The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation and Cognitive Flexibility in the Relationship between Cooperative Learning and Social Skills of Students: A Cross-Sectional Study

The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation and Cognitive Flexibility in the Relationship between Cooperative Learning and Social Skills of Students: A Cross-Sectional Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation and Cognitive Flexibility in the Relationship between Cooperative Learning and Social Skills of Students: A Cross-Sectional Study Wenwen Ma, Saeid Motevalli, Xing Kuang, Rui Song This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6632104/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 24 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in BMC Psychology → Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Social skills are essential for university students' personal and professional development, influencing academic achievement, well-being, and employment. Elements such as Cooperative Learning, Emotion Regulation, and Cognitive Flexibility significantly contribute to the development of these critical skills. This study aims to examine the correlation between cooperative learning and the social skills components in university students, along with the mediating influence of emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility in this dynamic. Methods The research was conducted by the correlation method (using Structural Equation Modeling). The statistical population consisted of all university students at a certain university in Shandong. 502 participants were selected by a simple random sampling method. The participants responded to the Social Skill Inventory, the Cooperative Learning Application Scale, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory. Results from the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) indicated that cooperative learning significantly affects students’ social skills. However, when mediated by emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility, the study confirmed the statistically significant mediating effect of both mediators in mitigating students’ social skills components. Results The results indicated that cooperative learning markedly improves students' social abilities. Furthermore, both emotional regulation (ER) and cognitive flexibility (CF) were identified as mediators of this connection, with partial mediation evident in many pathways. Cooperative learning favorably impacted emotional sensitivity and ER, while also influencing social sensitivity and expressiveness through CF. Conclusions The findings emphasize the necessity of incorporating ER and CF into educational methodologies, indicating that policies that advocate for cooperative learning can enhance students' emotional and social abilities. The study promotes training programs designed to develop these skills, hence cultivating a supportive learning environment that improves total social competencies. Good Health and Wellbeing Emotion Regulation Cognitive Flexibility Social Skills Cooperative Learning Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction Social skills are crucial for the personal and professional growth of university students, markedly affecting their academic achievement, life happiness, and future employability. Research indicates that "soft skills," often known as "people skills," which include communication, empathy, and problem-solving capabilities, are crucial for success in academic and professional environments (Depoo et al., 2020 ; González Moreno et al., 2024 ). The cultivation of social skills is intricately associated with academic achievement. Proficient communication and problem-solving skills empower students to collaborate on projects, participate in conversations, and manage group dynamics. Certain studies highlight the essential significance of soft skills in achieving personal and professional success (Kumar et al., 2022 ; Mohammed & Ozdamli, 2024 ). They emphasize that soft skills, like communication, collaboration, and emotional intelligence, are crucial for effective engagement in many settings. Numerous aspects that can augment these talents are highlighted, including schooling, training programs, and experiential learning chances. The significance of social skills is particularly emphasized, since these competencies enhance connections, cooperation, and flexibility in the workplace. The research indicates that cultivating social skills is essential for individuals to succeed in the contemporary linked environment (Kumar et al., 2022 ). Nevertheless, younger students are frequently more vulnerable to problematic internet usage, which might impede the development of social skills (Romero-López et al., 2021 ). Excessive online contacts may hinder face-to-face conversation, diminishing possibilities for students to develop and enhance their interpersonal skills. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the significance of social skills, especially in healthcare professions where empathy and efficient communication are essential (Sancho-Cantus et al., 2023 ). This age of social isolation has necessitated a reassessment of how colleges might enhance the incorporation of social skills training into their curricula. In reaction to the changing employment market, colleges are progressively integrating 21st-century skills into their courses (Mahmud & Wong, 2022 ). By prioritizing the cultivation of social skills in conjunction with technical expertise, schools may more effectively equip students for the exigencies of the workplace. Research indicates that first-year students frequently overrate their social abilities, underscoring the necessity for early intervention and self-assessment instruments (Sambell et al., 2021 ). Facilitating chances for candid self-reflection enables students to recognize areas for development and cultivate a growth mentality. Furthermore, cultivating sustainable leadership abilities is increasingly vital for improving students' career opportunities (Martín Gómez et al., 2023 ). These abilities enhance personal growth and equip students for leadership positions in their future employment. Social skills are crucial for the holistic development of university students. By addressing the obstacles posed by modern technology and integrating effective training into academic programs, institutions may enhance students' interpersonal skills, therefore equipping them for future challenges in personal and professional spheres. Cooperative learning is crucial in this process, as it promotes collaboration among students in heterogeneous groups. This collaborative method not only improves social skills via shared responsibility and communication but also cultivates a sense of community and support among peers. By using cooperative learning methodologies, educational institutions may enhance students' social competences, providing them with the abilities necessary to manage intricate interpersonal relationships in their future employment. Cooperative learning has emerged as an effective instructional strategy that markedly improves university students' social skills, academic performance, and psychological well-being. Research constantly demonstrates that this collaborative approach not only enables students to achieve their academic objectives but also cultivates critical interpersonal skills crucial for their future careers. Research showed that cooperative learning strategies, including the Community of Inquiry model and Aronson's Jigsaw technique, are notably effective in enhancing social competencies (Baena-Morales et al., 2020 ; Mendo-Lázaro et al., 2022 ). These frameworks foster active participation, enhancing communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution abilities among students. Conversely, cooperative learning promotes the social creation of knowledge, enabling students to learn together and exchange varied viewpoints. This cooperative setting fosters critical thinking and empathy, vital elements of social skills. Research by (Lenkauskaitė et al., 2020 ) indicates that challenges in team dynamics may occur, highlighting the necessity for effective facilitation and guidance to optimize the advantages of cooperative learning. Gender disparities influence the cooperative learning experience, as female students frequently have a heightened sense for its significance in relation to their prospective teaching careers (Baena-Morales et al., 2020 ). This knowledge can improve their social skills by highlighting the significance of teamwork in school environments. Students' perceptions and dispositions about cooperative learning are influenced by their previous experiences and levels of motivation. Research indicated that favorable experiences in cooperative environments might augment students' propensity to participate in collaborative tasks, hence enhancing their social skills (Bächtold et al., 2023 ). In nut shel. cooperative learning profoundly impacts the enhancement of social skills in university students. This strategy cultivates communication, collaboration, and analytical skills, hence equipping students with essential tools to adeptly traverse academic and professional settings. Highlighting the significance of cooperative learning can produce graduates who are socially adept and prepared to make meaningful contributions to their communities and jobs. Recent studies underscore the substantial influence of emotion regulation on multiple facets of university students' experiences, including happiness, resilience, and psychological capital (Brites et al., 2024 ; Chen et al., 2022 ; Tang & He, 2022 ). Effective emotion control cultivates a favorable emotional environment that improves general well-being, therefore leading to enhanced academic achievement and life happiness. Furthermore, studies indicate that emotion regulation is intricately associated with learning satisfaction, engagement, and enjoyment in foreign language education (Tang & He, 2022 ; Zheng & Zhou, 2022 ), underscoring its essential function in academic environments. Cooperative learning techniques, including positive goal interdependence and peer support, have been evidenced to enhance enjoyment in language acquisition, hence illustrating the relationship between social dynamics and emotional regulation (Zheng & Zhou, 2022 ). Nonetheless, issues remain since impairments in emotion regulation may affect the association between social anxiety and problematic internet usage (Sertbaş et al., 2020 ). This highlights the need for interventions that foster collaborative learning while simultaneously tackling the emotional difficulties encountered by students. Furthermore, augmenting ER abilities with specialized training might result in advancements in students' task and self-approach objectives, along with emotional intelligence (Rivera-Pérez et al., 2021 ). This training has been associated with decreased procrastinating tendencies, which can impede academic progress (Schuenemann et al., 2022 ). Integrating emotion control into university curricula is crucial for enhancing students' emotional and intellectual growth, therefore equipping them for future difficulties in their jobs and personal life. Cooperative learning favorably influences several facets of student development, including the reduction of bullying and the enhancement of empathy (Van Ryzin & Roseth, 2019 ), the improvement of social skills (Sinaga et al., 2022 ), and the augmentation of emotional intelligence in physical education (Rivera-Pérez et al., 2020). Cognitive flexibility serves as a vital mediating element in these processes. As a fundamental element of executive processes, it profoundly impacts academic success, especially in older pupils (Magalhães et al., 2020 ). Cognitive flexibility is associated with resilience and distress tolerance (Arici-Ozcan et al., 2019 ), both of which are crucial for effective social adaptation and voluntary self-regulation (Tei & Fujino, 2021 ). Cognitive flexibility may be improved by mindfulness training (Zou et al., 2020 ), which enhances cooperative learning techniques by promoting adaptation in social interactions. Early-life stress affects behavioral flexibility, underscoring the interrelatedness of cognitive processes in both social and non-social contexts (Reyes-Contreras & Taborsky, 2022 ). These findings highlight the essential role of cognitive flexibility as a mediating element that amplifies the advantages of cooperative learning, hence enhancing students' social skills and emotional capacities. This study significantly contributes to higher education and behavioral research by examining the mediating role of ER and CF in the relationship between cooperative learning and social skills among university students. This research transitions from just analyzing the immediate advantages of cooperative learning to investigating how internal regulating processes, particularly ER and CF, may affect the cultivation of social skills. This underscores the essential function of ER and CF in improving the efficacy of cooperative learning methodologies. This study presents a new paradigm that clarifies the relationship between cooperative learning with ER and CF, offering insights into how these elements together enhance social skills among students. This research elucidates the mediating function of ER and CF, enhancing comprehension of how students might utilize cooperative learning situations to cultivate vital interpersonal skills. This study's region-specific insights fill a significant vacuum in the literature, providing data that can guide local and regional educational strategies. This research adopts a systems perspective to address current gaps in understanding and provides practical insights for higher education stakeholders, eventually seeking to improve the social competencies of university students. 2. Literature review This section reviewed a comprehensive literature on cooperative learning, social skills, emotion regulation, and cognitive flexibility among students. 2.1. Theoretical background This research is based on three fundamental theoretical frameworks: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory, Bandura's Social Cognitive Learning Theory, and Gross's Emotion Regulation Theory. Each theory enhances comprehension of the interaction between cooperative learning, emotional control, and the cultivation of social skills in university students. 2.1.1. Social Constructivism Theory Social Constructivism Theory (SCT) was proposed and developed primarily by psychologist Lev Vygotsky in the 1920s and 1930s (Kozulin, 1986; Vygotsky & Cole, 1978). Vygotsky's theory emphasizes that knowledge is co-constructed through social interaction and cultural context, rather than through individual exploration and discovery alone. Vygotsky's main ideas include the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to the range of a student's potential ability to perform tasks that he or she could not perform independently but can achieve with the assistance of a competent person. This concept underscores the cognitive level a student can attain through appropriate instruction and interaction. According to Vygotsky, learning is inherently a social process where students construct knowledge through interactions with teachers, parents, or peers. These interactions provide the necessary support and guidance to enable students to think and learn at a higher level (Vygotsky, 1987; Vygotsky & Cole, 1978). Constructivist learning theory has universal guiding significance for teaching and constructivist learning theory has become a significant guiding force in teaching and learning in the information age (Campbell & Tran, 2023). One of the representatives of cognitive constructivism, Jean Piaget argues that knowledge acquisition should be an active process of construction rather than passive acceptance (Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). Students should be viewed as the primary actors in the learning process, and teachers should act as facilitators to guide the process of learning. With the guidance of teachers, students can consciously and actively construct knowledge. Cooperative learning, as a new type of teaching activity, is well-suited to meet the requirements of constructivist learning theory for education (Lenkauskaitė et al., 2020). Through group cooperation, students can engage in discussion and exploration in a supportive atmosphere, and the results of each group can be shared and discussed. Teachers can then provide a final summary that supplements and synthesizes the groups’ insights, thereby facilitating a process of knowledge and experience reorganization that is crucial to the learning process in the classroom. Social constructivism emphasizes that individuals construct knowledge through social interaction and cultural background, where personal experience serves as the foundation for understanding things (Amineh & Asl, 2015). In contrast to other constructivist theories, social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social aspects in the construction process. In active learning methods developed based on constructivist theories, the student plays the role of the constructor of information and takes an active role (Piaget, 1967; Vygotsky, 1987). The cooperative learning process aligns with the principles of social constructivism, where students actively construct knowledge through interaction with others Constructivism. Through the exchange of opinions, learners develop a richer understanding of concepts, which helps in the rational development of their cognitive structures (Altun & Yildirim, 2023). Cooperative learning is an effective way to promote knowledge construction in the classroom, and it is important to apply it in a manner consistent with constructivist learning theory (Lenkauskaitė et al., 2020). The ideas of Social Constructivism Theory offer significant insights pertinent to our study. Through cooperative learning, students acquire information while also cultivating vital social skills via interaction and cooperation. Co-constructing knowledge can improve students' emotional control and cognitive flexibility, essential for adeptly managing social interactions. This interaction indicates that collaborative learning environments can enhance both academic success and social skill development, eventually producing a comprehensive educational experience that equips students for future engagements in many contexts. By comprehending the influence of social interactions in cooperative learning on emotional and cognitive processes, educators may more effectively facilitate students' holistic growth. 2.1.2. Group Dynamics Theory In 1916, John Dewey proposed the notion of "democratic education," promoting the development of democratic literacy and critical thinking in students by active engagement and cooperation in the educational process. This educational concept underscores the need for students to engage in democratic behaviors, such as group debates and joint projects, to equip them for a socially democratic existence (Dewey, 2024). Herbert Thelen elaborated on Dewey's concepts through his theory of group dynamics, emphasizing the significance of group interactions in fostering individual learning and growth. Cooperative learning, based on group dynamics, enhances academic and social abilities via collaborative activities, encouraging collaboration and communication among students (Thelen, 1954). Kurt Lewin advanced this domain by analyzing human behavior in group contexts, emphasizing processes like leadership and decision-making (Lewin, 1947). Thelen asserted that good interdependence among group members improves group dynamics, as individual achievement is connected to collective success. This notion corresponds with Johnson and Johnson's classifications of interdependence kinds (Johnson & Johnson, 2021). Collaboration and communication are vital for cooperative learning, promoting information exchange and skill development, in alignment with Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of interaction in knowledge production (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978). Group Dynamics Theory offers a comprehensive framework for cooperative learning, allowing educators to create effective group activities that promote collaboration and communication. This method can markedly improve students' academic achievement and interpersonal skills while fostering collaboration and social accountability. This study, posits that Group Dynamics Theory elucidates the influence of cooperative learning on students' emotional regulation and cognitive flexibility, thereby improving their social skills. Comprehending group interactions and dynamics may clarify the methods via which cooperative learning cultivates these vital abilities in students. 2.1.3. Emotion Regulation Theory Emotions are complex psychophysiological responses to internal or external stimuli (Petukhov et al., 2022). Emotion regulation involves the processes used to manage the emotions we feel, their timing, and their expression, so influencing both mental and physical health (Gross, 1998). Gross developed the process model of emotion regulation, which identifies five techniques that occur at different stages of emotional experience: scenario selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation (Gross, 1998, 2014, 2015). Emotion Regulation Theory highlights the importance of proficiently controlling emotions in collaborative learning settings. During group activities, students experience a range of emotional cues, including joy, frustration, and worry. The capacity to manage these emotions is essential for their engagement and cooperation. Utilizing antecedent-focused tactics enables students to anticipate emotional problems, so cultivating a more favorable learning environment. In contrast, response-focused tactics allow students to modify their emotional expressions and reactions during encounters, ultimately improving group dynamics and communication. This regulation facilitates a constructive learning atmosphere and impacts the cultivation of social skills, as students learn to manage their emotions in relation to peer relationships. Moreover, proficient emotion control might enhance cognitive flexibility, enabling pupils to adjust their thoughts and strategies in reaction to new knowledge or peer input. The interaction between emotion control and cognitive flexibility is essential for the development of social skills, as it provides students with the means to behave adaptively in various social contexts. By comprehending and using these emotion control tactics, educators may cultivate supportive cooperative learning environments that augment both emotional and social abilities in students. 2.1.4. Cognitive Flexibility Theory Cognitive flexibility is an intrinsic attribute of a cognitive system, associated with the ability to adjust its functions and content, switch between different task rules and corresponding behavioral responses, maintain multiple concepts simultaneously, and shift internal attention among them (Scott, 1962). This notion is frequently considered a component of executive functions, signifying the neural basis of adaptive and flexible behavior (Cooper-Kahn & Dietzel, 2008). Cognitive flexibility is now characterized as a set of neural attributes that facilitate adaptive and relevant shifts across functional brain states (Fuchs et al., 2023). Cognitive flexibility is defined in psychological literature as a domain-general capacity that allows individuals to adjust cognitive processing strategies to accommodate new, unexpected, and changing situations (Hohl & Dolcos, 2024; Schmerwitz & Kopp, 2024). Cognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT) analyzes information acquisition in complex, ambiguous circumstances, arguing that traditional approaches emphasizing linear, hierarchical knowledge frameworks are insufficient (Spiro, 1988; Spiro & Jehng, 2012). CFT posits that effective learning requires the capacity to modify perspectives, employ diverse knowledge representations, and adapt to varying problem-solving demands—essentially, cognitive flexibility. This idea advocates for the cultivation of complex, interconnected, multi-dimensional knowledge structures instead of static, immutable information (Moosivand et al., 2024). CFT underscores the importance of strategic knowledge—awareness of cognitive processes and the ability to select and use appropriate problem-solving methods according to the context (Motevalli et al., 2023; Shekh-Abed, 2024). The method emphasizes the utilization of varied educational materials and activities designed to enhance cognitive flexibility, such as case-based learning, problem-based learning, and multiple teaching methodologies. Concerning our research, Cognitive Flexibility Theory emphasizes the significance of adaptation in educational contexts. Students participating in cooperative learning experience dynamic social interactions and diverse problem-solving scenarios. The capacity to adapt cognitive methods in response to evolving conditions is essential for efficient cooperation and communication. Cognitive flexibility facilitates problem-solving for pupils and improves their emotional control by enabling them to negotiate intricate social situations more effectively. By adjusting their cognitive frameworks to various social signals and group interactions, students may more adeptly respond to the emotions of their peers, thereby enhancing their social competencies. The interaction between cognitive flexibility and emotion regulation enhances the learning process, enabling students to integrate diverse knowledge, navigate ambiguity, and adjust to changing demands in academic and social environments. Ultimately, cultivating cognitive flexibility via cooperative learning can result in the emergence of well-rounded individuals with the abilities needed for success in many situations. 2.2. Hypothesis development 2.2.1. The influence of cooperating learning and students’ social skills competencies (H1-H6) Social skills are essential for the personal and professional development of university students, influencing their academic achievement, general well-being, and future employability. Studies demonstrate that "soft skills," encompassing communication, empathy, and problem-solving capabilities, are crucial for success in academic and professional settings (Depoo et al., 2020; González Moreno et al., 2024). The robust association between social skills and academic achievement indicates that proficient communication and problem-solving abilities enhance cooperation on projects, foster active participation in debates, and enable successful navigation of group dynamics. Research emphasizes the importance of soft skills in attaining personal and professional success, indicating that communication, teamwork, and emotional intelligence are essential for effective involvement in many situations (Kumar et al., 2022; Mohammed & Ozdamli, 2024). We hypothesize that cooperative learning substantially improves students' social skills. Cooperative learning, defined by collaborative interactions among students in heterogeneous groups, cultivates an atmosphere that enhances social competences. This pedagogical method fosters collective accountability and efficient communication while nurturing a feeling of community and support among peers. Participating in cooperative learning activities enhances students' social skills, crucial for navigating intricate interpersonal connections in their future professions. Consequently, we propose that: · H1-H6: Cooperative learning has direct effects on students’ social skills competencies. 2.2.2. The mediating role of emotion regulation in the relationship between cooperative learning and social skills (H9-1-H9-6) Recent research underscores the essential function of emotion regulation in multiple aspects of university students' experiences, including happiness, resilience, and psychological capital (Brites et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2022; Tang & He, 2022). Effective emotion management fosters a pleasant emotional environment that increases general well-being, therefore leading to increased academic achievement and life satisfaction. Research indicates that emotion management is intricately associated with learning satisfaction, engagement, and enjoyment in educational environments (Tang & He, 2022; Zheng & Zhou, 2022). In cooperative learning, strategies that foster positive goal interdependence and peer support boost students' satisfaction in educational settings. This association demonstrates the link between social dynamics and emotional regulation (Zheng & Zhou, 2022). Nonetheless, obstacles remain, since difficulties in emotion regulation might negatively influence the association between social anxiety and problematic internet use (Sertbaş et al., 2020). This underscores the necessity for treatments that foster cooperative learning while simultaneously tackling the emotional difficulties faced by pupils. We hypothesize that emotion management influences the association between cooperative learning and social skills. We specifically hypothesize that: · (H9-1-H9-6): Emotion regulation serves as a mediator in the relationship between cooperative learning and students’ social skills. This hypothesis posits that student participation in cooperative learning will improve their emotional regulation, hence fostering the development of social skills. Validating this hypothesis will enhance our knowledge of how promoting emotional control within cooperative learning frameworks might increase social competencies. This understanding will guide educational approaches designed to educate students with the essential abilities for effectively managing interpersonal interactions, therefore fostering their personal and professional development. 2.2.3. The mediating role of cognitive flexibility in the relationship between cooperative learning and social skills (H10-1-H10-6) Recent research underscore the essential function of cognitive flexibility in several aspects of student development, including social skills, emotional intelligence, and academic performance (Rivera-Pérez et al., 2021; Sinaga et al., 2022; Van Ryzin & Roseth, 2019). Cognitive flexibility, an essential aspect of executive functions, allows pupils to adjust their thoughts and behaviors according to evolving social contexts, so improving their social skills. In cooperative learning environments, fostering positive interdependence and peer cooperation can markedly enhance students' cognitive flexibility. This flexibility enhances communication and empathy among peers and adds to overall academic success, especially in older pupils (Magalhães et al., 2020). Cognitive flexibility is linked to resilience and distress tolerance (Arici-Ozcan et al., 2019), which are essential for successful social adaptation and self-regulation (Tei & Fujino, 2021). Studies demonstrate that cognitive flexibility may be developed by methods like mindfulness training (Zou et al., 2020), which corresponds with the tenets of cooperative learning that promote open-mindedness and adaptability. The impact of early-life stress on behavioral flexibility exemplifies the intricate relationship between cognitive processes and social interactions (Reyes-Contreras & Taborsky, 2022). We propose that cognitive flexibility mediates the association between cooperative learning and social skills. We specifically recommend that: · (H10-1-H10-6): Cognitive flexibility serves as a mediator in the relationship between cooperative learning and students’ social skills. This hypothesis posits that engagement in cooperative learning will improve students' cognitive flexibility, hence promoting the advancement of their social skills. Confirming this hypothesis will enhance our comprehension of how fostering cognitive flexibility within collaborative learning environments might result in enhanced social abilities. This understanding will guide instructional practices designed to educate students with vital abilities for managing interpersonal relationships, therefore facilitating their personal and professional development. 2.3. Conceptual framework for the current study The (Figure 1) presents a model examining how cooperative learning influences students’ social skills, both directly and indirectly. It hypothesizes that cooperative learning directly affects students’ social skills (H1-H6), emotion regulation (H7), and cognitive flexibility (H8). Additionally, the model suggests that emotional regulation (H9-1 to H9-6) and cognitive flexibility (H10-1 to H10-6) play significant mediating roles in this relationship among students. 3. Methods 3.1. Research design This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional survey methodology to examine the influence of cooperating learning on students' social skills, with emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility as mediating variables. This design was selected due to its capacity for efficient data gathering from a substantial sample at a single point, rendering it appropriate for analyzing existing correlations among various variables. 3.2. Population and sample The research was carried out at the Shandong University of Engineering and Vocational Technology in Jinan City, Shandong Province, China. The study examined the mediating effects of emotion control and cognitive flexibility on the link between cooperative learning and social skills in students. A stratified random sample procedure was utilized to guarantee a thorough representation of the student population, considering the varied features of students from different disciplines. The overall student population was categorized into strata according to their academic disciplines among 16 faculties. encompassing engineering, vocational studies, and liberal arts. The researchers sought to obtain a sample size that appropriately represented the distribution of students in these programs. A total sample of 400 students was designated, including 200 from engineering, 150 from vocational studies, and 50 from liberal arts. This proportionate distribution guaranteed that each field was sufficiently represented in the investigation. Participants were notified that their replies would be utilized solely for research purposes, with guarantees of confidentiality and anonymity. Data collection occurred across four months, from February to April 2024, employing a systematic questionnaire to evaluate many aspects of cooperative learning, emotion control, cognitive flexibility, and social skills. To augment the study's rigor, the sample was stratified by gender to provide extensive gender-based analysis, hence enhancing the comprehensiveness and objectivity of the findings. Of the 530 questionnaires given, 502 replies were considered legitimate, yielding a validity rate of 94.7% replies deemed invalid were eliminated based on criteria such as significant missing data and patterns of inconsistent replies. All data were anonymized to maintain ethical standards and safeguard participant privacy. Table 1 delineates the demographic profile of the research participants, comprising a total of 502 respondents classified by faculty and gender. The School of International Business had the largest presence at 28.9%, followed by Arts and Media at 25.5%, Information Engineering at 23.3%, and Business Foreign Languages at 22.3%. Of the 281 male participants, the School of International Business represented 29.2%, Arts and Media represented 26.0%, and Business Foreign Languages exhibited the lowest male presence at 19.6%. Among the 221 female participants, the School of International Business had the greatest proportion at 28.5%, while Information Engineering and Arts and Media demonstrated comparable percentages of 25.3% and 24.4%, respectively. This distribution reflects equitable gender representation among the faculties, establishing a basic backdrop for the study's research. Table 1 Respondent’s profile Faculties Number of Participants (%) Male (%) Female (%) School of International Business 145 (28.9%) 82 (29.2%) 63 (28.5%) Arts and Media 128 (25.5%) 73 (26.0%) 54 (24.4%) Business Foreign Languages 112 (22.3%) 55 (19.6%) 48 (21.7%) Information Engineering 117 (23.3%) 71 (25.3%) 56 (25.3%) Total 502 (100%) 281 (100%) 221 (100%) 3.3. Measures A structured questionnaire was modified and employed to gather data from participants, organized into four principal parts, each aligned with the primary variables of the study. 3.3.1. The Cooperative Learning Application Scale The Cooperative Learning Application Scale was developed by (Atxurra et al., 2015 ) to evaluate the concurrent validity of four of the five sub-scales of our questionnaire, the following aspects of the CLAS were utilized: social skills (four items), group processing (four items), positive interdependence (four items), and promotive interaction (four items). Participants are requested to recall instances when they perceive themselves as more effective in an academic setting: “I feel successful at school when...”. Responses were provided on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from (5) strongly agree to (1) strongly disagree. The various subscales demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency (≥ 0.70). 3.3.2. The Social Skill Inventory (SSI) The SSI is a self-aging scale consisting of 90 questions, Includes six subscales: Emotional Expressivity (EE), Emotional Sensitivity (ES), Emotional Control (EC), Social Expressivity (SE), Social Sensitivity (SS), Social Control (SC), with 15 questions for each subscale (Riggio, 2014 ). The scale was scored in the Likert five-point form, with each subscale ranging between 15 and 75 points, yielding the total SSI score based on the scores of each subscale. In the study by (Cao et al., 2009 ), the Cronbach α coefficient of SSI is 0.81; retest reliability is 0.75; half reliability is 0.84; correlation coefficient between total score and each factor is between 0.305 and 0.0.802; index of confirmatory factor analysis: χ 2 / df 2.2, GFI 0.888, CFI 0.903, IFI 0.916, RMSEA 0.076. Conclusion: Using SSI for college students has good reliability and validity (Cao et al., 2009 ). 3.3.3. Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) The 10-item Chinese Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ-C) (Wang et al., 2007 ) evaluates two fundamental strategies: cognitive reappraisal (6 questions, e.g., “I alter my thoughts to regulate emotions”) and expressive suppression (4 items, e.g., “I conceal my emotions”). Responses utilize a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree), with subscale scores computed independently. The ERQ-C exhibits robust dependability (present study: α = 0.700; historical reports: α = 0.82–0.87 for suppression and reappraisal (Wang et al., 2007 ). Confirmatory factor studies substantiate its two-factor structure (Han et al., 2020 ), consistent with the original ERQ's concept validity (Gross & John, 2003 ). The ERQ-C, modified by meticulous translation and contextual modifications (Wang et al., 2007 ), maintains structural equivalence to the original while accommodating cultural subtleties in emotional expression within Chinese collectivist contexts (Wang et al., 2024 ). 3.3.4. Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) The 20-item Chinese CFI evaluates two dimensions: Alternatives (the generation of numerous options) and Control (the adjustment of cognition to environmental demands) (Wang et al., 2016 ). Responses utilize a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never; 5 = always), with reverse scoring applied to six questions (e.g., items 2, 4, 7). Subscale scores (Alternatives: 10–50; Control: 10–50) aggregate to a total range of 20–100, with elevated values signifying enhanced cognitive flexibility. The Chinese CFI has robust reliability revealed that Cronbach's α coefficients and composite reliability exceeding 0.80, along with test-retest reliability above 0.65, confirming that the Chinese version of the CFI possesses acceptable psychometric quality for evaluating cognitive flexibility in this population (Motevalli et al., 2023 ; Wang et al., 2016 ; Yuan et al., 2023 ). 3.4. Data analysis Previous research indicates that Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) is frequently employed to investigate the relationships between dependent and independent latent variables and is regarded as one of the most appropriate methodologies for studying complicated models (Hair Jr et al., 2021 ). Due to the intricacy of the suggested model for this investigation, the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) technique was utilized, utilizing Smart-PLS-4 software to evaluate the proposed hypothesis. The SEM modeling process comprised two principal steps, as delineated by (Hair Jr et al., 2017 ). The initial phase concentrated on the psychometric characteristics of the measurement model (MM), verifying that the constructs included in the study (cooperative learning, components of social skills, emotion regulation, and cognitive flexibility) satisfied the requisite validity and reliability standards. The second stage entailed evaluating the structural model (SM) to examine the proposed relationships among the variables, specifically the mediating roles of emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility in the relationship between cooperative learning and components of social skills. 3.4.1. Measurement Model (MM) Convergent and discriminant validity were evaluated to ascertain the quality of the measurement model, beginning with the examination of factor loading, as seen in Fig. 2 . Convergent validity was measured by Factor Loadings (FL), Average Variance Extracted (AVE), Composite Reliability (CR), and Cronbach’s Alpha, and Discriminant Validity was assessed by Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) as detailed in Tables 2 and 3 (Hair Jr et al., 2021 ). Table 2 displays the findings of convergent validity and reliability analysis for different constructs, emphasizing their psychometric characteristics. Each construct is defined by the quantity of included items, the quantity of omitted items, and essential metrics like factor loading, Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability (rho_c), and average variance extracted (AVE). The Cognitive Reappraisal construct, consisting of four items, has a factor loading range of 0.68 to 0.876, a Cronbach's alpha of 0.835, and an AVE of 0.607, signifying satisfactory reliability and validity. Conversely, the Social Control construct, comprising 15 items with no deletions, has a lower factor loading ranging from 0.567 to 0.859, while retaining a high composite reliability of 0.944 and an AVE of 0.567. The constructs demonstrate robust reliability, with the majority attaining Cronbach's alpha values over 0.7, signifying their suitability for assessing the targeted characteristics. Table 2 Results of convergent validity and reliability No of items No of deleted items Factor loading Cronbach's alpha Composite reliability (rho_c) Average variance extracted (AVE) Cognitive _Reappraisal 4 0 0.68–0.876 0.835 0.885 0.607 Expressive _Suppression 3 0 0.83–0.874 0.806 0.885 0.72 Control 6 0 0.734–0.85 0.891 0.917 0.649 Alternative 14 0 0.697–0.816 0.941 0.948 0.568 Group processing 4 0 0.774–0.866 0.838 0.892 0.674 Individual _responsibility 4 0 0.767–0.813 0.804 0.872 0.63 Positive _interdependence 4 0 0.731–0.816 0.785 0.861 0.608 Promoting _interaction 4 0 0.674–0.842 0.739 0.838 0.566 Social skills 4 0 0.624–0.883 0.797 0.87 0.629 Emotional _Control 15 5 0.667–0.779 0.914 0.927 0.537 Emotional _Expressivity 15 5 0.665–0.759 0.897 0.915 0.52 Emotional _Sensitivity 14 2 0.699–0.793 0.929 0.939 0.561 Social _Control 15 0 0.567–0.859 0.944 0.951 0.567 Social _Expressivity 15 5 0.521–0.803 0.914 0.928 0.519 Social _Sensitivity 15 0 0.738–0.871 0.961 0.965 0.648 The Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) analysis, illustrated in Table 3 , assesses the discriminant validity of different constructs by analyzing their interrelationships. The HTMT values span from 0.28 to 0.87, with the correlation between Positive Interdependence and Group Processing exhibiting a strong value of 0.87, signifying a substantial connection. The correlation between Emotional Control and Cognitive Reappraisal is significantly lower at 0.34, indicating enhanced discriminant validity. The majority of HTMT scores fall below the stringent limits of 0.85 and 0.90, so affirming that the constructs are separate and effectively assess various aspects (Henseler et al., 2015 ). This distinction is essential to prevent any confusion in the investigation of their interrelationships. The HTMT analysis indicates that most items have sufficient discriminant validity, confirming they assess distinct elements within the overarching psychological framework being studied. Table 3 HTMT analysis (Discriminant validity) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1.Alternative 2.Cognitive _Reappraisal 0.61 3.Control 0.60 0.46 4.Cooperative _Learning 0.49 0.62 0.52 5.Emotional _Control 0.34 0.42 0.28 0.49 6.Emotional _Expressivity 0.38 0.41 0.28 0.61 0.60 7.Emotional _Sensitivity 0.44 0.50 0.37 0.64 0.48 0.62 8.Expressive _Suppression 0.65 0.63 0.38 0.35 0.28 0.37 0.45 9.Group processing 0.28 0.39 0.23 0.78 0.41 0.45 0.48 0.20 10.Individual _responsibility 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.74 0.34 0.38 0.45 0.23 0.27 11.Positive _interdependence 0.38 0.51 0.36 0.87 0.31 0.46 0.48 0.25 0.37 0.34 12.Promoting _interaction 0.32 0.43 0.53 0.84 0.26 0.38 0.34 0.25 0.38 0.38 0.61 13.Social _Control 0.36 0.51 0.41 0.82 0.40 0.47 0.47 0.23 0.55 0.55 0.61 0.55 14.Social _Expressivity 0.41 0.51 0.38 0.62 0.44 0.43 0.50 0.33 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.37 0.55 15.Social _Sensitivity 0.47 0.47 0.41 0.76 0.40 0.42 0.46 0.26 0.49 0.55 0.58 0.49 0.70 0.53 16.Social skills 0.40 0.51 0.39 0.87 0.41 0.52 0.52 0.33 0.53 0.39 0.55 0.37 0.67 0.55 0.61 Note: HTMT Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio Table 4 displays the outcomes of hypothesis testing about the direct impacts of Cooperative Learning on many aspects of social skills, including emotional and social dimensions. Eight hypotheses (H1–H8) were assessed using standardized path coefficients (β), standard errors (SE), t-values, and p-values. The results indicate substantial direct effects, with the relationship from Cooperative Learning to Social Control exhibiting the greatest coefficient (B = 0.720, p < 0.001). Moreover, Cooperative Learning markedly affects several dimensions, such as Emotional Sensitivity (H1: B = 0.424, p < 0.001), Emotional Control (H2: B = 0.324, p < 0.001), Emotional Expressivity (H3: B = 0.457, p < 0.001), Social Sensitivity (H4: B = 0.619, p < 0.001), Social Control (H5: B = 0.72, p < 0.001), and Social Expressivity (H6: B = 0.433, p < 0.001). The model demonstrates significant impacts of Cooperative Learning on Emotion Regulation (H7: B = 0.503, p < 0.001), and Cognitive Flexibility (H8: B = 0.496, p < 0.001). These findings highlight the essential function of Cooperative Learning as a significant predictor of many emotional and social competencies, hence strengthening the theoretical framework of the study. Table 4 Hypothesis testing results (direct effect) Hypothesis path B SE t value P values H1 Cooperative _Learning ->Emotional _Sensitivity 0.424 0.043 9.965 Emotional _Control 0.324 0.048 6.82 Emotional _Expressivity 0.457 0.043 10.544 Social _Sensitivity 0.619 0.036 17.385 Social _Control 0.72 0.028 25.572 Social _Expressivity 0.433 0.04 10.911 Emotion _Regulation 0.503 0.032 15.809 Cognitive _Flexibility 0.496 0.033 15.209 < 0.001 3.4.2. Structural Model (SM) The structural model in PLS-SEM hypothesis testing is evaluated by examining the path coefficient, t statistic, standard error, and R 2 value, which elucidate the strength, direction, and significance of the relationships. Simultaneously, the t-statistic and standard error are employed to evaluate the effect's size (Hair et al., 2019 ). The R 2 value signifies the extent of variance elucidated. The variances associated with the dependent variables influenced the explanatory power of the proposed model. The Bootstrapping process was employed to assess the robustness of the factor loadings and the importance of the relationships between variables (see Fig. 3 ). This study used the 5000 bootstrap resampling method (Hair & Alamer, 2022 ) to ascertain the acceptance of the hypothesis. The hypothesis would be validated at the 0.05 significance level if the t-statistic surpasses the crucial threshold. 3.4.3. Hypothesis testing Table 5 displays the outcomes of hypothesis testing on the mediating roles of ER and CF in the association between Cooperative Learning and diverse emotional and social competences. A total of twelve hypotheses (H9-1 to H10-6) were assessed using unstandardised path coefficients (B), standard errors (SE), t-values, and p-values. The results suggest that many routes exhibit partial mediation. The pathway from Cooperative Learning to Emotional Sensitivity through ER (H9-1: β = 0.105, p < 0.001) and the pathway to Emotional Control through ER (H9-2: β = 0.394, p < 0.001) demonstrate substantial impacts. The relationship from Cooperative Learning to Emotional Expressivity through ER (H9-3: β = 0.063, p = 0.009) and Social _Expressivity through ER (H9-6: β = 0.08, p = 0.002) demonstrates partial mediation. The relationships between Cooperative Learning and Social Sensitivity (H9-4: β = -0.016, p = 0.462) and Social Control (H9-5: β = 0.023, p = 0.255) through ER indicate no mediation effects. The relationship between Cooperative Learning and Social Sensitivity through CF (H10-4: β = 0.092, p < 0.001) and the connection to Social Expressivity through CF (H10-6: β = 0.053, p = 0.033) indicate partial mediation. The pathways to Emotional Sensitivity through CF (H10-1: β = 0.047, p = 0.051), Emotional Control through CF (H10-2: β = 0.035, p = 0.170), Emotional Expressivity through CF (H10-3: β = 0.023, p = 0.378), and Social Control through CF (H10-5: β = 0.004, p = 0.843) demonstrate no mediation. These findings underscore the intricate involvement of ER and CF as mediators in the link between Cooperative Learning and diverse emotional and social competencies, so enhancing the theoretical framework of the study. Table 5 Hypothesis testing results (indirect effect, mediation) Hypothesis Path β SE t value P values Results H9-1 Cooperative _Learning ->ER ->Emotional _Sensitivity 0.105 0.025 4.142 ER ->Emotional _Control 0.394 0.028 14.139 ER ->Emotional _Expressivity 0.063 0.024 2.608 0.009 Partial mediation H9-4 Cooperative _Learning ->ER ->Social _Sensitivity -0.016 0.021 0.735 0.462 No mediation H9-5 Cooperative _Learning ->ER ->Social _Control 0.023 0.021 1.139 0.255 No mediation H9-6 Cooperative _Learning ->ER ->Social _Expressivity 0.08 0.026 3.088 0.002 Partial mediation H10-1 Cooperative _Learning ->CF ->Emotional _Sensitivity 0.047 0.024 1.953 0.051 No mediation H10-2 Cooperative _Learning ->CF ->Emotional _Control 0.035 0.025 1.374 0.17 No mediation H10-3 Cooperative _Learning ->CF ->Emotional _Expressivity 0.023 0.027 0.882 0.378 No mediation H10-4 Cooperative _Learning ->CF ->Social _Sensitivity 0.092 0.022 4.177 CF ->Social _Control 0.004 0.02 0.198 0.843 No mediation H10-6 Cooperative _Learning ->CF ->Social _Expressivity 0.053 0.025 2.133 0.033 Partial mediation 4. Discussion and implications This study's findings highlight the crucial mediating roles of ER and CF in the relationship between Cooperative Learning and social skills competencies. Recent research highlights the essential role of emotion regulation in influencing students' experiences, including resilience and general well-being (Brites et al., 2024 ; Chen et al., 2022 ). The findings suggest that students participating in Cooperative Learning are predisposed to enhance Emotional Sensitivity (H9-1), Emotional Control (H9-2), Emotional Expressivity (H9-3), and Social _Expressivity (H9-6) through proficient ER. This association indicates that collaborative student work improves emotional regulation, resulting in increased learning pleasure and engagement. The results substantiate the idea that cultivating a pleasant emotional atmosphere in cooperative learning environments can markedly influence students' academic performance and overall life satisfaction (Tang & He, 2022 ; Zheng & Zhou, 2022 ). It is essential to acknowledge that some pathways, like those associated with Social Sensitivity (H9-4) and Social Control (H9-5), did not exhibit substantial mediating effects. This indicates that although emotional regulation is crucial, its impact may not consistently improve all aspects of social skills. Consequently, more examination of the contextual elements and particular situations that affect these interactions is necessary. Grasping these nuances will yield profound insights into the successful utilization of emotion control for the development of comprehensive social abilities in pupils. This study underscores the significance of promoting emotion regulation within collaborative learning environments as a strategic method for developing well-rounded individuals adept at managing the intricacies of social relationships. Cognitive flexibility significantly mediates the relationship between Cooperative Learning with Social Sensitivity (H10-4) and Social Expressivity (H10-6). CF enables students to modify their ideas and behaviors in changing social situations, thereby improving their communication and empathy (Rivera-Pérez et al., 2021 ; Sinaga et al., 2022 ). The capacity to adjust to peer interactions cultivates resilience and distress tolerance (Arici-Ozcan et al., 2019 ), which are crucial for successful social adaptation. Notably, the pathways associated with Emotional Sensitivity (H10-1), Emotional Control (H10-2), Emotional Expressivity (H10-3), and Social Control (H10-5) via CF did not exhibit significant mediation. This discovery underscores the intricacy of cognitive mechanisms in social interactions and indicates that whereas CF improves some social skills, it may not universally affect emotional control. The ability to modify cognitive structures in reaction to social signals enables pupils to better respond to their classmates' emotions, therefore improving their social skills. The interaction between cognitive flexibility and emotional control enhances the learning process, enabling pupils to assimilate varied knowledge, confront uncertainty, and adjust to changing requirements. These findings align with other research highlighting the significance of cognitive flexibility in enhancing emotional intelligence and social skills in learners. Ultimately, promoting cognitive flexibility via cooperative learning is an essential educational method that develops well-rounded individuals equipped with the abilities required for success in diverse circumstances. This highlights the necessity for educators to adopt creative tactics that enhance cognitive flexibility, since they improve academic achievement and foster vital social skills. By doing so, we may enhance kids' preparedness for the intricacies of modern social environments, where flexibility and emotional intelligence are becoming increasingly essential. These findings have significant consequences for educational methods. Educators should strive to establish collaborative learning settings that expressly promote ER and CF. Implementing tactics like mindfulness training might further augment these cognitive processes, fostering an adaptable and robust student body (Zou et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, acknowledging the constraints of emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility in certain circumstances might assist educators in customizing their methods to more effectively address the varied requirements of pupils. This study enhances the comprehension of the interplay between cooperative learning and emotional and cognitive aspects in shaping student development. By concentrating on the enhancement of emotional control and cognitive flexibility, educators may markedly elevate students' emotional and social abilities, thus fostering a more helpful and successful learning environment. 5. Theoretical contributions This research significantly enhances the theoretical comprehension of emotional and social competences by synthesizing fundamental ideas from Social Constructivism Theory, Group Dynamics Theory, ER Theory, and CF Theory. This study explores the mediating roles of ER and CF within Cooperative Learning, broadening the theoretical framework beyond individual-centric models and emphasizing the interaction between external and internal factors that affect student behavior. From a Social Constructivism viewpoint, the findings highlight the significance of collaborative learning environments, where students interact with peers and educators, promoting the co-construction of knowledge and emotional competencies. The Group Dynamics Theory elucidates how group interactions and connections influence students' social abilities and emotional control. The incorporation of Emotion control Theory highlights the essential function of emotional competencies in educational environments, illustrating how proficient control may improve student engagement and overall success. Cognitive Flexibility Theory enhances these findings by emphasizing the significance of flexibility in thought and behavior, crucial for managing social interactions and emotional obstacles within a learning environment. This research fits with and enriches current theoretical frameworks, providing a more thorough understanding of how teacher motivation and cooperative learning settings impact student self-regulation, emotional development, and social abilities. These contributions establish a robust basis for forthcoming research focused on comprehending and enhancing student outcomes in educational environments. 6. Practical implications This study has important practical implications for educators and policymakers in the design and implementation of teaching strategies that enhance emotional and social competencies through Cooperative Learning. Educators are encouraged to integrate Cooperative Learning into their teaching practices, as this method has been shown to improve students' emotional regulation, motivation, and social skills. By fostering a collaborative learning environment, teachers can create opportunities for students to work together, share knowledge, and develop essential social skills while engaging with academic content. To support this approach, educational institutions should prioritize enhancing teacher training programs that focus on effective Cooperative Learning strategies. Workshops and training sessions can empower teachers to cultivate emotional regulation among students, encouraging a proactive approach to learning. By equipping educators with these tools, students are more likely to feel supported and motivated, leading to improved academic outcomes. Moreover, policymakers should consider the findings of this study when developing educational policies and curricula. Emphasizing Cooperative Learning can enhance the quality of education by promoting personalized learning plans, collaborative projects, and peer interactions, which are crucial in reducing procrastination tendencies. Allocating resources towards teacher training programs that emphasize Cooperative Learning methods will ensure effective and consistent implementation across schools. Overall, by prioritizing both academic content and the social and emotional development of students, the educational system can foster a more holistic learning environment that promotes well-rounded development. This study provides valuable insights for educators and policymakers aiming to improve student outcomes in various educational contexts. 7. Limitations and recommendations of the study One of the limitations of the current quantitative study is the relatively small sample size, which may impact the generalizability of the findings across various educational environments. Future study ought to employ bigger and more heterogeneous samples, including students from diverse universities, fields, and geographical areas, to substantiate the findings in wider contexts. The study utilized a cross-sectional research methodology, limiting the capacity to infer causal links across time. The findings reveal substantial connections; nevertheless, a longitudinal design would provide more profound insights into the evolution of instructors' academic motivation and students' self-regulation, as well as their enduring impacts on procrastinating behavior. This study utilized self-report tools for data collection instead of interviews, potentially introducing response biases. Future research may employ mixed approaches to enhance the data and offer a more thorough comprehension of the phenomena being examined. This research examined Emotion Regulation and study habits as mediators between teacher academic motivation and student procrastination behavior; future studies could investigate additional mediators, such as self-efficacy, academic resilience, or goal orientation, to enhance understanding of the impact of teacher motivation on student outcomes. 8. Future direction Subsequent research may rectify the limitations of this study by employing longitudinal designs to investigate the enduring impacts of ER and CF on the association between Cooperative Learning and emotional and social competencies. It would be beneficial to investigate more mediators, such as self-efficacy, academic resilience, or goal orientation, to enhance comprehension of their impact on student results in Cooperative Learning settings. Furthermore, subsequent research might examine the efficacy of treatments designed to enhance teacher-student relationships, emotional management, and cognitive flexibility. Executing and evaluating targeted initiatives aimed at improving these abilities may yield significant insights into effective methods for cultivating emotional and social competencies in pupils. By concentrating on these domains, researchers may enhance the comprehension of how Cooperative Learning can be refined to promote student growth and well-being. 9. Conclusions This study has clarified the important mediating functions of ER and CF in the association between Cooperative Learning and diverse emotional and social competences. The examination of twelve hypotheses indicated that several routes demonstrate partial mediation, notably emphasizing significant effects on Emotional Sensitivity and Emotional Control via Emotional Regulation. These data indicate that Cooperative Learning directly affects emotional and social skills, while also enhancing emotional control capabilities. Furthermore, the study revealed further partial mediation effects of CF, specifically on its relationship with Social Sensitivity and Social Expressivity. Significantly, certain pathways, like those linking Cooperative Learning to Emotional Sensitivity and Emotional Control via CF, exhibited no substantial mediation, suggesting a more intricate interaction of components at play. These observations highlight the complex role of ER and CF as mediators, enriching the theoretical framework of the study. The findings support the incorporation of techniques designed to enhance emotional control and cognitive flexibility in Cooperative Learning settings. By doing so, educators may more effectively assist kids in cultivating vital emotional and social skills, so enhancing their overall well-being and success. This necessitates a reassessment of educational methodologies, highlighting the significance of emotional and cognitive competencies in conjunction with academic instruction, to foster a more comprehensive educational experience. Declarations Ethics declarations and consent to participate The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of Shandong University of Engineering and Vocational Technology, China. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Consent for publication: Not applicable Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Funding: No funding Author Contribution Authors' contributions: •W.M: Conceptualisation, Writing-Original Draft, Visualisation, Data Collection. •S.M: Corresponding author, Supervision, Data Analysis, Writing – review & editing. •X.K: Data Collection, Writing – review & editing. •R.S: Data Collection, Writing – review & editing. Acknowledgement We extend our profound appreciation to the administration and staff of the Faculty of Social Sciences and Liberal Arts, UCSI University, Shandong University of Engineering and Vocational Technology for their indispensable support. We are grateful to the students who engaged in and encouraged this research. Data Availability The data supporting the findings of the study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Altun E, Yildirim N. What does critical thinking mean? 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The future of neuropsychology is digital, theory-driven, and Bayesian: a paradigmatic study of cognitive flexibility. Front Psychol. 2024;15:1437192. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1437192 . Schuenemann L, Scherenberg V, von Salisch M, Eckert M. I’ll worry about it tomorrow–Fostering emotion regulation skills to overcome procrastination. Front Psychol. 2022;13:780675. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.780675 . Scott WA. Cognitive complexity and cognitive flexibility. Sociometry. 1962;25(4):405–14. https://doi.org/10.2307/2785779 . Sertbaş K, Çutuk S, Soyer F, Çutuk ZA, Aydoğan R. (2020). Mediating role of emotion regulation difficulties in the relationship between social anxiety and problematic internet use. https://doi.org/10.2298/psi190730013s Shekh-Abed A. Metacognitive self-knowledge and cognitive skills in project-based learning of high school electronics students. Eur J Eng Educ. 2024;1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2024.2374479 . Sinaga RM, Maydiantoro A, Ochayi OA, Yulianti D, Arif S, Basri M, Bolado JRT. Reasoning model and moral simulation to improve students’ social skills: A focused look at emotional intelligence. J Educ Soc Res. 2022;12:335. https://doi.org/10.36941/jesr-2022-0026 . Spiro RJ. (1988). Cognitive Flexibility Theory: Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains. Technical Report No. 441. Spiro RJ, Jehng J-C. Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the nonlinear and multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. Cognition, education, and multimedia. Routledge; 2012. pp. 163–205. Tang Y, He W. Emotion regulation and psychological capital of chinese university students during the covid-19 pandemic: the serial mediation effect of learning satisfaction and learning engagement. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(20):13661. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013661 . Tei S, Fujino J. Roles of trait resilience, flexibility, and volitional self-control in social adaptation: An fMRI study. Eur Psychiatry. 2021;64(S1):S734–5. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.1945 . Thelen HA. (1954). Dynamics of groups at work . https://lccn.loc.gov/54011600 Van Ryzin MJ, Roseth CJ. Effects of cooperative learning on peer relations, empathy, and bullying in middle school. Aggressive Behav. 2019;45(6):643–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21858 . Vygotsky LS. The collected works of LS Vygotsky: Volume 1: Problems of general psychology, including the volume Thinking and Speech. Volume 1. Springer Science & Business Media; 1987. Vygotsky LS, Cole M. Mind in society: Development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press; 1978. Waite-Stupiansky S. Jean Piaget's constructivist theory of learning. Theories of early childhood education. Routledge; 2022. pp. 3–18. Wang L, Liu H, Li Z, Du W. Reliability and validity of emotion regulation questionnaire Chinese revised version. China J Health Psychol. 2007;15(6):503–5. https://doi.org/10.13342/j.cnki.cjhp.2007.06.012 . Wang Y, Yang Y, Xiao W-T, Su Q. Validity and reliability of the Chinese version of the cognitive flexibility inventory in college students. Chin mental health J. 2016https://doi.org/10. 3969/j. Wang Y, Zhang K, Xu F, Zong Y, Chen L, Li W. The effect of justice sensitivity on malevolent creativity: the mediating role of anger and the moderating role of emotion regulation strategies. BMC Psychol. 2024;12(1):265. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01759-w . Yuan Y, He X, He Q, Jia Y, Xu Z, Li M. Problematic mobile phone use and time management disposition in Chinese college students: the chain mediating role of sleep quality and cognitive flexibility. BMC Psychol. 2023;11(1):440. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01481-z . Zheng S, Zhou X. Positive influence of cooperative learning and emotion regulation on EFL learners’ foreign language enjoyment. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(19):12604. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912604 . Zou Y, Li P, Hofmann SG, Liu X. The mediating role of non-reactivity to mindfulness training and cognitive flexibility: A randomized controlled trial. Front Psychol. 2020;11:1053. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01053 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6632104","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":509198821,"identity":"fb65ec21-e105-4978-bf60-7f0f077befec","order_by":0,"name":"Wenwen Ma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shandong University of Engineering and Vocational Technology, School of Business","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wenwen","middleName":"","lastName":"Ma","suffix":""},{"id":509198822,"identity":"664abe64-a35d-4d50-9b4b-5ba603a0abe4","order_by":1,"name":"Saeid Motevalli","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABE0lEQVRIie3PvUrEQBDA8TlWokWCnUSC7CvMcXAqEZ9lQyBpAlodKa4IHCRlXuD0GVKlThhIlQdIeYdgpZjSSt34URxsOEuR/cNOssUPZgF0uj9aZcZyMnkEfP/8zHHS7hC2n4CV7lz3EJ5RXT3fE+eZOd9s06sbnh03NsSul5y0qCLYBqK+K2lakHmOXhpcFsQMG9rQS5xITSBCskoSyMy5LVpCZJJMUholPH/pyVqT4KtP8o58NZC3cQJdBGQlJIAGElcIw2KTZJxg94j1ugnlW4yFJD4isdmFaMJZ6gS36sX8h/5p6XKeU3n6itfI83rb9Uv3LHf8QrmYqgNbyGnAkfotqlj/9T3c/JrodDrdf+4DbGVdKZhV1J0AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"UCSI University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Saeid","middleName":"","lastName":"Motevalli","suffix":""},{"id":509198823,"identity":"5d83e65d-d0a1-4db7-8e99-53cde4686be3","order_by":2,"name":"Xing Kuang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shandong University of Engineering and Vocational Technology, School of Business","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xing","middleName":"","lastName":"Kuang","suffix":""},{"id":509198824,"identity":"8441da84-24a7-4d89-aed3-8211d246db59","order_by":3,"name":"Rui Song","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shandong Sport University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rui","middleName":"","lastName":"Song","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-10 03:08:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6632104/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6632104/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03649-1","type":"published","date":"2025-11-24T15:57:30+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":90803927,"identity":"5aa97b38-c9a9-4232-b886-1c97e490fd96","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 10:37:56","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":437684,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual framework\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6632104/v1/e92416e1d921e1ee3dd95bb1.png"},{"id":90805229,"identity":"cb040383-b210-4387-b99d-fa089ea8659b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 10:45:56","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":304433,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMeasurement model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6632104/v1/a2a7cc0f46dc0625c24fd93b.png"},{"id":90803120,"identity":"8508d839-45e6-465c-92e4-6607403cb9c8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-08 10:29:56","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":481654,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStructural model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6632104/v1/236d18778473641abe74d888.jpeg"},{"id":97178358,"identity":"1a2c533e-c3e3-41cb-b4bb-e0788ca19c79","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 16:08:51","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2912048,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6632104/v1/7a73ee42-4a0d-4543-97b5-5c28a9260cf5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation and Cognitive Flexibility in the Relationship between Cooperative Learning and Social Skills of Students: A Cross-Sectional Study","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSocial skills are crucial for the personal and professional growth of university students, markedly affecting their academic achievement, life happiness, and future employability. Research indicates that \"soft skills,\" often known as \"people skills,\" which include communication, empathy, and problem-solving capabilities, are crucial for success in academic and professional environments (Depoo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Gonz\u0026aacute;lez Moreno et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The cultivation of social skills is intricately associated with academic achievement. Proficient communication and problem-solving skills empower students to collaborate on projects, participate in conversations, and manage group dynamics. Certain studies highlight the essential significance of soft skills in achieving personal and professional success (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Mohammed \u0026amp; Ozdamli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). They emphasize that soft skills, like communication, collaboration, and emotional intelligence, are crucial for effective engagement in many settings. Numerous aspects that can augment these talents are highlighted, including schooling, training programs, and experiential learning chances. The significance of social skills is particularly emphasized, since these competencies enhance connections, cooperation, and flexibility in the workplace. The research indicates that cultivating social skills is essential for individuals to succeed in the contemporary linked environment (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNevertheless, younger students are frequently more vulnerable to problematic internet usage, which might impede the development of social skills (Romero-L\u0026oacute;pez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Excessive online contacts may hinder face-to-face conversation, diminishing possibilities for students to develop and enhance their interpersonal skills. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the significance of social skills, especially in healthcare professions where empathy and efficient communication are essential (Sancho-Cantus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This age of social isolation has necessitated a reassessment of how colleges might enhance the incorporation of social skills training into their curricula.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn reaction to the changing employment market, colleges are progressively integrating 21st-century skills into their courses (Mahmud \u0026amp; Wong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). By prioritizing the cultivation of social skills in conjunction with technical expertise, schools may more effectively equip students for the exigencies of the workplace. Research indicates that first-year students frequently overrate their social abilities, underscoring the necessity for early intervention and self-assessment instruments (Sambell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Facilitating chances for candid self-reflection enables students to recognize areas for development and cultivate a growth mentality. Furthermore, cultivating sustainable leadership abilities is increasingly vital for improving students' career opportunities (Mart\u0026iacute;n G\u0026oacute;mez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These abilities enhance personal growth and equip students for leadership positions in their future employment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial skills are crucial for the holistic development of university students. By addressing the obstacles posed by modern technology and integrating effective training into academic programs, institutions may enhance students' interpersonal skills, therefore equipping them for future challenges in personal and professional spheres. Cooperative learning is crucial in this process, as it promotes collaboration among students in heterogeneous groups. This collaborative method not only improves social skills via shared responsibility and communication but also cultivates a sense of community and support among peers. By using cooperative learning methodologies, educational institutions may enhance students' social competences, providing them with the abilities necessary to manage intricate interpersonal relationships in their future employment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative learning has emerged as an effective instructional strategy that markedly improves university students' social skills, academic performance, and psychological well-being. Research constantly demonstrates that this collaborative approach not only enables students to achieve their academic objectives but also cultivates critical interpersonal skills crucial for their future careers. Research showed that cooperative learning strategies, including the Community of Inquiry model and Aronson's Jigsaw technique, are notably effective in enhancing social competencies (Baena-Morales et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Mendo-L\u0026aacute;zaro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These frameworks foster active participation, enhancing communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution abilities among students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConversely, cooperative learning promotes the social creation of knowledge, enabling students to learn together and exchange varied viewpoints. This cooperative setting fosters critical thinking and empathy, vital elements of social skills. Research by (Lenkauskaitė et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) indicates that challenges in team dynamics may occur, highlighting the necessity for effective facilitation and guidance to optimize the advantages of cooperative learning. Gender disparities influence the cooperative learning experience, as female students frequently have a heightened sense for its significance in relation to their prospective teaching careers (Baena-Morales et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This knowledge can improve their social skills by highlighting the significance of teamwork in school environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudents' perceptions and dispositions about cooperative learning are influenced by their previous experiences and levels of motivation. Research indicated that favorable experiences in cooperative environments might augment students' propensity to participate in collaborative tasks, hence enhancing their social skills (B\u0026auml;chtold et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In nut shel. cooperative learning profoundly impacts the enhancement of social skills in university students. This strategy cultivates communication, collaboration, and analytical skills, hence equipping students with essential tools to adeptly traverse academic and professional settings. Highlighting the significance of cooperative learning can produce graduates who are socially adept and prepared to make meaningful contributions to their communities and jobs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecent studies underscore the substantial influence of emotion regulation on multiple facets of university students' experiences, including happiness, resilience, and psychological capital (Brites et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Tang \u0026amp; He, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Effective emotion control cultivates a favorable emotional environment that improves general well-being, therefore leading to enhanced academic achievement and life happiness. Furthermore, studies indicate that emotion regulation is intricately associated with learning satisfaction, engagement, and enjoyment in foreign language education (Tang \u0026amp; He, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zheng \u0026amp; Zhou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), underscoring its essential function in academic environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative learning techniques, including positive goal interdependence and peer support, have been evidenced to enhance enjoyment in language acquisition, hence illustrating the relationship between social dynamics and emotional regulation (Zheng \u0026amp; Zhou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, issues remain since impairments in emotion regulation may affect the association between social anxiety and problematic internet usage (Sertbaş et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This highlights the need for interventions that foster collaborative learning while simultaneously tackling the emotional difficulties encountered by students. Furthermore, augmenting ER abilities with specialized training might result in advancements in students' task and self-approach objectives, along with emotional intelligence (Rivera-P\u0026eacute;rez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This training has been associated with decreased procrastinating tendencies, which can impede academic progress (Schuenemann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Integrating emotion control into university curricula is crucial for enhancing students' emotional and intellectual growth, therefore equipping them for future difficulties in their jobs and personal life.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative learning favorably influences several facets of student development, including the reduction of bullying and the enhancement of empathy (Van Ryzin \u0026amp; Roseth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), the improvement of social skills (Sinaga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and the augmentation of emotional intelligence in physical education (Rivera-P\u0026eacute;rez et al., 2020). Cognitive flexibility serves as a vital mediating element in these processes. As a fundamental element of executive processes, it profoundly impacts academic success, especially in older pupils (Magalh\u0026atilde;es et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Cognitive flexibility is associated with resilience and distress tolerance (Arici-Ozcan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), both of which are crucial for effective social adaptation and voluntary self-regulation (Tei \u0026amp; Fujino, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCognitive flexibility may be improved by mindfulness training (Zou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which enhances cooperative learning techniques by promoting adaptation in social interactions. Early-life stress affects behavioral flexibility, underscoring the interrelatedness of cognitive processes in both social and non-social contexts (Reyes-Contreras \u0026amp; Taborsky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These findings highlight the essential role of cognitive flexibility as a mediating element that amplifies the advantages of cooperative learning, hence enhancing students' social skills and emotional capacities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study significantly contributes to higher education and behavioral research by examining the mediating role of ER and CF in the relationship between cooperative learning and social skills among university students. This research transitions from just analyzing the immediate advantages of cooperative learning to investigating how internal regulating processes, particularly ER and CF, may affect the cultivation of social skills. This underscores the essential function of ER and CF in improving the efficacy of cooperative learning methodologies. This study presents a new paradigm that clarifies the relationship between cooperative learning with ER and CF, offering insights into how these elements together enhance social skills among students. This research elucidates the mediating function of ER and CF, enhancing comprehension of how students might utilize cooperative learning situations to cultivate vital interpersonal skills. This study's region-specific insights fill a significant vacuum in the literature, providing data that can guide local and regional educational strategies. This research adopts a systems perspective to address current gaps in understanding and provides practical insights for higher education stakeholders, eventually seeking to improve the social competencies of university students.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section reviewed a comprehensive literature on cooperative learning, social skills, emotion regulation, and cognitive flexibility among students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1. Theoretical background\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research is based on three fundamental theoretical frameworks: Vygotsky\u0026apos;s Sociocultural Theory, Bandura\u0026apos;s Social Cognitive Learning Theory, and Gross\u0026apos;s Emotion Regulation Theory. Each theory enhances comprehension of the interaction between cooperative learning, emotional control, and the cultivation of social skills in university students.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.1. Social Constructivism Theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial Constructivism Theory (SCT) was proposed and developed primarily by psychologist Lev Vygotsky in the 1920s and 1930s (Kozulin, 1986; Vygotsky \u0026amp; Cole, 1978). Vygotsky\u0026apos;s theory emphasizes that knowledge is co-constructed through social interaction and cultural context, rather than through individual exploration and discovery alone. Vygotsky\u0026apos;s main ideas include the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to the range of a student\u0026apos;s potential ability to perform tasks that he or she could not perform independently but can achieve with the assistance of a competent person. This concept underscores the cognitive level a student can attain through appropriate instruction and interaction. According to Vygotsky, learning is inherently a social process where students construct knowledge through interactions with teachers, parents, or peers. These interactions provide the necessary support and guidance to enable students to think and learn at a higher level (Vygotsky, 1987; Vygotsky \u0026amp; Cole, 1978).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConstructivist learning theory has universal guiding significance for teaching and constructivist learning theory has become a significant guiding force in teaching and learning in the information age (Campbell \u0026amp; Tran, 2023). One of the representatives of cognitive constructivism, Jean Piaget argues that knowledge acquisition should be an active process of construction rather than passive acceptance (Waite-Stupiansky, 2022). Students should be viewed as the primary actors in the learning process, and teachers should act as facilitators to guide the process of learning. With the guidance of teachers, students can consciously and actively construct knowledge. Cooperative learning, as a new type of teaching activity, is well-suited to meet the requirements of constructivist learning theory for education (Lenkauskaitė et al., 2020). Through group cooperation, students can engage in discussion and exploration in a supportive atmosphere, and the results of each group can be shared and discussed. Teachers can then provide a final summary that supplements and synthesizes the groups\u0026rsquo; insights, thereby facilitating a process of knowledge and experience reorganization that is crucial to the learning process in the classroom.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial constructivism emphasizes that individuals construct knowledge through social interaction and cultural background, where personal experience serves as the foundation for understanding things (Amineh \u0026amp; Asl, 2015). In contrast to other constructivist theories, social constructivism emphasizes the importance of social aspects in the construction process. In active learning methods developed based on constructivist theories, the student plays the role of the constructor of information and takes an active role (Piaget, 1967; Vygotsky, 1987). The cooperative learning process aligns with the principles of social constructivism, where students actively construct knowledge through interaction with others Constructivism. Through the exchange of opinions, learners develop a richer understanding of concepts, which helps in the rational development of their cognitive structures (Altun \u0026amp; Yildirim, 2023). Cooperative learning is an effective way to promote knowledge construction in the classroom, and it is important to apply it in a manner consistent with constructivist learning theory (Lenkauskaitė et al., 2020). The ideas of Social Constructivism Theory offer significant insights pertinent to our study. Through cooperative learning, students acquire information while also cultivating vital social skills via interaction and cooperation. Co-constructing knowledge can improve students\u0026apos; emotional control and cognitive flexibility, essential for adeptly managing social interactions. This interaction indicates that collaborative learning environments can enhance both academic success and social skill development, eventually producing a comprehensive educational experience that equips students for future engagements in many contexts. By comprehending the influence of social interactions in cooperative learning on emotional and cognitive processes, educators may more effectively facilitate students\u0026apos; holistic growth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.2. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Group Dynamics Theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 1916, John Dewey proposed the notion of \u0026quot;democratic education,\u0026quot; promoting the development of democratic literacy and critical thinking in students by active engagement and cooperation in the educational process. This educational concept underscores the need for students to engage in democratic behaviors, such as group debates and joint projects, to equip them for a socially democratic existence (Dewey, 2024). Herbert Thelen elaborated on Dewey\u0026apos;s concepts through his theory of group dynamics, emphasizing the significance of group interactions in fostering individual learning and growth. Cooperative learning, based on group dynamics, enhances academic and social abilities via collaborative activities, encouraging collaboration and communication among students (Thelen, 1954). Kurt Lewin advanced this domain by analyzing human behavior in group contexts, emphasizing processes like leadership and decision-making (Lewin, 1947).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThelen asserted that good interdependence among group members improves group dynamics, as individual achievement is connected to collective success. This notion corresponds with Johnson and Johnson\u0026apos;s classifications of interdependence kinds (Johnson \u0026amp; Johnson, 2021). Collaboration and communication are vital for cooperative learning, promoting information exchange and skill development, in alignment with Vygotsky\u0026apos;s sociocultural theory of interaction in knowledge production (Vygotsky \u0026amp; Cole, 1978). Group Dynamics Theory offers a comprehensive framework for cooperative learning, allowing educators to create effective group activities that promote collaboration and communication. This method can markedly improve students\u0026apos; academic achievement and interpersonal skills while fostering collaboration and social accountability. This study, posits that Group Dynamics Theory elucidates the influence of cooperative learning on students\u0026apos; emotional regulation and cognitive flexibility, thereby improving their social skills. Comprehending group interactions and dynamics may clarify the methods via which cooperative learning cultivates these vital abilities in students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.3. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Emotion Regulation Theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmotions are complex psychophysiological responses to internal or external stimuli (Petukhov et al., 2022). Emotion regulation involves the processes used to manage the emotions we feel, their timing, and their expression, so influencing both mental and physical health (Gross, 1998). Gross developed the process model of emotion regulation, which identifies five techniques that occur at different stages of emotional experience: scenario selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation (Gross, 1998, 2014, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEmotion Regulation Theory highlights the importance of proficiently controlling emotions in collaborative learning settings. During group activities, students experience a range of emotional cues, including joy, frustration, and worry. The capacity to manage these emotions is essential for their engagement and cooperation. Utilizing antecedent-focused tactics enables students to anticipate emotional problems, so cultivating a more favorable learning environment. In contrast, response-focused tactics allow students to modify their emotional expressions and reactions during encounters, ultimately improving group dynamics and communication. This regulation facilitates a constructive learning atmosphere and impacts the cultivation of social skills, as students learn to manage their emotions in relation to peer relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, proficient emotion control might enhance cognitive flexibility, enabling pupils to adjust their thoughts and strategies in reaction to new knowledge or peer input. The interaction between emotion control and cognitive flexibility is essential for the development of social skills, as it provides students with the means to behave adaptively in various social contexts. By comprehending and using these emotion control tactics, educators may cultivate supportive cooperative learning environments that augment both emotional and social abilities in students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.4. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Cognitive Flexibility Theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCognitive flexibility is an intrinsic attribute of a cognitive system, associated with the ability to adjust its functions and content, switch between different task rules and corresponding behavioral responses, maintain multiple concepts simultaneously, and shift internal attention among them (Scott, 1962). This notion is frequently considered a component of executive functions, signifying the neural basis of adaptive and flexible behavior (Cooper-Kahn \u0026amp; Dietzel, 2008). Cognitive flexibility is now characterized as a set of neural attributes that facilitate adaptive and relevant shifts across functional brain states (Fuchs et al., 2023). Cognitive flexibility is defined in psychological literature as a domain-general capacity that allows individuals to adjust cognitive processing strategies to accommodate new, unexpected, and changing situations (Hohl \u0026amp; Dolcos, 2024; Schmerwitz \u0026amp; Kopp, 2024).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCognitive Flexibility Theory (CFT) analyzes information acquisition in complex, ambiguous circumstances, arguing that traditional approaches emphasizing linear, hierarchical knowledge frameworks are insufficient (Spiro, 1988; Spiro \u0026amp; Jehng, 2012). CFT posits that effective learning requires the capacity to modify perspectives, employ diverse knowledge representations, and adapt to varying problem-solving demands\u0026mdash;essentially, cognitive flexibility. This idea advocates for the cultivation of complex, interconnected, multi-dimensional knowledge structures instead of static, immutable information (Moosivand et al., 2024). CFT underscores the importance of strategic knowledge\u0026mdash;awareness of cognitive processes and the ability to select and use appropriate problem-solving methods according to the context (Motevalli et al., 2023; Shekh-Abed, 2024). The method emphasizes the utilization of varied educational materials and activities designed to enhance cognitive flexibility, such as case-based learning, problem-based learning, and multiple teaching methodologies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConcerning our research, Cognitive Flexibility Theory emphasizes the significance of adaptation in educational contexts. Students participating in cooperative learning experience dynamic social interactions and diverse problem-solving scenarios. The capacity to adapt cognitive methods in response to evolving conditions is essential for efficient cooperation and communication. Cognitive flexibility facilitates problem-solving for pupils and improves their emotional control by enabling them to negotiate intricate social situations more effectively. By adjusting their cognitive frameworks to various social signals and group interactions, students may more adeptly respond to the emotions of their peers, thereby enhancing their social competencies. The interaction between cognitive flexibility and emotion regulation enhances the learning process, enabling students to integrate diverse knowledge, navigate ambiguity, and adjust to changing demands in academic and social environments. Ultimately, cultivating cognitive flexibility via cooperative learning can result in the emergence of well-rounded individuals with the abilities needed for success in many situations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2. \u0026nbsp; Hypothesis development\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.1. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; The influence of cooperating learning and students\u0026rsquo; social skills competencies (H1-H6)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial skills are essential for the personal and professional development of university students, influencing their academic achievement, general well-being, and future employability. Studies demonstrate that \u0026quot;soft skills,\u0026quot; encompassing communication, empathy, and problem-solving capabilities, are crucial for success in academic and professional settings (Depoo et al., 2020; Gonz\u0026aacute;lez Moreno et al., 2024). The robust association between social skills and academic achievement indicates that proficient communication and problem-solving abilities enhance cooperation on projects, foster active participation in debates, and enable successful navigation of group dynamics. Research emphasizes the importance of soft skills in attaining personal and professional success, indicating that communication, teamwork, and emotional intelligence are essential for effective involvement in many situations (Kumar et al., 2022; Mohammed \u0026amp; Ozdamli, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe hypothesize that cooperative learning substantially improves students\u0026apos; social skills. Cooperative learning, defined by collaborative interactions among students in heterogeneous groups, cultivates an atmosphere that enhances social competences. This pedagogical method fosters collective accountability and efficient communication while nurturing a feeling of community and support among peers. Participating in cooperative learning activities enhances students\u0026apos; social skills, crucial for navigating intricate interpersonal connections in their future professions. Consequently, we propose that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; H1-H6: Cooperative learning has direct effects on students\u0026rsquo; social skills competencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.2. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; The mediating role of emotion regulation in the relationship between cooperative learning and social skills (H9-1-H9-6)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecent research underscores the essential function of emotion regulation in multiple aspects of university students\u0026apos; experiences, including happiness, resilience, and psychological capital (Brites et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2022; Tang \u0026amp; He, 2022). Effective emotion management fosters a pleasant emotional environment that increases general well-being, therefore leading to increased academic achievement and life satisfaction. Research indicates that emotion management is intricately associated with learning satisfaction, engagement, and enjoyment in educational environments (Tang \u0026amp; He, 2022; Zheng \u0026amp; Zhou, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn cooperative learning, strategies that foster positive goal interdependence and peer support boost students\u0026apos; satisfaction in educational settings. This association demonstrates the link between social dynamics and emotional regulation (Zheng \u0026amp; Zhou, 2022). Nonetheless, obstacles remain, since difficulties in emotion regulation might negatively influence the association between social anxiety and problematic internet use (Sertbaş et al., 2020). This underscores the necessity for treatments that foster cooperative learning while simultaneously tackling the emotional difficulties faced by pupils. We hypothesize that emotion management influences the association between cooperative learning and social skills. We specifically hypothesize that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; (H9-1-H9-6): Emotion regulation serves as a mediator in the relationship between cooperative learning and students\u0026rsquo; social skills.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;This hypothesis posits that student participation in cooperative learning will improve their emotional regulation, hence fostering the development of social skills. Validating this hypothesis will enhance our knowledge of how promoting emotional control within cooperative learning frameworks might increase social competencies. This understanding will guide educational approaches designed to educate students with the essential abilities for effectively managing interpersonal interactions, therefore fostering their personal and professional development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2.3. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; The mediating role of cognitive flexibility in the relationship between cooperative learning and social skills (H10-1-H10-6)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Recent research underscore the essential function of cognitive flexibility in several aspects of student development, including social skills, emotional intelligence, and academic performance (Rivera-P\u0026eacute;rez et al., 2021; Sinaga et al., 2022; Van Ryzin \u0026amp; Roseth, 2019). Cognitive flexibility, an essential aspect of executive functions, allows pupils to adjust their thoughts and behaviors according to evolving social contexts, so improving their social skills. In cooperative learning environments, fostering positive interdependence and peer cooperation can markedly enhance students\u0026apos; cognitive flexibility. This flexibility enhances communication and empathy among peers and adds to overall academic success, especially in older pupils (Magalh\u0026atilde;es et al., 2020). Cognitive flexibility is linked to resilience and distress tolerance (Arici-Ozcan et al., 2019), which are essential for successful social adaptation and self-regulation (Tei \u0026amp; Fujino, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudies demonstrate that cognitive flexibility may be developed by methods like mindfulness training (Zou et al., 2020), which corresponds with the tenets of cooperative learning that promote open-mindedness and adaptability. The impact of early-life stress on behavioral flexibility exemplifies the intricate relationship between cognitive processes and social interactions (Reyes-Contreras \u0026amp; Taborsky, 2022). We propose that cognitive flexibility mediates the association between cooperative learning and social skills. We specifically recommend that:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026middot; (H10-1-H10-6): Cognitive flexibility serves as a mediator in the relationship between cooperative learning and students\u0026rsquo; social skills.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;This hypothesis posits that engagement in cooperative learning will improve students\u0026apos; cognitive flexibility, hence promoting the advancement of their social skills. Confirming this hypothesis will enhance our comprehension of how fostering cognitive flexibility within collaborative learning environments might result in enhanced social abilities. This understanding will guide instructional practices designed to educate students with vital abilities for managing interpersonal relationships, therefore facilitating their personal and professional development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3. \u0026nbsp; Conceptual framework for the current study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe (Figure 1) presents a model examining how cooperative learning influences students\u0026rsquo; social skills, both directly and indirectly. It hypothesizes that cooperative learning directly affects students\u0026rsquo; social skills (H1-H6), emotion regulation (H7), and cognitive flexibility (H8). Additionally, the model suggests that emotional regulation (H9-1 to H9-6) and cognitive flexibility (H10-1 to H10-6) play significant mediating roles in this relationship among students.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1. Research design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional survey methodology to examine the influence of cooperating learning on students' social skills, with emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility as mediating variables. This design was selected due to its capacity for efficient data gathering from a substantial sample at a single point, rendering it appropriate for analyzing existing correlations among various variables.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2. Population and sample\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research was carried out at the Shandong University of Engineering and Vocational Technology in Jinan City, Shandong Province, China. The study examined the mediating effects of emotion control and cognitive flexibility on the link between cooperative learning and social skills in students. A stratified random sample procedure was utilized to guarantee a thorough representation of the student population, considering the varied features of students from different disciplines. The overall student population was categorized into strata according to their academic disciplines among 16 faculties. encompassing engineering, vocational studies, and liberal arts. The researchers sought to obtain a sample size that appropriately represented the distribution of students in these programs. A total sample of 400 students was designated, including 200 from engineering, 150 from vocational studies, and 50 from liberal arts. This proportionate distribution guaranteed that each field was sufficiently represented in the investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e Participants were notified that their replies would be utilized solely for research purposes, with guarantees of confidentiality and anonymity. Data collection occurred across four months, from February to April 2024, employing a systematic questionnaire to evaluate many aspects of cooperative learning, emotion control, cognitive flexibility, and social skills. To augment the study's rigor, the sample was stratified by gender to provide extensive gender-based analysis, hence enhancing the comprehensiveness and objectivity of the findings. Of the 530 questionnaires given, 502 replies were considered legitimate, yielding a validity rate of 94.7% replies deemed invalid were eliminated based on criteria such as significant missing data and patterns of inconsistent replies. All data were anonymized to maintain ethical standards and safeguard participant privacy. Table\u0026nbsp;1 delineates the demographic profile of the research participants, comprising a total of 502 respondents classified by faculty and gender. The School of International Business had the largest presence at 28.9%, followed by Arts and Media at 25.5%, Information Engineering at 23.3%, and Business Foreign Languages at 22.3%. Of the 281 male participants, the School of International Business represented 29.2%, Arts and Media represented 26.0%, and Business Foreign Languages exhibited the lowest male presence at 19.6%. Among the 221 female participants, the School of International Business had the greatest proportion at 28.5%, while Information Engineering and Arts and Media demonstrated comparable percentages of 25.3% and 24.4%, respectively. This distribution reflects equitable gender representation among the faculties, establishing a basic backdrop for the study's research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1 Respondent\u0026rsquo;s profile\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFaculties\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNumber of Participants (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMale (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFemale (%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSchool of International Business\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e145 (28.9%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82 (29.2%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63 (28.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eArts and Media\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e128 (25.5%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73 (26.0%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54 (24.4%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBusiness Foreign Languages\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112 (22.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55 (19.6%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48 (21.7%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInformation Engineering\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e117 (23.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71 (25.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56 (25.3%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e502 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e281 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e221 (100%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3. Measures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA structured questionnaire was modified and employed to gather data from participants, organized into four principal parts, each aligned with the primary variables of the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3.1. The Cooperative Learning Application Scale\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Cooperative Learning Application Scale was developed by (Atxurra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) to evaluate the concurrent validity of four of the five sub-scales of our questionnaire, the following aspects of the CLAS were utilized: social skills (four items), group processing (four items), positive interdependence (four items), and promotive interaction (four items). Participants are requested to recall instances when they perceive themselves as more effective in an academic setting: \u0026ldquo;I feel successful at school when...\u0026rdquo;. Responses were provided on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from (5) strongly agree to (1) strongly disagree. The various subscales demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency (\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;0.70).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3.2. The Social Skill Inventory (SSI)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe SSI is a self-aging scale consisting of 90 questions, Includes six subscales: Emotional Expressivity (EE), Emotional Sensitivity (ES), Emotional Control (EC), Social Expressivity (SE), Social Sensitivity (SS), Social Control (SC), with 15 questions for each subscale (Riggio, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The scale was scored in the Likert five-point form, with each subscale ranging between 15 and 75 points, yielding the total SSI score based on the scores of each subscale. In the study by (Cao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), the Cronbach α coefficient of SSI is 0.81; retest reliability is 0.75; half reliability is 0.84; correlation coefficient between total score and each factor is between 0.305 and 0.0.802; index of confirmatory factor analysis: χ \u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e / df 2.2, GFI 0.888, CFI 0.903, IFI 0.916, RMSEA 0.076. Conclusion: Using SSI for college students has good reliability and validity (Cao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3.3. Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe 10-item Chinese Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ-C) (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) evaluates two fundamental strategies: cognitive reappraisal (6 questions, e.g., \u0026ldquo;I alter my thoughts to regulate emotions\u0026rdquo;) and expressive suppression (4 items, e.g., \u0026ldquo;I conceal my emotions\u0026rdquo;). Responses utilize a 7-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree; 7\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly agree), with subscale scores computed independently. The ERQ-C exhibits robust dependability (present study: α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.700; historical reports: α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.82\u0026ndash;0.87 for suppression and reappraisal (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Confirmatory factor studies substantiate its two-factor structure (Han et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), consistent with the original ERQ's concept validity (Gross \u0026amp; John, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The ERQ-C, modified by meticulous translation and contextual modifications (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), maintains structural equivalence to the original while accommodating cultural subtleties in emotional expression within Chinese collectivist contexts (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3.4. Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe 20-item Chinese CFI evaluates two dimensions: Alternatives (the generation of numerous options) and Control (the adjustment of cognition to environmental demands) (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Responses utilize a 5-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;never; 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;always), with reverse scoring applied to six questions (e.g., items 2, 4, 7). Subscale scores (Alternatives: 10\u0026ndash;50; Control: 10\u0026ndash;50) aggregate to a total range of 20\u0026ndash;100, with elevated values signifying enhanced cognitive flexibility. The Chinese CFI has robust reliability revealed that Cronbach's α coefficients and composite reliability exceeding 0.80, along with test-retest reliability above 0.65, confirming that the Chinese version of the CFI possesses acceptable psychometric quality for evaluating cognitive flexibility in this population (Motevalli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Yuan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4. Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious research indicates that Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) is frequently employed to investigate the relationships between dependent and independent latent variables and is regarded as one of the most appropriate methodologies for studying complicated models (Hair Jr et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Due to the intricacy of the suggested model for this investigation, the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) technique was utilized, utilizing Smart-PLS-4 software to evaluate the proposed hypothesis. The SEM modeling process comprised two principal steps, as delineated by (Hair Jr et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The initial phase concentrated on the psychometric characteristics of the measurement model (MM), verifying that the constructs included in the study (cooperative learning, components of social skills, emotion regulation, and cognitive flexibility) satisfied the requisite validity and reliability standards. The second stage entailed evaluating the structural model (SM) to examine the proposed relationships among the variables, specifically the mediating roles of emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility in the relationship between cooperative learning and components of social skills.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.1. Measurement Model (MM)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConvergent and discriminant validity were evaluated to ascertain the quality of the measurement model, beginning with the examination of factor loading, as seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Convergent validity was measured by Factor Loadings (FL), Average Variance Extracted (AVE), Composite Reliability (CR), and Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha, and Discriminant Validity was assessed by Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) as detailed in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e (Hair Jr et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays the findings of convergent validity and reliability analysis for different constructs, emphasizing their psychometric characteristics. Each construct is defined by the quantity of included items, the quantity of omitted items, and essential metrics like factor loading, Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability (rho_c), and average variance extracted (AVE). The Cognitive Reappraisal construct, consisting of four items, has a factor loading range of 0.68 to 0.876, a Cronbach's alpha of 0.835, and an AVE of 0.607, signifying satisfactory reliability and validity. Conversely, the Social Control construct, comprising 15 items with no deletions, has a lower factor loading ranging from 0.567 to 0.859, while retaining a high composite reliability of 0.944 and an AVE of 0.567. The constructs demonstrate robust reliability, with the majority attaining Cronbach's alpha values over 0.7, signifying their suitability for assessing the targeted characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults of convergent validity and reliability\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo of items\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo of deleted items\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactor loading\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCronbach's alpha\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComposite reliability (rho_c)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage variance extracted (AVE)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCognitive _Reappraisal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.68\u0026ndash;0.876\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.835\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.885\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.607\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExpressive _Suppression\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.83\u0026ndash;0.874\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.806\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.885\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.734\u0026ndash;0.85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.891\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.917\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.649\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlternative\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.697\u0026ndash;0.816\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.941\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.948\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.568\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGroup processing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.774\u0026ndash;0.866\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.838\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.892\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.674\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndividual _responsibility\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.767\u0026ndash;0.813\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.804\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.872\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive _interdependence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.731\u0026ndash;0.816\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.785\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.861\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.608\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePromoting _interaction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.674\u0026ndash;0.842\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.838\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.566\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial skills\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.624\u0026ndash;0.883\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.797\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.629\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmotional _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.667\u0026ndash;0.779\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.914\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.927\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.537\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmotional _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.665\u0026ndash;0.759\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.897\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.915\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmotional _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.699\u0026ndash;0.793\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.929\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.939\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.561\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.567\u0026ndash;0.859\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.944\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.951\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.567\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.521\u0026ndash;0.803\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.914\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.928\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.519\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.738\u0026ndash;0.871\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.961\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.965\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.648\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) analysis, illustrated in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, assesses the discriminant validity of different constructs by analyzing their interrelationships. The HTMT values span from 0.28 to 0.87, with the correlation between Positive Interdependence and Group Processing exhibiting a strong value of 0.87, signifying a substantial connection. The correlation between Emotional Control and Cognitive Reappraisal is significantly lower at 0.34, indicating enhanced discriminant validity. The majority of HTMT scores fall below the stringent limits of 0.85 and 0.90, so affirming that the constructs are separate and effectively assess various aspects (Henseler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This distinction is essential to prevent any confusion in the investigation of their interrelationships. The HTMT analysis indicates that most items have sufficient discriminant validity, confirming they assess distinct elements within the overarching psychological framework being studied.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHTMT analysis (Discriminant validity)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"16\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.Alternative\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.Cognitive _Reappraisal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.Cooperative _Learning\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.Emotional _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.Emotional _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.Emotional _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.Expressive _Suppression\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.Group processing\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.Individual _responsibility\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.Positive _interdependence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.Promoting _interaction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.Social _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.Social _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.Social _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.Social skills\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"16\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: HTMT\u003c/em\u003e Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e displays the outcomes of hypothesis testing about the direct impacts of Cooperative Learning on many aspects of social skills, including emotional and social dimensions. Eight hypotheses (H1\u0026ndash;H8) were assessed using standardized path coefficients (β), standard errors (SE), t-values, and p-values. The results indicate substantial direct effects, with the relationship from Cooperative Learning to Social Control exhibiting the greatest coefficient (B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.720, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Moreover, Cooperative Learning markedly affects several dimensions, such as Emotional Sensitivity (H1: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.424, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), Emotional Control (H2: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.324, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), Emotional Expressivity (H3: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.457, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), Social Sensitivity (H4: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.619, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), Social Control (H5: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.72, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and Social Expressivity (H6: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.433, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). The model demonstrates significant impacts of Cooperative Learning on Emotion Regulation (H7: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.503, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and Cognitive Flexibility (H8: B\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.496, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). These findings highlight the essential function of Cooperative Learning as a significant predictor of many emotional and social competencies, hence strengthening the theoretical framework of the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHypothesis testing results (direct effect)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHypothesis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epath\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP values\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;Emotional _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.424\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.965\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;Emotional _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.324\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;Emotional _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.457\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.544\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;Social _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.619\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.385\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;Social _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.572\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;Social _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.433\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.911\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;Emotion _Regulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.503\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.809\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;Cognitive _Flexibility\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.496\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.209\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.2. Structural Model (SM)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe structural model in PLS-SEM hypothesis testing is evaluated by examining the path coefficient, t statistic, standard error, and R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e value, which elucidate the strength, direction, and significance of the relationships. Simultaneously, the t-statistic and standard error are employed to evaluate the effect's size (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e value signifies the extent of variance elucidated. The variances associated with the dependent variables influenced the explanatory power of the proposed model. The Bootstrapping process was employed to assess the robustness of the factor loadings and the importance of the relationships between variables (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This study used the 5000 bootstrap resampling method (Hair \u0026amp; Alamer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) to ascertain the acceptance of the hypothesis. The hypothesis would be validated at the 0.05 significance level if the t-statistic surpasses the crucial threshold.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.3. Hypothesis testing\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e displays the outcomes of hypothesis testing on the mediating roles of ER and CF in the association between Cooperative Learning and diverse emotional and social competences. A total of twelve hypotheses (H9-1 to H10-6) were assessed using unstandardised path coefficients (B), standard errors (SE), t-values, and p-values. The results suggest that many routes exhibit partial mediation. The pathway from Cooperative Learning to Emotional Sensitivity through ER (H9-1: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.105, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and the pathway to Emotional Control through ER (H9-2: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.394, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) demonstrate substantial impacts. The relationship from Cooperative Learning to Emotional Expressivity through ER (H9-3: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.063, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.009) and Social _Expressivity through ER (H9-6: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.08, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002) demonstrates partial mediation. The relationships between Cooperative Learning and Social Sensitivity (H9-4: β = -0.016, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.462) and Social Control (H9-5: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.023, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.255) through ER indicate no mediation effects.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe relationship between Cooperative Learning and Social Sensitivity through CF (H10-4: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.092, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and the connection to Social Expressivity through CF (H10-6: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.053, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.033) indicate partial mediation. The pathways to Emotional Sensitivity through CF (H10-1: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.047, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.051), Emotional Control through CF (H10-2: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.035, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.170), Emotional Expressivity through CF (H10-3: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.023, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.378), and Social Control through CF (H10-5: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.004, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.843) demonstrate no mediation. These findings underscore the intricate involvement of ER and CF as mediators in the link between Cooperative Learning and diverse emotional and social competencies, so enhancing the theoretical framework of the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHypothesis testing results (indirect effect, mediation)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHypothesis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePath\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP values\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResults\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH9-1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;ER -\u0026gt;Emotional _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.105\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.142\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH9-2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;ER -\u0026gt;Emotional _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.394\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH9-3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;ER -\u0026gt;Emotional _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.608\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH9-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;ER -\u0026gt;Social _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.016\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.735\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.462\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH9-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;ER -\u0026gt;Social _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.139\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.255\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH9-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;ER -\u0026gt;Social _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.088\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH10-1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;CF -\u0026gt;Emotional _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.953\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH10-2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;CF -\u0026gt;Emotional _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.374\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH10-3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;CF -\u0026gt;Emotional _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.882\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.378\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH10-4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;CF -\u0026gt;Social _Sensitivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.092\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.177\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH10-5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;CF -\u0026gt;Social _Control\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.198\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.843\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH10-6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCooperative _Learning -\u0026gt;CF -\u0026gt;Social _Expressivity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.133\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePartial mediation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion and implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study's findings highlight the crucial mediating roles of ER and CF in the relationship between Cooperative Learning and social skills competencies. Recent research highlights the essential role of emotion regulation in influencing students' experiences, including resilience and general well-being (Brites et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The findings suggest that students participating in Cooperative Learning are predisposed to enhance Emotional Sensitivity (H9-1), Emotional Control (H9-2), Emotional Expressivity (H9-3), and Social _Expressivity (H9-6) through proficient ER. This association indicates that collaborative student work improves emotional regulation, resulting in increased learning pleasure and engagement. The results substantiate the idea that cultivating a pleasant emotional atmosphere in cooperative learning environments can markedly influence students' academic performance and overall life satisfaction (Tang \u0026amp; He, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Zheng \u0026amp; Zhou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is essential to acknowledge that some pathways, like those associated with Social Sensitivity (H9-4) and Social Control (H9-5), did not exhibit substantial mediating effects. This indicates that although emotional regulation is crucial, its impact may not consistently improve all aspects of social skills. Consequently, more examination of the contextual elements and particular situations that affect these interactions is necessary. Grasping these nuances will yield profound insights into the successful utilization of emotion control for the development of comprehensive social abilities in pupils. This study underscores the significance of promoting emotion regulation within collaborative learning environments as a strategic method for developing well-rounded individuals adept at managing the intricacies of social relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCognitive flexibility significantly mediates the relationship between Cooperative Learning with Social Sensitivity (H10-4) and Social Expressivity (H10-6). CF enables students to modify their ideas and behaviors in changing social situations, thereby improving their communication and empathy (Rivera-P\u0026eacute;rez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Sinaga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The capacity to adjust to peer interactions cultivates resilience and distress tolerance (Arici-Ozcan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), which are crucial for successful social adaptation. Notably, the pathways associated with Emotional Sensitivity (H10-1), Emotional Control (H10-2), Emotional Expressivity (H10-3), and Social Control (H10-5) via CF did not exhibit significant mediation. This discovery underscores the intricacy of cognitive mechanisms in social interactions and indicates that whereas CF improves some social skills, it may not universally affect emotional control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ability to modify cognitive structures in reaction to social signals enables pupils to better respond to their classmates' emotions, therefore improving their social skills. The interaction between cognitive flexibility and emotional control enhances the learning process, enabling pupils to assimilate varied knowledge, confront uncertainty, and adjust to changing requirements. These findings align with other research highlighting the significance of cognitive flexibility in enhancing emotional intelligence and social skills in learners. Ultimately, promoting cognitive flexibility via cooperative learning is an essential educational method that develops well-rounded individuals equipped with the abilities required for success in diverse circumstances. This highlights the necessity for educators to adopt creative tactics that enhance cognitive flexibility, since they improve academic achievement and foster vital social skills. By doing so, we may enhance kids' preparedness for the intricacies of modern social environments, where flexibility and emotional intelligence are becoming increasingly essential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings have significant consequences for educational methods. Educators should strive to establish collaborative learning settings that expressly promote ER and CF. Implementing tactics like mindfulness training might further augment these cognitive processes, fostering an adaptable and robust student body (Zou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, acknowledging the constraints of emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility in certain circumstances might assist educators in customizing their methods to more effectively address the varied requirements of pupils. This study enhances the comprehension of the interplay between cooperative learning and emotional and cognitive aspects in shaping student development. By concentrating on the enhancement of emotional control and cognitive flexibility, educators may markedly elevate students' emotional and social abilities, thus fostering a more helpful and successful learning environment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Theoretical contributions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research significantly enhances the theoretical comprehension of emotional and social competences by synthesizing fundamental ideas from Social Constructivism Theory, Group Dynamics Theory, ER Theory, and CF Theory. This study explores the mediating roles of ER and CF within Cooperative Learning, broadening the theoretical framework beyond individual-centric models and emphasizing the interaction between external and internal factors that affect student behavior. From a Social Constructivism viewpoint, the findings highlight the significance of collaborative learning environments, where students interact with peers and educators, promoting the co-construction of knowledge and emotional competencies. The Group Dynamics Theory elucidates how group interactions and connections influence students' social abilities and emotional control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe incorporation of Emotion control Theory highlights the essential function of emotional competencies in educational environments, illustrating how proficient control may improve student engagement and overall success. Cognitive Flexibility Theory enhances these findings by emphasizing the significance of flexibility in thought and behavior, crucial for managing social interactions and emotional obstacles within a learning environment. This research fits with and enriches current theoretical frameworks, providing a more thorough understanding of how teacher motivation and cooperative learning settings impact student self-regulation, emotional development, and social abilities. These contributions establish a robust basis for forthcoming research focused on comprehending and enhancing student outcomes in educational environments.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Practical implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has important practical implications for educators and policymakers in the design and implementation of teaching strategies that enhance emotional and social competencies through Cooperative Learning. Educators are encouraged to integrate Cooperative Learning into their teaching practices, as this method has been shown to improve students' emotional regulation, motivation, and social skills. By fostering a collaborative learning environment, teachers can create opportunities for students to work together, share knowledge, and develop essential social skills while engaging with academic content.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo support this approach, educational institutions should prioritize enhancing teacher training programs that focus on effective Cooperative Learning strategies. Workshops and training sessions can empower teachers to cultivate emotional regulation among students, encouraging a proactive approach to learning. By equipping educators with these tools, students are more likely to feel supported and motivated, leading to improved academic outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, policymakers should consider the findings of this study when developing educational policies and curricula. Emphasizing Cooperative Learning can enhance the quality of education by promoting personalized learning plans, collaborative projects, and peer interactions, which are crucial in reducing procrastination tendencies. Allocating resources towards teacher training programs that emphasize Cooperative Learning methods will ensure effective and consistent implementation across schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, by prioritizing both academic content and the social and emotional development of students, the educational system can foster a more holistic learning environment that promotes well-rounded development. This study provides valuable insights for educators and policymakers aiming to improve student outcomes in various educational contexts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Limitations and recommendations of the study","content":"\u003cp\u003eOne of the limitations of the current quantitative study is the relatively small sample size, which may impact the generalizability of the findings across various educational environments. Future study ought to employ bigger and more heterogeneous samples, including students from diverse universities, fields, and geographical areas, to substantiate the findings in wider contexts. The study utilized a cross-sectional research methodology, limiting the capacity to infer causal links across time. The findings reveal substantial connections; nevertheless, a longitudinal design would provide more profound insights into the evolution of instructors' academic motivation and students' self-regulation, as well as their enduring impacts on procrastinating behavior. This study utilized self-report tools for data collection instead of interviews, potentially introducing response biases. Future research may employ mixed approaches to enhance the data and offer a more thorough comprehension of the phenomena being examined. This research examined Emotion Regulation and study habits as mediators between teacher academic motivation and student procrastination behavior; future studies could investigate additional mediators, such as self-efficacy, academic resilience, or goal orientation, to enhance understanding of the impact of teacher motivation on student outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"8. Future direction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSubsequent research may rectify the limitations of this study by employing longitudinal designs to investigate the enduring impacts of ER and CF on the association between Cooperative Learning and emotional and social competencies. It would be beneficial to investigate more mediators, such as self-efficacy, academic resilience, or goal orientation, to enhance comprehension of their impact on student results in Cooperative Learning settings. Furthermore, subsequent research might examine the efficacy of treatments designed to enhance teacher-student relationships, emotional management, and cognitive flexibility. Executing and evaluating targeted initiatives aimed at improving these abilities may yield significant insights into effective methods for cultivating emotional and social competencies in pupils. By concentrating on these domains, researchers may enhance the comprehension of how Cooperative Learning can be refined to promote student growth and well-being.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has clarified the important mediating functions of ER and CF in the association between Cooperative Learning and diverse emotional and social competences. The examination of twelve hypotheses indicated that several routes demonstrate partial mediation, notably emphasizing significant effects on Emotional Sensitivity and Emotional Control via Emotional Regulation. These data indicate that Cooperative Learning directly affects emotional and social skills, while also enhancing emotional control capabilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the study revealed further partial mediation effects of CF, specifically on its relationship with Social Sensitivity and Social Expressivity. Significantly, certain pathways, like those linking Cooperative Learning to Emotional Sensitivity and Emotional Control via CF, exhibited no substantial mediation, suggesting a more intricate interaction of components at play.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese observations highlight the complex role of ER and CF as mediators, enriching the theoretical framework of the study. The findings support the incorporation of techniques designed to enhance emotional control and cognitive flexibility in Cooperative Learning settings. By doing so, educators may more effectively assist kids in cultivating vital emotional and social skills, so enhancing their overall well-being and success. This necessitates a reassessment of educational methodologies, highlighting the significance of emotional and cognitive competencies in conjunction with academic instruction, to foster a more comprehensive educational experience.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthics declarations and consent to participate\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of Shandong University of Engineering and Vocational Technology, China. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo funding\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthors' contributions: \u0026bull;W.M: Conceptualisation, Writing-Original Draft, Visualisation, Data Collection. \u0026bull;S.M: Corresponding author, Supervision, Data Analysis, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. \u0026bull;X.K: Data Collection, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing. \u0026bull;R.S: Data Collection, Writing \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe extend our profound appreciation to the administration and staff of the Faculty of Social Sciences and Liberal Arts, UCSI University, Shandong University of Engineering and Vocational Technology for their indispensable support. 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Front Psychol. 2020;11:1053. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01053\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01053\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Good Health and Wellbeing, Emotion Regulation, Cognitive Flexibility, Social Skills, Cooperative Learning","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6632104/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6632104/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial skills are essential for university students' personal and professional development, influencing academic achievement, well-being, and employment. Elements such as Cooperative Learning, Emotion Regulation, and Cognitive Flexibility significantly contribute to the development of these critical skills. This study aims to examine the correlation between cooperative learning and the social skills components in university students, along with the mediating influence of emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility in this dynamic.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research was conducted by the correlation method (using Structural Equation Modeling). The statistical population consisted of all university students at a certain university in Shandong. 502 participants were selected by a simple random sampling method. The participants responded to the Social Skill Inventory, the Cooperative Learning Application Scale, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory. Results from the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) indicated that cooperative learning significantly affects students\u0026rsquo; social skills. However, when mediated by emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility, the study confirmed the statistically significant mediating effect of both mediators in mitigating students\u0026rsquo; social skills components.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results indicated that cooperative learning markedly improves students' social abilities. Furthermore, both emotional regulation (ER) and cognitive flexibility (CF) were identified as mediators of this connection, with partial mediation evident in many pathways. Cooperative learning favorably impacted emotional sensitivity and ER, while also influencing social sensitivity and expressiveness through CF.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings emphasize the necessity of incorporating ER and CF into educational methodologies, indicating that policies that advocate for cooperative learning can enhance students' emotional and social abilities. The study promotes training programs designed to develop these skills, hence cultivating a supportive learning environment that improves total social competencies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation and Cognitive Flexibility in the Relationship between Cooperative Learning and Social Skills of Students: A Cross-Sectional Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-08 10:29:51","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6632104/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-09-25T10:09:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-07T17:00:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-02T07:10:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"18203524631362845846359679428127018094","date":"2025-09-02T06:31:43+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"71260600205178653077054861217625869435","date":"2025-08-30T13:19:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-08-29T11:24:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"275096862496772842044998626276605300179","date":"2025-08-29T06:32:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-28T13:06:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-25T13:12:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-22T22:52:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-22T22:49:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2025-05-10T03:00:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"77e5f18e-c210-4192-a4cb-2fc96a0be29b","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-01T16:01:16+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6632104","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03649-1","journal":{"identity":"bmc-psychology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"BMC Psychology"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-24 15:57:30","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 24th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-08 10:29:51","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40359-025-03649-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03649-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6632104","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6632104","identity":"rs-6632104","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}