducing neuroticism in young individuals helps decrease the likelihood of them developing future psychopathological conditions, leading to an overall improvement in their quality of life (Hanley et al. 2019 ). Nonetheless, few interventions specifically focus on addressing neuroticism and those that do often have no strong evidence to support them (Armstrong and Rimes 2016 ). Armstrong and Rimes ( 2016 ) conducted a study demonstrating that individuals who participated in mindfulness training had significantly lower levels of neuroticism after the intervention than the control group. Moreover, the mindfulness group also reported a significant reduction in rumination. Similarly, Hanley et al. ( 2019 ) concluded that mindfulness training effectively reduced both neuroticism and psychological distress. Similarly, Delgado-Pastor et al. ( 2013 ) showed that mindfulness exercises help to increase emotional stability. In short, mindfulness-based interventions can alleviate clinical symptoms associated with neuroticism, offering promising avenues for improving mental well-being. We hypothesise that the VRMBI proposed in this study will reduce participants' levels of neuroticism, thereby promoting emotional stability. The above findings shed some light on the potential effectiveness of mindfulness training as an intervention to improve attention and reduce impulsiveness and neuroticism. Despite this, there has been limited research into the integration of mindfulness practices with VR technology, and most of the existing research has been conducted with few subjects and mostly with adults (Arpaia et al. 2021 ). To fill the gaps observed in the extant literature, our study follows a robust methodology. To the best of our knowledge, no other virtual mindfulness interventions have been developed for a school environment with a non-clinical population. Furthermore, the intervention was designed specifically for use during middle childhood, a crucial period for developing emotional self-regulation, consolidating personality, and shaping future psychological well-being (Laceulle et al. 2022 ). 2. Method 2.1. Evaluation design The benefits of the `Virtual EMO-Mind´ were analysed through two types of evaluation: a summative evaluation, which is an objective assessment, and a qualitative evaluation, which focuses on assessing the process. Firstly, the advantages of virtual mindfulness were analysed by measuring the degree of goal attainment. A quasi-experimental pre-post design was used, using a non-equivalent control group. The following variables were measured: mindfulness skills, focused attention; impulsivity regulation; and neuroticism. Secondly, a continuous evaluation was conducted throughout the intervention sessions, which included the administration of a questionnaire measuring the VR presence, acceptance and tolerance. We also assessed participants’ satisfaction with the intervention. 2.2. Participants Participants were 511 children from the last two years of primary education (Years 5 and 6), aged between 9 and 12 years ( M age = 10.65 years; SD age = 0.69). The study was conducted in four schools located in the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country (Spain). Two of these schools were in the province of Gipuzkoa and the other two were in Bizkaia. Convenience sampling was used. The participating schools had previously shown interest in psychological interventions carried out by the University ________.The sample size was determined based on the feasibility of implementing the intervention in these schools. The sample was distributed as follows: 47.6% in Year 5 and 52.4% in Year 6. Regarding the differences between boys and girls, 51.9% of the participants were girls and 48.1% boys. Participants were divided into two groups: 1) the experimental group, comprising 432 students (47.5% in Year 5 and 52.5% in Year 6; 53.6% girls and 46.4% boys; M age = 10.63; SD age = 0.71); and 2) the control group, comprising 79 students (48.1% in Year 5 and 51.9% in Year 6; 42.3% girls and 57.7% boys; M age = 10.78; SD age = 0.59). In two schools, participants were assigned to the experimental and control groups based on the class they belonged to (group assignment). In these centres, each grade level comprised two separate classes. To ensure unbiased allocation and comparability between groups, a random assignment method was employed. One of the classes was randomly selected and designated as the experimental group, while the other class was designated as the control group. On the other hand, in the remaining two schools, all participants were assigned to the experimental group. Students with severe disorders (i.e., Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) with significant support needs, severe neurodevelopmental disorders, severe behavioural disorders, or severe mood disorders) or significant language difficulties were excluded from the intervention. 2.3. Measures 2.3.1. The Basque version of the Reduced Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS-R) The Reduced Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS-R; Höfling et al. 2011 ) is a comprehensive measure designed to assess different aspects of everyday mindfulness skills. It consists of 20 items divided into five subscales: a) Internal Observation: measures the degree of attention paid to internal feelings, sensations and cognitions; b) External Observation: measures the degree of attention paid to external events; c) Description: assesses the individual’s ability to describe external and internal experiences; d) Acting with awareness: measures the individual’s ability to be fully attentive to the moment; and e) Acceptance without judgement: measures the individual’s self-judging behaviour. Items are rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale, with responses ranging from 1= ‘Never’ to 4= ‘Always’. The Basque version of the KIMS-R has been found to have acceptable internal consistency (Olarza et al. 2023 ): α = between 0.70 and 0.83 in all dimensions. In this work, we also have acceptable internal consistency ( α between 0.62 and 0.74; ω between 0.64 and 0.75) 2.3.2. Attention Scale in the School Environment (EAP) The EAP questionnaire (León del Barco et al. 2008) is a Spanish-language instrument designed for adolescents between the ages of 12 and 16. It consists of 12 items presented in a 5-point Likert-type scale format, ranging from 1= ‘Never’ to 5= ‘Always’. For this study, the items were translated from Spanish into Basque. Also, since the questionnaire was originally developed for adolescents, it was adapted for use with children between 9 and 12 years. The questionnaire assesses three factors: a) Kinaesthetic attention: measures the ability to pay attention to movements and motor actions; b) External attention: measures the ability to focus on external activities and actions; and c) Internal attention (introspection): assesses the ability to focus on one's thoughts, feelings and activities. The EAP questionnaire has been found to have adequate psychometric properties, with acceptable levels of internal consistency for each dimension: kinaesthetic attention: ( α = 0.74); external attention ( α = 0.60) and internal attention ( α = 0.66). In the present work, each dimension showed acceptable values of internal consistency in terms of Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega (α = 0.79; ω = 0.79 for Kinaesthetic attention; α = 0.71; ω = 0.72 for External attention and α = 0.74; ω = 0.73 for Internal attention). 2.3.3. Difference Perception Test-Revised (CARAS-R) The Difference Perception Test-Revised (CARAS-R; Thurstone and Yela 2012 ) is an assessment tool designed to evaluate the ability of individuals aged between 6 and 18 years to swiftly detect differences. The test lasts three minutes and involves sixty graphic elements in the form of faces. These faces are presented in sets of three, with two faces being identical and one differing from the others. Participants are asked to carefully observe the set of faces presented and identify the one that stands out as different from the rest. This instrument evaluates focused attention and the ability to quickly and correctly perceive similarities, differences and partially ordered stimulating patterns. It also serves to measure impulsivity through the Impulsivity Control Index (ICI). Studies conducted in various schools have confirmed that the CARAS-R test has adequate psychometric properties. 2.3.4. Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) This questionnaire assesses personality across five domains: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Responsibility, Friendliness and Openness to Experience. In this study, we used an abbreviated version of the original questionnaire (NEO-FFI; Costa and McCrae 1999 ). Specifically, we evaluated neuroticism using nine items that measure respondents’ emotional instability and tendency to experience emotions such as fear, anger, guilt or shame. Participants rated these items on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1= ‘Strongly disagree’ to 5= ‘Strongly agree’. A high score for neuroticism indicates emotional instability. The Basque version of the NEO-PI-R has been found to have adequate psychometric properties (Gorostiaga et al. 2011 ): α = between 0.83 and 0.92 in all dimensions. In the present study, internal consistency values for neuroticism dimension were also acceptable ( α = 0.79; ω = 0.78). 2.3.5. Presence, Acceptance and Tolerance of VR We also analysed participants’ willingness to use VR (acceptability), the intensity of presence felt in the virtual environment (presence), and the prevalence of adverse effects (tolerance). To this end, we developed a short 14-question survey and used a version of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Manis and Choi 2019 ) to assess participants’ awareness and interest in continuing to use VR. We also adapted a scale from Nowak and Biocca ( 2003 ) to measure participants’ satisfaction with the virtual environment and their sense of presence. To evaluate potential side effects in children, we used the Proposed Child Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (Hoeft et al. 2003 ), an instrument specifically designed for children. Participants rated these items on a 3-point Likert-type scale (1= ‘No’; 2= ‘A little bit’; 3= ‘Yes’). In the present work, these dimensions also showed adequate values of internal consistency (α = 0.80; ω = 0.80 for Acceptability; α = 0.85; ω = 0.85 for Presence and α = 0.72; ω = 0.74 for Tolerance). 2.3.6. Satisfaction Measurement Questionnaire Participants completed a short questionnaire designed to measure their level of satisfaction on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1= ‘Not at all’ to 4= ‘Very much’. The questionnaire aimed to assess the effectiveness of the intervention activities and to gather participants’ feedback regarding several different aspects, including relaxation, breathing, concentration, self-awareness and enjoyment. The questionnaire has not been previously validated as it was designed specifically for this study to collect subjective information about the intervention. 3. Procedure Those schools that had previously expressed interest in psychological interventions carried out by the University _______, received an e-mail with additional information about the research project, including an information letter and a brochure. Subsequently, we met with the head teachers to discuss the programme's characteristics. We also obtained informed consent from the parents or legal guardians of participants in both the experimental and control groups. This ensured that everyone involved understood the intervention and willingly agreed to participate. This research was approved by the Committee for Research Involving Humans of the University ______ (M10_2020_318). We conducted a pre-test session in both groups to examine different aspects of the children's cognitive and behavioural environment, including attention, impulsivity regulation, and emotional stability. Following that, we delivered a four-session intervention called `Virtual EMO-Mind´ to the experimental group, while the control group continued with their regular academic activities. The structure of the four sessions remained the same throughout the programme, and three specific activities were carried out during each one. In the first activity, participants were encouraged to engage in a profound and contemplative sensory experience during the initial 10 minutes of the session. They were instructed to assume a comfortable posture on the floor and utilised cushions for support. With their eyes closed and a mask blocking any visual distractions, participants immersed themselves in a calm atmosphere induced by specially designed audio tailored to the needs and capabilities of Year 5 and Year 6 students. Next, they were presented with a small piece of food, carefully selected by the school to avoid allergies, and were guided to explore every detail with all their senses. With their fingers, they explored the texture of the food, noting any irregularities and smoothness. Subsequently, the participants brought the food to their noses, inhaling deeply to capture its aroma. Once they had perceived each sensation, they brought the food to their mouths, chewing slowly and savoring every flavor nuance. As they engaged in this experience, they were encouraged to remain present in the moment, focusing on each sensation and setting aside any distracting thoughts. The second exercise of the `Virtual EMO-Mind´ programme involved participants engaging them in mindfulness practice within VR environments representing the four seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. We used virtual scenes from the Amelia Virtual Care platform, developed by a health psychologist with expertise in both emotional education and virtual mindfulness. Each virtual video lasted for 15 minutes and corresponded to a specific season and a unique journey to a particular place. The use of virtual reality technology, in conjunction with an audio guide, enabled participants to be transported to different virtual environments. These environments were designed to direct the participant's attention towards specific elements, such as the sounds of nature, panoramic views, and contextual details. In the first session (spring), participants were taken to a forest, where they could experience the calm and serenity of the natural environment. In the second session (summer), participants embarked on a journey to Egypt, where they could contemplate the vast desert landscapes and ancient pyramids. The third session (autumn) transported them to China, where they could immerse themselves in the rich cultural heritage of the country. Finally, in the last session (winter), participants embarked on a trip to the North Pole, where they had the opportunity to experience the tranquility of the snowy landscape. After each session of the `Virtual EMO-Mind´ programme, over the final five minutes, students engaged in the practice of conscious breathing. This exercise was conducted with the accompaniment of audio providing relaxing music, thereby creating an environment conducive to concentration. Each participant was given the freedom to choose their preferred posture, whether sitting on the floor, in a chair with their feet on the ground or lying down comfortably. Furthermore, participants could maintain their eyes open, closed, or obscured by a mask, according to their comfort and personal preference. During this exercise, students were encouraged to direct their attention to their breathing, without attempting to modify or control it, simply observing it with acceptance and serenity. The intervention took place in specially adapted classrooms designed to facilitate the intervention process. These classrooms were located in the quietest areas possible, with dim lighting, good sound quality and a welcoming atmosphere. The room was also equipped with all the necessary materials to support the intervention activities effectively. Following the intervention, we conducted a post-test session in the experimental and control groups. Participants completed the same questionnaires as before. We also collected subjective feedback on the project, assessing participants’ satisfaction with the activities. The complete process, from the initial phase (pre-test) to the final phase (post-test), took about a month and a half for both groups. After collecting the data, we also invited the control group to take part in the intervention (Fig. 1 ). 4. Data Analysis The data were analysed using IBM SPSS software (version 28). Firstly, the necessary statistical assumptions for the application of parametric techniques have been verified. On the other hand, the Student's t-test for independent samples was used to examine whether there were differences between the groups on all variables before the intervention. To examine the impact of the intervention on the study variables, the initial (pre-test) and final (post-test) scores obtained in the experimental group were compared using the Student’s t statistic for paired samples. The effect sizes associated with each means comparison were calculated using Cohen’s d statistic. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed to explore the differences between the experimental group and the control group, as well as to analyse the differential effects of the programme on girls and boys, and on participants in Years 5 and 6. Moreover, correlations between mindfulness skills and attention, impulsivity and neuroticism were analysed using Pearson’s correlation. 5. Results Previous analysis indicated that for most variables no significant differences were found between the experimental and control groups before the intervention. However, significant differences were observed in the variable of neuroticism, with the experimental group ( M = 21.40; SD = 3.09) having higher scores than the control group ( M = 19.78; SD = 5.12). This initial difference ( p < 0.001; Cohen’s d = 0.56) in neuroticism levels between the groups could influence the interpretation of the results and should be taken into account. Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations for the different variables measured in the experimental group. These variables include mindfulness skills (internal and external observation, description, acting with awareness, acceptance, kinaesthetic attention, and external and internal attention), level of attention, impulse control, and neuroticism. Table 1 Means and standard deviations and the Student’s t- statistic, T , degrees of freedom ( df ), p -values and Cohen’s d -statistic values obtained by the experimental group (n = 469) during the pre-test and post-test phases. Pre-test Post-test Student’s t (Pre-Post) M SD M SD T Df P Cohen’s d KIMS-R IOBS 5.53 1.79 7.37 1.95 -16.18 384 < 0.001 -0.83 EOBS 7.49 1.95 8.38 1.74 -8.28 384 < 0.001 -0.42 DES 13.08 2.49 13.60 2.57 -4.47 379 < 0.001 -0.23 AWA 10.43 2.14 10.52 2.07 -0.72 371 0.235 -0.04 AWJ 14.96 2.95 15.44 3.11 -3.05 373 0.001 -0.16 KA 8.61 2.64 9.72 2.64 -6.79 384 < 0.001 -0.35 EAP EA 10.72 2.57 11.37 2.45 -4.42 384 < 0.001 -0.23 IA 11.41 2.19 15.16 2.75 -27.04 372 < 0.001 -1.41 CARAS-R A 29.31 8.34 41.96 9.13 -34.32 387 < 0.001 -1.74 ICI 87.50 11.44 94.70 7.99 -12.14 387 < 0.001 -0.62 NEO-PI-R N 21.40 3.09 17.06 4.84 15.83 347 < 0.001 0.85 Note: IOBS= Internal observation, EOBS= External observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting with awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic attention, EA= External attention, IA= Internal attention; A= Attention, ICI= Impulsivity control index, N= Neuroticism The intervention had a significant positive impact on participants’ scores, particularly in terms of focused attention (Cohen’s d = 1.74), impulsivity control (Cohen’s d = 0.62) and neuroticism (Cohen’s d = 0.85), with scores for the first two being higher in the post-test phase, and scores for neuroticism being lower. Moreover, statistically significant improvements were observed in mindfulness skills, with large effects being found in relation to internal observation (Cohen’s d = 0.83) and internal attention (Cohen’s d = 1.41), and smaller ones found in relation to external observation (Cohen’s d = 0.42), kinaesthetic attention (Cohen’s d = 0.35), description (Cohen’s d = 0.23) and external attention (Cohen’s d = 0.23). Table 2 compares the mean scores and standard deviations of the experimental and control groups before (pre-test) and after the intervention (post-test). It also shows the F-factor from the ANCOVA analysis, where the pre-test scores of both groups were used as covariates to control for initial differences. Specifically, the ANCOVA model compares the post-test scores between groups while adjusting for the pre-test scores, aiming to determine the effect of the intervention beyond any initial variations. Additionally, Hedges’ g-statistic is provided, which measures effect size, thereby helping to assess inter-group differences and determine the impact of the programme on the variables measured Table 2 Means and standard deviations, F , p -values and Hedges’ g -statistic values for experimental and control group participants during the pre-and post-test phases. Experimental Control Experimental-Control Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test ANCOVA M SD M SD M SD M SD F p g KIMS-R IOBS 5.53 1.79 7.37 1.95 5.55 1.81 5.69 2.44 46.20 < 0.001 0.83 EOBS 7.49 1.95 8.38 1.74 7.58 2.16 7.42 2.04 22.18 < 0.001 0.53 DES 13.08 2.49 13.60 2.57 12.69 2.81 12.99 3.00 1.87 0.17 0.23 AWA 10.43 2.14 10.52 2.07 10.80 2.09 10.42 2.45 0.96 0.33 0.04 AWJ 14.96 2.95 15.44 3.11 15.28 3.47 15.25 3.68 1.15 0.28 0.05 EAP KA 8.61 2.64 9.72 2.64 8.57 2.67 8.39 2.55 16.42 < 0.001 0.51 EA 10.72 2.57 11.37 2.45 11.04 2.78 10.97 2.68 2.46 0.18 0.16 IA 11.41 2.19 15.16 2.75 11.51 2.61 15.07 3.03 0.20 0.65 0.03 CARAS-R A 29.31 8.34 41.96 9.13 25.65 8.71 33.62 8.95 41.50 < 0.001 0.92 ICI 87.50 11.44 94.70 7.99 88.75 11.71 85.49 12.42 82.43 < 0.001 1.04 NEO-PI-R N 21.40 3.09 17.06 4.84 19.78 5.12 20.62 3.04 47.00 < 0.001 0.77 Note: IOBS= Internal observation, EOBS= External observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting with awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic attention, EA= External attention, IA= Internal attention; A= Attention, ICI= Impulsivity control index, N= Neuroticism In comparison with the control group, the experimental group’s post-test scores revealed significant improvements in all the variables measured, indicating a high-magnitude effect. Specifically, the study revealed higher scores in focused attention (Hedges’ g = 0.92) and impulsivity control (Hedges’ g = 1.04), as well as a significant reduction in neuroticism (Hedges’ g = 0.77). In relation to mindfulness skills, significant differences with a large effect size were observed in the internal observation dimension (Hedges’ g = 0.83), along with medium significant differences in external observation (Hedges’ g = 0.53) and kinaesthetic attention (Hedges’ g = 0.51). The relationship between mindfulness abilities and other variables, such as focused attention, impulsivity regulation and neuroticism was also examined (Table 3 ), those results indicated a negative correlation between mindfulness skills and neurotic personality traits. Table 3 Correlations between mindfulness skills (KIMS-R, EAP) and attention (CARAS-R), impulsivity control (CARAS-R) and neuroticism (NEO-PI-R) on post-test measures of the experimental group. Mindfulness skills KIMS-R EAP IOBS EOBS DES AWA AWJ KA EA IA Attention 0.02 0.02 0.09 0.04 0.09 -0.03 -0.01 0.14** Impulsivity Control Index 0.04 -0.01 0.05 0.05 0.09 -0.07 0.02 0.06 Neuroticism -0.07 -0.12* -0.29** -0.16** -0.31** -0.11* -0.09 -0.27** Significant at * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01 Note: IOBS= Internal Observation, EOBS= External Observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting With Awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without Judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic Attention, EA= External Attention, IA= Internal Attention Differences in accordance with gender (Table 4 ) and academic year (Table 5 ) were also examined. To assess whether the programme had a differential effect in accordance with either gender or academic year (i.e., to determine whether it stimulated a higher level of change in girls or boys, or among those in Year 5 or Year 6, or whether both genders and academic years were affected similarly), we performed an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). In this analysis, the pre-test scores were used as covariates to control for initial differences between groups based on gender and academic year. The results indicated non-significant differences ( p > 0.05) in most variables, indicating that the changes stimulated by the intervention were similar in both genders and academic years. Table 4 Means and standard deviations, F, p -values and Hedges’ g statistic values for girls and boys during the pre- and post-test phases. Girls Boys Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test ANCOVA M SD M SD M SD M SD F p g KIMS-R IOBS 5.56 1.79 7.28 2.01 5.46 1.84 6.99 2.25 1.97 0.16 0.14 EOBS 7.56 1.91 8.36 1.77 7.31 2.13 8.11 1.87 1.53 0.21 0.14 DES 13.07 2.53 13.53 2.63 12.82 2.66 13.47 2.66 0.17 0.68 0.02 AWA 10.65 2.29 10.60 2.19 10.19 1.91 10.46 2.00 0.36 0.55 0.07 AWJ 14.96 3.14 15.36 3.35 15.13 2.97 15.37 3.01 0.24 0.63 0.00 EAP KA 8.46 2.59 9.70 2.61 8.59 2.72 9.33 2.73 2.42 0.12 0.14 EA 10.74 2.53 11.49 2.48 10.60 2.73 11.09 2.53 2.98 0.08 0.15 IA 11.70 2.09 15.55 2.61 10.96 2.48 14.72 2.93 2.02 0.16 0.29 CARAS-R A 29.46 7.88 41.98 8.99 27.57 8.95 38.97 9.99 6.88 0.01 0.29 ICI 88.09 10.22 94.04 8.11 86.96 12.98 92.42 12.98 2.44 0.12 0.15 NEO-PI-R N 21.19 3.81 17.77 4.81 21.00 3.35 17.28 4.85 0.57 0.45 0.10 Note: IOBS= Internal observation, EOBS= External observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting with awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic attention, EA= External attention, IA= Internal attention; A= Attention, ICI= Impulsivity control index, N= Neuroticism Table 5 Means and standard deviations, F , p -values and Hedges’ g statistics for Year 5 and Year 6 during the pre-test and post-test phases. Year 5 Year 6 Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test ANCOVA M SD M SD M SD M SD F p g KIMS-R IOBS 5.23 1.75 7.15 2.17 5.78 1.85 7.08 2.08 2.06 0.15 0.03 EOBS 7.31 2.05 8.18 1.90 7.54 1.99 8.28 1.74 0.10 0.75 0.05 DES 13.13 2.55 13.65 2.66 12.79 2.62 13.39 2.62 0.04 0.85 0.10 AWA 10.37 2.05 10.67 2.18 10.49 2.20 10.41 2.02 2.28 0.13 0.12 AWJ 15.23 2.94 15.35 3.17 14.87 3.15 15.37 3.21 0.55 0.46 0.00 EAP KA 8.22 2.56 9.61 2.74 8.78 2.71 9.43 2.61 1.14 0.24 0.07 EA 10.40 2.71 11.24 2.62 10.91 2.53 11.32 2.44 0.01 0.91 0.03 IA 11.30 2.41 15.26 2.68 11.35 2.25 15.07 2.88 1.27 0.26 0.07 CARAS-R A 27.26 8.08 39.45 9.64 29.71 8.63 41.22 9.63 0.21 0.65 0.18 ICI 86.62 11.37 93.17 9.45 88.38 11.81 93.24 9.36 0.31 0.58 0.01 NEO-PI-R N 20.64 3.25 17.18 5.01 21.50 3.83 17.85 4.65 1.70 0.19 0.14 Note: IOBS= Internal observation, EOBS= External observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting with awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic attention, EA= External attention, IA= Internal attention; A= Attention, ICI= Impulsivity control index, N= Neuroticism Finally, we analysed participants’ willingness to use VR (Acceptance), the intensity of presence felt in the virtual environment (Presence) and the prevalence of adverse effects (Tolerance). Participants demonstrated a notable inclination to engage with VR ( M acceptance = 2.72; 95% CI [2.68, 2.74]; SD = 0.35), and reported a sense of presence within the virtual environment ( M presence = 2.60; 95% CI [2.56, 2.64] SD = 0.41). Moreover, few children experienced significant adverse effects or discomfort ( M t olerance = 1.14; 95% CI [1.12, 1.16]; SD = 0.20). Participants in the study expressed a high level of satisfaction with the intervention, finding it useful in relation to various different aspects: enjoyment ( M = 3.53; 95% CI [3.46, 3.60]; SD = 0.69), relaxation ( M = 3.47; 95% CI [3.40, 3.54]; SD = 0.71), concentration ( M = 3.27; CI [3.19, 3.34]; SD = 0.77), breathing ( M = 3.12; 95% CI [3.04, 3.19]; SD = 0.76) and self-awareness ( M = 2.93; 95% CI [2.84, 3.02]; SD = 0.92). This suggests that the intervention was well received by participants and had a positive impact on their overall experience. 6. Discussion Middle childhood is characterised by physiological changes (Sicher et al. 2022 ) and the onset of behaviour problems (Jessor and Jessor 2017 ), which can have long-term consequences for academic success and mental health outcomes. That is why there is a need to create programmes that promote well-being during critical developmental stages. In this sense, mindfulness has gained considerable recognition as a promising approach to improving mental health. Mindfulness interventions are increasingly being implemented in school settings (Villalba et al. 2022 ). However, despite the potential benefits of mindfulness interventions, their implementation entails certain challenges (Frank et al. 2021 ). The application of VR technology to mindfulness interventions is still being explored, while it is known that it can address some of these challenges by enhancing engagement and adherence to the practice (Mitsea et al. 2022 ). The intervention presented in this study had a positive effect on participants’ ability to be aware of their actions, thoughts and feelings in the present moment. In particular, the experimental group showed significant improvements in several aspects of mindfulness, with large effect sizes in internal observation and internal attention, and moderate effects in external observation, kinaesthetic attention, description and external attention. Moreover, the `Virtual EMO-Mind´ programme had significant effects on attention span, impulsivity regulation and emotional stability. These results are consistent with those reported in the scientific literature, which have found a positive relationship between mindfulness skills and attention levels (Baena-Extremera et al. 2021 ). Similarly, this research has suggested that mindfulness strategies may reduce impulsivity (Salmoirago-Blotcher et al. 2019 ). Finally, authors such as Hanley et al. ( 2019 ) concluded that mindfulness training may reduce symptoms of neuroticism such as anger, anxiety, self-consciousness, irritability, emotional instability and depression. In our study, the post-test scores of the experimental group were significantly better than those of the control group in all measures. These findings further support the positive impact of the intervention on participants’ mindfulness skills and psychological well-being. Moreover, no statistically significant differences were found in relation to either the gender of the participants or the academic year. The lack of the mentioned differences may be due to the uniform effectiveness of the programme. In addition, the size and diversity of the sample may have contributed to this uniformity of results, suggesting that any differences between groups based on gender or academic year were minimal or insignificant. The present study also examined the relationship between mindfulness skills and other variables such as attention, impulse control and neuroticism. The results revealed a negative association between neurotic personality traits and mindfulness abilities. In other words, those with higher levels of mindfulness reported fewer neurotic traits. This finding is consistent with what has been found in the literature, suggesting that cultivating mindfulness may help to reduce emotional instability (Hanley et al. 2019 ). Lastly, the study explored participants’ experiences with VR technology, finding that participants were motivated to use VR. They also reported a heightened sense of presence, and very few experienced significant negative effects or discomfort while using VR, indicating a positive and well-tolerated experience. Consequently, we can conclude that the intervention was well received by participants and had a positive impact on their overall experience. In addition, studies have shown that children typically respond positively to VR encounters, finding them engaging and immersive (Maloca 2021). Similarly, VR has been shown to have minimal adverse effects in various applications, confirming its safe use in psychological interventions (Riedl et al. 2019 ). In sum, the findings of this study contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting the use of VRMBI in the school settings. Cultivating mindfulness during childhood can have significant benefits by fostering a more receptive mindset towards positive experiences that, in turn, lead to improvements in cognitive abilities. By developing mindfulness skills, individuals are more likely to avoid engaging in problematic behaviours that can contribute to psychological distress. By incorporating VR, the study expands the understanding of how this technology can enhance the engagement with mindfulness practices among children. The results indicate that virtual mindfulness constitutes a valuable tool for promoting mental health and well-being in this population. In conclusion, the results reported here indicate that the `Virtual EMO-Mind´ programme is effective for both educational practice and advances in research. Researchers may find the study data useful when designing other training materials and intervention programmes aimed at improving cognitive skills and personality traits. Nevertheless, the study has some limitations. First, the research focused on a specific age range and school environment, which may limit the generalisability of the findings to other contexts. Second, the study primarily relied on self-report measures, which may introduce bias and social desirability effects. Future studies should consider incorporating objective measures or including multiple informants to ensure a more comprehensive assessment. Furthermore, many methods are now available for improving quasi-experiments (i.e., propensity scores), and may be used to strengthen the findings reported here. Particularly, and given the focus on self-reporting, it is important to control for measurement error as much as possible, for example, using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Additionally, long-term follow-up assessments could provide further insight. Moreover, a key limitation of this study is the significant difference in sample size between the experimental group ( n = 469) and the control group ( n = 81). This could have impacted result reliability and limited generalizability. Future research should aim for more balanced samples or alternative methodologies to improve validity. Furthermore, it would be compelling for future research to employ individual randomization to mitigate intergroup differences prior to the intervention. This study makes a twofold contribution to the literature. On the one hand, this research addresses an underexplored area by integrating mindfulness and VR, both applied to children. In addition, it provides a complementary intervention for improving mental and emotional well-being in school-age children, thus laying the groundwork for future interventions and research in this field. In subsequent studies, it would be interesting to analyse the effects of this programme (Virtual EMO-Mind) on variables such as stress perception, emotional intelligence and depression. Moreover, it would be useful to use objective measures such as Biofeedback and Neurofeedback to observe the impact of VRMBI at the phylogenetic level of the participants (Rockstroh et al. 2021 ). Declarations Author Contribution Conceptualization: A.O., A.A., G.S., A.A-R.; Methodology: A.O., G.S., R.M.; Formal analysis and investigation: A.O., A.A., R.M.; Writing - original draft preparation: A.O.; Writing - review and editing: A.A., G.S., A.A-R.; Funding acquisition: A.A., G.S.; Supervision: A.A., G.S. Acknowledgement We are grateful to Betiko Ikastola, Lakorain Ikastola, Murumendi and Larrea public schools for voluntarily participating in this study. Data Availability Data can be obtained from the first author upon an email request. References Armstrong L, Rimes KA (2016) Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for neuroticism (stress vulnerability): A pilot randomized study. Behav Ther 47(3):287-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2015.12.005 Arpaia P, D’Errico G, De Paolis LT, Moccaldi N, Nuccetelli F (2021) A narrative review of mindfulness-based interventions using virtual reality. 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Corrientes 392-399 Verhaeghen P (2021) Mindfulness as attention training: Meta-analyses on the links between attention performance and mindfulness interventions, long-term meditation practice, and trait mindfulness. Mindfulness 12:564-581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01532-1 Villalba MJA, Rubio DA, Díaz MAP (2022) Multilevel meta-analysis of school mindfulness-based intervention programs in Spain. Rev Psicoe 27(2):109-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psicoe.2022.05.002 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Appendix1.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4545628","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":317085551,"identity":"834f8faa-7f84-4db5-8ff5-36d60ee72d71","order_by":0,"name":"Amaiur Olarza","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCAyCCD8ysYEggXgsbmHmGSC0McC2MbURo4Z92+OFh3j0McmzsZx9/+DnPJs/gAPMxyR94tEjcTjM4zPOMwZiNJ93AsHdbWrHBAbY0aR581txOAGo5wJDYxpDGkMC77XDihgM8ZtL4dMjfTv8A0cL/jOHg3zn/gVr4v+F1mMHtHKgtEmmMzbwNB0C2sEngc5jh7ZyCg3MOSBizSTxjZpY5lpw48zCbsTU+LXK30zd/eHPARo6fP43545sau8S+480Pb+JzGBRIILGZCSsfBaNgFIyCUUAAAABoFEvup9vdMgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of the Basque Country","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Amaiur","middleName":"","lastName":"Olarza","suffix":""},{"id":317085552,"identity":"fee70b68-84db-4f5f-bffb-e317d7007b8c","order_by":1,"name":"Aitor Aritzeta","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of the Basque Country","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aitor","middleName":"","lastName":"Aritzeta","suffix":""},{"id":317085554,"identity":"e38f6975-74fe-436e-a909-cef739af69df","order_by":2,"name":"Goretti Soroa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of the Basque Country","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Goretti","middleName":"","lastName":"Soroa","suffix":""},{"id":317085556,"identity":"1f348a53-c1f1-4e15-8f0d-ca9031212e64","order_by":3,"name":"Ainara Aranberri-Ruiz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of the Basque Country","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ainara","middleName":"","lastName":"Aranberri-Ruiz","suffix":""},{"id":317085558,"identity":"80cde3a1-f2be-4f6a-958a-5a4f1f2be118","order_by":4,"name":"Rosa Mindeguia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of the Basque Country","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rosa","middleName":"","lastName":"Mindeguia","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-07 10:54:29","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4545628/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4545628/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":59873237,"identity":"998fe456-0087-4e32-b39c-d5ac108688cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-08 17:20:18","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67459,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlow diagram on the development of the quasi-experimental study\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4545628/v1/523e624c39e8c6ae6b0ed5f4.png"},{"id":70451093,"identity":"9a63da9d-b834-489f-8336-819f827149c8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-03 09:39:48","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1002437,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4545628/v1/7949c358-ae00-4485-a4f9-b14ac19433c8.pdf"},{"id":59872221,"identity":"49882d89-75a0-48c9-b6b3-16c222a2ba0d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-08 17:12:18","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":25116,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4545628/v1/afa150fecaed2ba39937f62a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"`Virtual EMO-Mind´ for Primary School Students: Effects on Mindfulness Skills, Attention, Impulsiveness, and Emotional Stability","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMiddle childhood is a period of life characterised by biological, psychological and social changes and the establishment of personality (Sawyer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Some of these changes become predictors of later difficulties, such as school dropout (Nese et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) or adult psychiatric problems (Richard and Derevensky \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, middle childhood or early adolescence is a vulnerable period for mental health problems, with around half of all mental illnesses manifesting before the age of 14 (Kuyken et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), emotional disorders, and oppositional behavior disorders (Stra\u0026szlig;burg and Bode \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, there is a need for understanding the impact of interventions on cognitive, behavioural and emotional variables to prevent mental health problems and to promote well-being in childhood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMindfulness is becoming increasingly popular as a way to improve mental health, particularly in school settings (Villalba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Researchers suggest that short-term mindfulness training can produce noticeable changes in brain function and structure. For example, it improves the brain's ability to selectively focus attention (Jha et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) and enhances behaviour regulation (Burg et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and emotional stability (Bajaj et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It leads to personal development in children and promotes quality of life, general well-being and satisfaction (Parra and T\u0026eacute;bar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, some practitioners have encountered difficulties in using mindfulness interventions. One problem is the struggle to maintain full attention on breathing, particularly for those children with concentration difficulties. External factors such as noise can also interfere with focus and concentration. Moreover, mindfulness practice requires consistent repetition and time, which can be a barrier to independent practice. Meditation may also be perceived as boring or difficult. Therefore, despite the potential benefits, many people drop out of mindfulness training prematurely (Navarro-Haro et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the situation described above, there is a need for innovative ways to increase engagement in mindfulness interventions (Chandrasiri et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Virtual Reality (VR) offers immersive experiences that support the cultivation of mindfulness practices. The use of VR has a number of advantages in the field of psychology (Corrigan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e); in particular, it helps to increase the students\u0026acute; motivation for the intervention, and it permits the transfer of skills from the virtual to the real world (Delgado and Moreno \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Although VR-supported Mindfulness-Based Interventions (VRMBIs) may constitute a potential resource in childhood, they have been explored very little to date. It is therefore necessary to conduct research that analyses the benefits of virtual mindfulness using robust methodologies. Arpaia et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reviewed the literature on virtual mindfulness interventions and found 53 papers involving 1652 subjects. However, more than 90% of the studies reviewed were considered to be of low quality, mainly due to the lack of robust research designs, comprehensive data, or robust evidence to support the findings presented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, the main purpose of the present study is to design, implement and evaluate the effectiveness of a VRMBI called `Virtual EMO-Mind\u0026acute; targeted at children in school settings. The study aims to analyse the effects of this intervention on three specific variables: attention, impulsivity regulation and emotional stability. We also explore previously unexamined variables, such as the presence, acceptance, and tolerance of VR, and differences in these variables in accordance with gender and academic year. Taking into account the proposed aims, it is hypothesised that participants will show significant improvements in attention, impulsivity regulation and emotional stability. It is also expected that participants will show good presence, acceptance and tolerance of VR, with no adverse side effects. On the other hand, according to previous studies (Gustin-Garc\u0026iacute;a and Alegre-Bravo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), no significant differences are expected between girls and boys, and between academic years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1. Virtual Reality Mindfulness-Based Interventions (VRMBIs)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on mindfulness have largely been inspired by the work of Dr Jon Kabat-Zinn, who was a pioneer in this field and proposed the first therapeutic intervention based on the concept (Kabat-Zinn \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). Jon Kabat-Zinn described mindfulness as a state of being fully aware and present, achieved by consciously bringing attention to the moment without judgement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is a growing use of digital technologies, such as VR, for the support and enhancement of mindfulness practice (Navarro-Haro et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). VR aims to create an immersive experience that closely resembles reality using computer-generated three-dimensional images (Udo-Obrist and Alcides-Mart\u0026iacute;nez 2015). In recent years, VR has gained popularity and has been used in the diagnosis and treatment of various psychological disorders, including phobias, eating disorders, anxiety disorders, trauma, and ADHD. VR has been found to generate benefits such as increased interest, motivation and concentration in students, as well as the ability to apply learned skills in different contexts (Navarro-Haro et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2. Benefits of Mindfulness and VRMBIs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2.1. Attention\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttention improves students' work habits, organisational skills and academic performance and speeds up information processing (L\u0026oacute;pez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Improved attention has been associated with memory, cognitive restructuring of thoughts and cognitive flexibility (Shemesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the context of cognition, mindfulness improves concentration by increasing selective and sustained attention and reducing distractors (Guiote et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Verhaeghen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) concluded that individuals who have practised meditation for an extended period demonstrate better objective attentional performance than those who have little or no experience with meditation. These findings are potentially significant because attention is often considered the gateway to other cognitive functions. In particular, attention plays a crucial role in fluid intelligence tasks and has implications for various aspects of cognition in everyday life (Smilek et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHuguet and Alda (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a notable study involving 90 children between the ages of 7 and 12. The study found that VRMBIs generate improvements in attention, concentration, and processing speed, as well as significant enhancements in working memory, inhibition, and organisational skills. Moreover, Asati and Miyachi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) created a short (10-minute) and effective VR mindfulness meditation, concluding that it improved participants' sustained attention. We hypothesise that the `Virtual EMO-Mind programme\u0026acute; will provide participants with effective attention maintenance tools, resulting in improved sustained attention skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2.2. Impulsivity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpulsivity is a multidimensional concept characterised by the inability to control one's thoughts and behaviour, especially in childhood. Moreover, impulsivity is considered a core component of many internalising symptoms associated with negative affect-laden disorders which can lead to dysfunctional emotional and behavioural regulation. Impulsivity is linked to a range of behavioural changes, including sudden outbursts of anger, risky behaviour and self-harm (Johnson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMindfulness-based strategies offer a means of reducing the likelihood of impulsive decision-making. These strategies involve helping participants to focus their attention on crucial elements in their environment, enabling them to align their decisions with their broader, future-oriented goals and personal values (Dixon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Extensive research has found a bidirectional, negative relationship between mindfulness skills and impulsivity, which is a significant predictor of elevated levels of stress and anxiety (Tingaz et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the same vein, Huguet and Alda (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that VRMBIs have benefits in reducing over-activation and impulsivity in children. On the other hand, a systematic review of 29 studies concluded that mindfulness through virtual reality improved participants' inhibitory control (Mitsea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In this sense, we expect that the `Virtual EMO-Mind\u0026acute; programme will improve participants\u0026acute; impulsivity control index.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.2.3. Neuroticism\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeuroticism has been associated with increased vulnerability to stress and a tendency to experience distress, including sadness, moodiness and emotional instability (Cuartero and Tur \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This trait has also been linked to the risk of developing various forms of psychopathology. Therefore, reducing neuroticism in young individuals helps decrease the likelihood of them developing future psychopathological conditions, leading to an overall improvement in their quality of life (Hanley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, few interventions specifically focus on addressing neuroticism and those that do often have no strong evidence to support them (Armstrong and Rimes \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eArmstrong and Rimes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) conducted a study demonstrating that individuals who participated in mindfulness training had significantly lower levels of neuroticism after the intervention than the control group. Moreover, the mindfulness group also reported a significant reduction in rumination. Similarly, Hanley et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) concluded that mindfulness training effectively reduced both neuroticism and psychological distress. Similarly, Delgado-Pastor et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) showed that mindfulness exercises help to increase emotional stability. In short, mindfulness-based interventions can alleviate clinical symptoms associated with neuroticism, offering promising avenues for improving mental well-being. We hypothesise that the VRMBI proposed in this study will reduce participants' levels of neuroticism, thereby promoting emotional stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe above findings shed some light on the potential effectiveness of mindfulness training as an intervention to improve attention and reduce impulsiveness and neuroticism. Despite this, there has been limited research into the integration of mindfulness practices with VR technology, and most of the existing research has been conducted with few subjects and mostly with adults (Arpaia et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo fill the gaps observed in the extant literature, our study follows a robust methodology. To the best of our knowledge, no other virtual mindfulness interventions have been developed for a school environment with a non-clinical population. Furthermore, the intervention was designed specifically for use during middle childhood, a crucial period for developing emotional self-regulation, consolidating personality, and shaping future psychological well-being (Laceulle et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Evaluation design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe benefits of the `Virtual EMO-Mind\u0026acute; were analysed through two types of evaluation: a summative evaluation, which is an objective assessment, and a qualitative evaluation, which focuses on assessing the process. Firstly, the advantages of virtual mindfulness were analysed by measuring the degree of goal attainment. A quasi-experimental pre-post design was used, using a non-equivalent control group. The following variables were measured: mindfulness skills, focused attention; impulsivity regulation; and neuroticism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, a continuous evaluation was conducted throughout the intervention sessions, which included the administration of a questionnaire measuring the VR presence, acceptance and tolerance. We also assessed participants\u0026rsquo; satisfaction with the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were 511 children from the last two years of primary education (Years 5 and 6), aged between 9 and 12 years (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 10.65 years; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 0.69). The study was conducted in four schools located in the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country (Spain). Two of these schools were in the province of Gipuzkoa and the other two were in Bizkaia. Convenience sampling was used. The participating schools had previously shown interest in psychological interventions carried out by the University ________.The sample size was determined based on the feasibility of implementing the intervention in these schools. The sample was distributed as follows: 47.6% in Year 5 and 52.4% in Year 6. Regarding the differences between boys and girls, 51.9% of the participants were girls and 48.1% boys. Participants were divided into two groups: 1) the experimental group, comprising 432 students (47.5% in Year 5 and 52.5% in Year 6; 53.6% girls and 46.4% boys; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 10.63; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 0.71); and 2) the control group, comprising 79 students (48.1% in Year 5 and 51.9% in Year 6; 42.3% girls and 57.7% boys; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003eage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 10.78; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 0.59). In two schools, participants were assigned to the experimental and control groups based on the class they belonged to (group assignment). In these centres, each grade level comprised two separate classes. To ensure unbiased allocation and comparability between groups, a random assignment method was employed. One of the classes was randomly selected and designated as the experimental group, while the other class was designated as the control group. On the other hand, in the remaining two schools, all participants were assigned to the experimental group. Students with severe disorders (i.e., Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) with significant support needs, severe neurodevelopmental disorders, severe behavioural disorders, or severe mood disorders) or significant language difficulties were excluded from the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1. The Basque version of the Reduced Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS-R)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Reduced Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS-R; H\u0026ouml;fling et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) is a comprehensive measure designed to assess different aspects of everyday mindfulness skills. It consists of 20 items divided into five subscales: a) Internal Observation: measures the degree of attention paid to internal feelings, sensations and cognitions; b) External Observation: measures the degree of attention paid to external events; c) Description: assesses the individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to describe external and internal experiences; d) Acting with awareness: measures the individual\u0026rsquo;s ability to be fully attentive to the moment; and e) Acceptance without judgement: measures the individual\u0026rsquo;s self-judging behaviour. Items are rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale, with responses ranging from 1= \u0026lsquo;Never\u0026rsquo; to 4= \u0026lsquo;Always\u0026rsquo;. The Basque version of the KIMS-R has been found to have acceptable internal consistency (Olarza et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e): \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;between 0.70 and 0.83 in all dimensions. In this work, we also have acceptable internal consistency (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e between 0.62 and 0.74; \u003cem\u003eω\u003c/em\u003e between 0.64 and 0.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2. Attention Scale in the School Environment (EAP)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe EAP questionnaire (Le\u0026oacute;n del Barco et al. 2008) is a Spanish-language instrument designed for adolescents between the ages of 12 and 16. It consists of 12 items presented in a 5-point Likert-type scale format, ranging from 1= \u0026lsquo;Never\u0026rsquo; to 5= \u0026lsquo;Always\u0026rsquo;. For this study, the items were translated from Spanish into Basque. Also, since the questionnaire was originally developed for adolescents, it was adapted for use with children between 9 and 12 years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe questionnaire assesses three factors: a) Kinaesthetic attention: measures the ability to pay attention to movements and motor actions; b) External attention: measures the ability to focus on external activities and actions; and c) Internal attention (introspection): assesses the ability to focus on one's thoughts, feelings and activities. The EAP questionnaire has been found to have adequate psychometric properties, with acceptable levels of internal consistency for each dimension: kinaesthetic attention: (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.74); external attention (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.60) and internal attention (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.66). In the present work, each dimension showed acceptable values of internal consistency in terms of Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha and McDonald\u0026rsquo;s omega (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79; ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79 for Kinaesthetic attention; α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.71; ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.72 for External attention and α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.74; ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.73 for Internal attention).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.3. Difference Perception Test-Revised (CARAS-R)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Difference Perception Test-Revised (CARAS-R; Thurstone and Yela \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) is an assessment tool designed to evaluate the ability of individuals aged between 6 and 18 years to swiftly detect differences. The test lasts three minutes and involves sixty graphic elements in the form of faces. These faces are presented in sets of three, with two faces being identical and one differing from the others. Participants are asked to carefully observe the set of faces presented and identify the one that stands out as different from the rest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis instrument evaluates focused attention and the ability to quickly and correctly perceive similarities, differences and partially ordered stimulating patterns. It also serves to measure impulsivity through the Impulsivity Control Index (ICI). Studies conducted in various schools have confirmed that the CARAS-R test has adequate psychometric properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.4. Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis questionnaire assesses personality across five domains: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Responsibility, Friendliness and Openness to Experience. In this study, we used an abbreviated version of the original questionnaire (NEO-FFI; Costa and McCrae \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, we evaluated neuroticism using nine items that measure respondents\u0026rsquo; emotional instability and tendency to experience emotions such as fear, anger, guilt or shame. Participants rated these items on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1= \u0026lsquo;Strongly disagree\u0026rsquo; to 5= \u0026lsquo;Strongly agree\u0026rsquo;. A high score for neuroticism indicates emotional instability. The Basque version of the NEO-PI-R has been found to have adequate psychometric properties (Gorostiaga et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e): \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;between 0.83 and 0.92 in all dimensions. In the present study, internal consistency values for neuroticism dimension were also acceptable (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79; \u003cem\u003eω\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.78).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.5. Presence, Acceptance and Tolerance of VR\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also analysed participants\u0026rsquo; willingness to use VR (acceptability), the intensity of presence felt in the virtual environment (presence), and the prevalence of adverse effects (tolerance). To this end, we developed a short 14-question survey and used a version of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Manis and Choi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) to assess participants\u0026rsquo; awareness and interest in continuing to use VR. We also adapted a scale from Nowak and Biocca (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) to measure participants\u0026rsquo; satisfaction with the virtual environment and their sense of presence. To evaluate potential side effects in children, we used the Proposed Child Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (Hoeft et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), an instrument specifically designed for children. Participants rated these items on a 3-point Likert-type scale (1= \u0026lsquo;No\u0026rsquo;; 2= \u0026lsquo;A little bit\u0026rsquo;; 3= \u0026lsquo;Yes\u0026rsquo;). In the present work, these dimensions also showed adequate values of internal consistency (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80; ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80 for Acceptability; \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.85; \u003cem\u003eω\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.85 for Presence and \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.72; \u003cem\u003eω\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.74 for Tolerance).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.6. Satisfaction Measurement Questionnaire\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Participants completed a short questionnaire designed to measure their level of satisfaction on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1= \u0026lsquo;Not at all\u0026rsquo; to 4= \u0026lsquo;Very much\u0026rsquo;. The questionnaire aimed to assess the effectiveness of the intervention activities and to gather participants\u0026rsquo; feedback regarding several different aspects, including relaxation, breathing, concentration, self-awareness and enjoyment. The questionnaire has not been previously validated as it was designed specifically for this study to collect subjective information about the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Procedure","content":"\u003cp\u003eThose schools that had previously expressed interest in psychological interventions carried out by the University _______, received an e-mail with additional information about the research project, including an information letter and a brochure. Subsequently, we met with the head teachers to discuss the programme's characteristics. We also obtained informed consent from the parents or legal guardians of participants in both the experimental and control groups. This ensured that everyone involved understood the intervention and willingly agreed to participate. This research was approved by the Committee for Research Involving Humans of the University ______ (M10_2020_318).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted a pre-test session in both groups to examine different aspects of the children's cognitive and behavioural environment, including attention, impulsivity regulation, and emotional stability. Following that, we delivered a four-session intervention called `Virtual EMO-Mind\u0026acute; to the experimental group, while the control group continued with their regular academic activities. The structure of the four sessions remained the same throughout the programme, and three specific activities were carried out during each one.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e In the first activity, participants were encouraged to engage in a profound and contemplative sensory experience during the initial 10 minutes of the session. They were instructed to assume a comfortable posture on the floor and utilised cushions for support. With their eyes closed and a mask blocking any visual distractions, participants immersed themselves in a calm atmosphere induced by specially designed audio tailored to the needs and capabilities of Year 5 and Year 6 students. Next, they were presented with a small piece of food, carefully selected by the school to avoid allergies, and were guided to explore every detail with all their senses. With their fingers, they explored the texture of the food, noting any irregularities and smoothness. Subsequently, the participants brought the food to their noses, inhaling deeply to capture its aroma. Once they had perceived each sensation, they brought the food to their mouths, chewing slowly and savoring every flavor nuance. As they engaged in this experience, they were encouraged to remain present in the moment, focusing on each sensation and setting aside any distracting thoughts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe second exercise of the `Virtual EMO-Mind\u0026acute; programme involved participants engaging them in mindfulness practice within VR environments representing the four seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. We used virtual scenes from the \u003cem\u003eAmelia Virtual Care\u003c/em\u003e platform, developed by a health psychologist with expertise in both emotional education and virtual mindfulness. Each virtual video lasted for 15 minutes and corresponded to a specific season and a unique journey to a particular place. The use of virtual reality technology, in conjunction with an audio guide, enabled participants to be transported to different virtual environments. These environments were designed to direct the participant's attention towards specific elements, such as the sounds of nature, panoramic views, and contextual details. In the first session (spring), participants were taken to a forest, where they could experience the calm and serenity of the natural environment. In the second session (summer), participants embarked on a journey to Egypt, where they could contemplate the vast desert landscapes and ancient pyramids. The third session (autumn) transported them to China, where they could immerse themselves in the rich cultural heritage of the country. Finally, in the last session (winter), participants embarked on a trip to the North Pole, where they had the opportunity to experience the tranquility of the snowy landscape.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter each session of the `Virtual EMO-Mind\u0026acute; programme, over the final five minutes, students engaged in the practice of conscious breathing. This exercise was conducted with the accompaniment of audio providing relaxing music, thereby creating an environment conducive to concentration. Each participant was given the freedom to choose their preferred posture, whether sitting on the floor, in a chair with their feet on the ground or lying down comfortably. Furthermore, participants could maintain their eyes open, closed, or obscured by a mask, according to their comfort and personal preference. During this exercise, students were encouraged to direct their attention to their breathing, without attempting to modify or control it, simply observing it with acceptance and serenity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe intervention took place in specially adapted classrooms designed to facilitate the intervention process. These classrooms were located in the quietest areas possible, with dim lighting, good sound quality and a welcoming atmosphere. The room was also equipped with all the necessary materials to support the intervention activities effectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the intervention, we conducted a post-test session in the experimental and control groups. Participants completed the same questionnaires as before. We also collected subjective feedback on the project, assessing participants\u0026rsquo; satisfaction with the activities. The complete process, from the initial phase (pre-test) to the final phase (post-test), took about a month and a half for both groups. After collecting the data, we also invited the control group to take part in the intervention (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Data Analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe data were analysed using IBM SPSS software (version 28). Firstly, the necessary statistical assumptions for the application of parametric techniques have been verified. On the other hand, the Student's \u003cem\u003et-test\u003c/em\u003e for independent samples was used to examine whether there were differences between the groups on all variables before the intervention. To examine the impact of the intervention on the study variables, the initial (pre-test) and final (post-test) scores obtained in the experimental group were compared using the Student\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e statistic for paired samples. The effect sizes associated with each means comparison were calculated using Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e statistic. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed to explore the differences between the experimental group and the control group, as well as to analyse the differential effects of the programme on girls and boys, and on participants in Years 5 and 6. Moreover, correlations between mindfulness skills and attention, impulsivity and neuroticism were analysed using Pearson\u0026rsquo;s correlation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003ePrevious analysis indicated that for most variables no significant differences were found between the experimental and control groups before the intervention. However, significant differences were observed in the variable of neuroticism, with the experimental group (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;21.40; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.09) having higher scores than the control group (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.78; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.12). This initial difference (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.56) in neuroticism levels between the groups could influence the interpretation of the results and should be taken into account.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the means and standard deviations for the different variables measured in the experimental group. These variables include mindfulness skills (internal and external observation, description, acting with awareness, acceptance, kinaesthetic attention, and external and internal attention), level of attention, impulse control, and neuroticism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeans and standard deviations and the Student\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003et-\u003c/em\u003estatistic, \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e, degrees of freedom (\u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-values and Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e-statistic values obtained by the experimental group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;469) during the pre-test and post-test phases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup 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colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e379\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAWA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e371\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.235\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAWJ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-6.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e384\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e384\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-27.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e372\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCARAS-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-34.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e387\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-12.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e387\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNEO-PI-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e347\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eNote: IOBS= Internal observation, EOBS= External observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting with awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic attention, EA= External attention, IA= Internal attention; A= Attention, ICI= Impulsivity control index, N= Neuroticism\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe intervention had a significant positive impact on participants\u0026rsquo; scores, particularly in terms of focused attention (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.74), impulsivity control (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.62) and neuroticism (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.85), with scores for the first two being higher in the post-test phase, and scores for neuroticism being lower. Moreover, statistically significant improvements were observed in mindfulness skills, with large effects being found in relation to internal observation (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.83) and internal attention (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.41), and smaller ones found in relation to external observation (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.42), kinaesthetic attention (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.35), description (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.23) and external attention (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.23).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e compares the mean scores and standard deviations of the experimental and control groups before (pre-test) and after the intervention (post-test). It also shows the F-factor from the ANCOVA analysis, where the pre-test scores of both groups were used as covariates to control for initial differences. Specifically, the ANCOVA model compares the post-test scores between groups while adjusting for the pre-test scores, aiming to determine the effect of the intervention beyond any initial variations. Additionally, Hedges\u0026rsquo; g-statistic is provided, which measures effect size, thereby helping to assess inter-group differences and determine the impact of the programme on the variables measured\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeans and standard deviations, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-values and Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e-statistic values for experimental and control group participants during the pre-and post-test phases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental-Control\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANCOVA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKIMS-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIOBS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEOBS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAWA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCARAS-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNEO-PI-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eNote: IOBS= Internal observation, EOBS= External observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting with awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic attention, EA= External attention, IA= Internal attention; A= Attention, ICI= Impulsivity control index, N= Neuroticism\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn comparison with the control group, the experimental group\u0026rsquo;s post-test scores revealed significant improvements in all the variables measured, indicating a high-magnitude effect. Specifically, the study revealed higher scores in focused attention (Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.92) and impulsivity control (Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.04), as well as a significant reduction in neuroticism (Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.77). In relation to mindfulness skills, significant differences with a large effect size were observed in the internal observation dimension (Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.83), along with medium significant differences in external observation (Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.53) and kinaesthetic attention (Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.51).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relationship between mindfulness abilities and other variables, such as focused attention, impulsivity regulation and neuroticism was also examined (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), those results indicated a negative correlation between mindfulness skills and neurotic personality traits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelations between mindfulness skills (KIMS-R, EAP) and attention (CARAS-R), impulsivity control (CARAS-R) and neuroticism (NEO-PI-R) on post-test measures of the experimental group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMindfulness skills\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKIMS-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c9\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIOBS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEOBS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAWA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAWJ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImpulsivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl Index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeuroticism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.29**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.16**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.31**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.11*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.27**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eSignificant at *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05; **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.01\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eNote: IOBS= Internal Observation, EOBS= External Observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting With Awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without Judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic Attention, EA= External Attention, IA= Internal Attention\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferences in accordance with gender (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) and academic year (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) were also examined. To assess whether the programme had a differential effect in accordance with either gender or academic year (i.e., to determine whether it stimulated a higher level of change in girls or boys, or among those in Year 5 or Year 6, or whether both genders and academic years were affected similarly), we performed an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). In this analysis, the pre-test scores were used as covariates to control for initial differences between groups based on gender and academic year. The results indicated non-significant differences (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in most variables, indicating that the changes stimulated by the intervention were similar in both genders and academic years.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeans and standard deviations, \u003cem\u003eF, p\u003c/em\u003e-values and Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e statistic values for girls and boys during the pre- and post-test phases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANCOVA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKIMS-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIOBS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEOBS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAWA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAWJ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCARAS-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNEO-PI-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eNote: IOBS= Internal observation, EOBS= External observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting with awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic attention, EA= External attention, IA= Internal attention; A= Attention, ICI= Impulsivity control index, N= Neuroticism\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeans and standard deviations, \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-values and Hedges\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eg\u003c/em\u003e statistics for Year 5 and Year 6 during the pre-test and post-test phases.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"13\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear 5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear 6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePre-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c13\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eANCOVA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e 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\u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNEO-PI-R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eNote: IOBS= Internal observation, EOBS= External observation, DES= Description, AWA= Acting with awareness, AWJ= Acceptance without judgement, KA= Kinaesthetic attention, EA= External attention, IA= Internal attention; A= Attention, ICI= Impulsivity control index, N= Neuroticism\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, we analysed participants\u0026rsquo; willingness to use VR (Acceptance), the intensity of presence felt in the virtual environment (Presence) and the prevalence of adverse effects (Tolerance). Participants demonstrated a notable inclination to engage with VR (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eacceptance\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 2.72; 95% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [2.68, 2.74]; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.35), and reported a sense of presence within the virtual environment (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003epresence\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 2.60; 95% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [2.56, 2.64] \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.41). Moreover, few children experienced significant adverse effects or discomfort (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003et\u003cem\u003eolerance\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 1.14; 95% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [1.12, 1.16]; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.20).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants in the study expressed a high level of satisfaction with the intervention, finding it useful in relation to various different aspects: enjoyment (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.53; 95% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [3.46, 3.60]; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.69), relaxation (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.47; 95% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [3.40, 3.54]; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.71), concentration (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.27; \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [3.19, 3.34]; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.77), breathing (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.12; 95% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [3.04, 3.19]; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.76) and self-awareness (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.93; 95% \u003cem\u003eCI\u003c/em\u003e [2.84, 3.02]; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.92). This suggests that the intervention was well received by participants and had a positive impact on their overall experience.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eMiddle childhood is characterised by physiological changes (Sicher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and the onset of behaviour problems (Jessor and Jessor \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), which can have long-term consequences for academic success and mental health outcomes. That is why there is a need to create programmes that promote well-being during critical developmental stages. In this sense, mindfulness has gained considerable recognition as a promising approach to improving mental health. Mindfulness interventions are increasingly being implemented in school settings (Villalba et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, despite the potential benefits of mindfulness interventions, their implementation entails certain challenges (Frank et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The application of VR technology to mindfulness interventions is still being explored, while it is known that it can address some of these challenges by enhancing engagement and adherence to the practice (Mitsea et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The intervention presented in this study had a positive effect on participants’ ability to be aware of their actions, thoughts and feelings in the present moment. In particular, the experimental group showed significant improvements in several aspects of mindfulness, with large effect sizes in internal observation and internal attention, and moderate effects in external observation, kinaesthetic attention, description and external attention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the `Virtual EMO-Mind´ programme had significant effects on attention span, impulsivity regulation and emotional stability. These results are consistent with those reported in the scientific literature, which have found a positive relationship between mindfulness skills and attention levels (Baena-Extremera et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, this research has suggested that mindfulness strategies may reduce impulsivity (Salmoirago-Blotcher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, authors such as Hanley et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) concluded that mindfulness training may reduce symptoms of neuroticism such as anger, anxiety, self-consciousness, irritability, emotional instability and depression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn our study, the post-test scores of the experimental group were significantly better than those of the control group in all measures. These findings further support the positive impact of the intervention on participants’ mindfulness skills and psychological well-being. Moreover, no statistically significant differences were found in relation to either the gender of the participants or the academic year. The lack of the mentioned differences may be due to the uniform effectiveness of the programme. In addition, the size and diversity of the sample may have contributed to this uniformity of results, suggesting that any differences between groups based on gender or academic year were minimal or insignificant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study also examined the relationship between mindfulness skills and other variables such as attention, impulse control and neuroticism. The results revealed a negative association between neurotic personality traits and mindfulness abilities. In other words, those with higher levels of mindfulness reported fewer neurotic traits. This finding is consistent with what has been found in the literature, suggesting that cultivating mindfulness may help to reduce emotional instability (Hanley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLastly, the study explored participants’ experiences with VR technology, finding that participants were motivated to use VR. They also reported a heightened sense of presence, and very few experienced significant negative effects or discomfort while using VR, indicating a positive and well-tolerated experience. Consequently, we can conclude that the intervention was well received by participants and had a positive impact on their overall experience. In addition, studies have shown that children typically respond positively to VR encounters, finding them engaging and immersive (Maloca 2021). Similarly, VR has been shown to have minimal adverse effects in various applications, confirming its safe use in psychological interventions (Riedl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn sum, the findings of this study contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting the use of VRMBI in the school settings. Cultivating mindfulness during childhood can have significant benefits by fostering a more receptive mindset towards positive experiences that, in turn, lead to improvements in cognitive abilities. By developing mindfulness skills, individuals are more likely to avoid engaging in problematic behaviours that can contribute to psychological distress. By incorporating VR, the study expands the understanding of how this technology can enhance the engagement with mindfulness practices among children. The results indicate that virtual mindfulness constitutes a valuable tool for promoting mental health and well-being in this population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the results reported here indicate that the `Virtual EMO-Mind´ programme is effective for both educational practice and advances in research. Researchers may find the study data useful when designing other training materials and intervention programmes aimed at improving cognitive skills and personality traits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNevertheless, the study has some limitations. First, the research focused on a specific age range and school environment, which may limit the generalisability of the findings to other contexts. Second, the study primarily relied on self-report measures, which may introduce bias and social desirability effects. Future studies should consider incorporating objective measures or including multiple informants to ensure a more comprehensive assessment. Furthermore, many methods are now available for improving quasi-experiments (i.e., propensity scores), and may be used to strengthen the findings reported here. Particularly, and given the focus on self-reporting, it is important to control for measurement error as much as possible, for example, using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Additionally, long-term follow-up assessments could provide further insight. Moreover, a key limitation of this study is the significant difference in sample size between the experimental group (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 469) and the control group (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 81). This could have impacted result reliability and limited generalizability. Future research should aim for more balanced samples or alternative methodologies to improve validity. Furthermore, it would be compelling for future research to employ individual randomization to mitigate intergroup differences prior to the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study makes a twofold contribution to the literature. On the one hand, this research addresses an underexplored area by integrating mindfulness and VR, both applied to children. In addition, it provides a complementary intervention for improving mental and emotional well-being in school-age children, thus laying the groundwork for future interventions and research in this field. In subsequent studies, it would be interesting to analyse the effects of this programme (Virtual EMO-Mind) on variables such as stress perception, emotional intelligence and depression. Moreover, it would be useful to use objective measures such as Biofeedback and Neurofeedback to observe the impact of VRMBI at the phylogenetic level of the participants (Rockstroh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\n"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization: A.O., A.A., G.S., A.A-R.; Methodology: A.O., G.S., R.M.; Formal analysis and investigation: A.O., A.A., R.M.; Writing - original draft preparation: A.O.; Writing - review and editing: A.A., G.S., A.A-R.; Funding acquisition: A.A., G.S.; Supervision: A.A., G.S.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe are grateful to Betiko Ikastola, Lakorain Ikastola, Murumendi and Larrea public schools for voluntarily participating in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData can be obtained from the first author upon an email request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArmstrong L, Rimes KA (2016) Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for neuroticism (stress vulnerability): A pilot randomized study. 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Corrientes 392-399\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVerhaeghen P (2021) Mindfulness as attention training: Meta-analyses on the links between attention performance and mindfulness interventions, long-term meditation practice, and trait mindfulness. Mindfulness 12:564-581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01532-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVillalba MJA, Rubio DA, D\u0026iacute;az MAP (2022) Multilevel meta-analysis of school mindfulness-based intervention programs in Spain. Rev Psicoe 27(2):109-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psicoe.2022.05.002\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Mindfulness, Virtual reality, Childhood, Attention, Impulsivity regulation, Emotional stability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4545628/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4545628/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMindfulness, though beneficial, faces engagement challenges, particularly in children. Recognising the potential of virtual reality, this study pioneers a virtual mindfulness intervention called `Virtual EMO-Mind\u0026acute; for school-aged students, aiming to enhance attention, impulsivity regulation, and emotional stability. With 511 participants aged 9 to 12 (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 10.65 years; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eage\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e= 0.69; 51.9% girls; 48.1% boys), a quasi-experimental design compared the intervention group (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;432) to a control group (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;79). The four-session `Virtual EMO-Mind\u0026acute; programme included three phases: 1) A preliminary concentration activity, 2) The immersive mindfulness experiences in virtual environments representing different seasons, and 3) The conscious breathing activity. We used \u003cem\u003eStudent\u0026rsquo;s t\u003c/em\u003e statistic to compare the initial and final scores obtained in the experimental group. In addition, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted to explore differences between the experimental and control groups, as well as to analyse the differential effects of the programme on girls and boys, and on participants in Years 5 and 6. The results showed significant improvements in mindfulness skills, attention span, impulsivity regulation, and emotional stability. Participants reported motivation and a positive experience with virtual reality, indicating a well-received and engaging intervention. These findings support the potential of `Virtual EMO-Mind\u0026acute; as an effective intervention for enhancing psychological well-being in school settings.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"`Virtual EMO-Mind´ for Primary School Students: Effects on Mindfulness Skills, Attention, Impulsiveness, and Emotional Stability","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-08 17:12:13","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4545628/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"096f0e42-ad10-43cf-9bd3-8b750f673940","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 8th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-12-03T09:39:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-08 17:12:13","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4545628","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4545628","identity":"rs-4545628","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}