Effects of childhood inter-parent conflict on reactive aggression in emerging adulthood: the role of parental warmth, and emotional dysregulation

Effects of childhood inter-parent conflict on reactive aggression in emerging adulthood: the role of parental warmth, and emotional dysregulation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Method Article Effects of childhood inter-parent conflict on reactive aggression in emerging adulthood: the role of parental warmth, and emotional dysregulation Fangqing Liu, Xiaoshan Yin This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6195416/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract While previous research suggests that interparental conflict (IPC) influences aggression, the mechanisms through which it occurs remain underexplored. This study examines the relationship between childhood exposure to IPC and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood, with a focus on the mediating roles of parental warmth and emotional dysregulation. Data were collected from 152 participants aged 18 to 29, using a combination of well-validated instruments to measure IPC, emotional dysregulation, reactive aggression, and perceived parental warmth from mothers and fathers. Results indicate maternal warmth emerged as a key mediator, especially for females, whereas emotional dysregulation played a stronger mediating role among Chinese participants. Paternal warmth and emotional dysregulation did not significantly mediate the relationship. These findings underscore the protective role of maternal emotional support in mitigating the adverse effects of IPC on aggression, with notable variations across gender and cultural contexts. The study highlights the importance of interventions targeting maternal warmth and emotional regulation, particularly in cultures where emotional suppression is prevalent, to reduce the long-term impact of IPC on aggressive behavior. Inter-parental conflict Reactive aggression Emotional dysregulation Parental warmth Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Inter-parental conflict (IPC), commonly referred to as marital conflict, is a pervasive and multifaceted phenomenon with significant implications for child development. Research has consistently shown that IPC plays a pivotal role in shaping family dynamics and influencing the emotional and psychological well-being of children (Bradford & Barber, 2005 ; Hess, 2021 ; Knopp et al., 2017 ; Kouros et al., 2014 ; Sherrill et al., 2017 ). IPC occurs across various family structures, socioeconomic backgrounds, and cultural contexts, affecting children in diverse ways (Davies et al., 2021). These conflicts may take on different forms, including psychological, physical, and verbal abuse, as well as more subtle manifestations like the silent treatment (“cold war”) or passive aggression (Rakovec-Felser, 2014 ; Zhen et al., 2022; Buehler et al., 1998 ; Li et al., 2011 ). The nature of IPC—whether overt (e.g., shouting, physical violence) or covert (e.g., passive-aggressive behaviors, silent treatment)—has profound effects on children’s emotional development. Overt conflicts create a hostile environment that children may find difficult to escape from, heightening their stress and anxiety (Keller et al., 2009; Luecken & Roubinov, 2012). The intensity and frequency of such confrontations can destabilize a child’s emotional health, leading to heightened fear, anxiety, and stress, which, over time, may manifest as chronic conditions like depression and difficulties with emotional regulation (McLaughlin et al., 2010; Nelson et al., 2020; Loevaas et al., 2018). In contrast, covert forms of conflict, while less visible, can create a persistent atmosphere of tension and insecurity within the household. Children exposed to such underlying hostility may struggle with feelings of guilt, confusion, or emotional abandonment, which can impair their self-esteem and hinder their emotional development (Dagan et al., 2021; Warmuth et al., 2020; Downey & Crummy, 2022). Thus, regardless of the form it takes, prolonged exposure to IPC can lead to long-term detrimental effects on children’s emotional regulation and psychological well-being. A key outcome of disrupted emotional development stemming from IPC exposure is reactive aggression—an emotional response to perceived threats or provocations that often manifests as aggressive behavior (Conner et al., 2019; Lickley & Sebastian, 2018 ; Paulus et al., 2021 ). It is one of the most common forms of aggression observed in adolescents and young adults, and it has been linked to a range of negative outcomes, including impaired social relationships, academic difficulties, and increased likelihood of involvement in criminal or violent behaviors (Almeida et al., 2024; Katembu et al., 2023 ). It has been found to be particularly relevant in understanding the long-term effects of early environmental stressors, such as IPC (see in Girard et al., 2019) and insufficient parental warmth (Wu & Wu, 2024 ). Conceptual framework The relationship between childhood exposure to persistent IPC and the development of aggressive behaviors in young adulthood is well-supported by Social Learning Theory (SLT) (Adhia et al., 2019; Bandura, 2023 ; Salo et al., 2022). SLT posits that aggression is not an innate response, but rather a learned behavior acquired through observing others, particularly primary caregivers such as parents (Bandura, 1977). Children exposed to overt or covert conflict within the family may internalize these aggressive behaviors, replicating them in their own social interactions as they grow older (Harold & Sellers, 2018 ; Zhou et al., 2017). Repeated exposure to parental conflict provides children with multiple opportunities to model negative behaviors. These behaviors may not only include aggression but also maladaptive coping strategies such as withdrawal, emotional disengagement, or other harmful patterns that impair healthy interpersonal relationships (Caspers et al., 2010; Duman & Marfolin, 2007; Jouriles et al., 2014 ). This process of observational learning is well-documented in the literature and underscores the profound influence of family dynamics on long-term social and emotional development (Bandura, 1977). The internalization of these behaviors during childhood can shape patterns of aggression that persist into adolescence and adulthood, affecting peer relationships, emotional regulation, and overall mental well-being. Moreover, the Intergenerational Transmission of Aggression Theory (ITAT) provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding the cyclical nature of aggression across generations (Cappell & Heiner, 1990; Doumas et al., 1994; Margolin et al., 2016 ). ITAT posits that children who witness aggression between parents or experience direct aggression from caregivers are more likely to perpetuate these patterns in their own relationships as adults, including with intimate partners and their children (Cui et al., 2010 ; Margolin et al., 2016 ). The potential mediating effect of parental warmth Previous research has demonstrated that IPC not only undermines the relationship between partners but also has a profound ripple effect on the emotional dynamics within the family. This disruption compromises parents’ ability to provide the warmth and support essential for their children’s emotional development (Davies et al., 2016 ; Harold et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2018). In high-conflict households, parents often struggle to maintain consistent, emotionally responsive, and nurturing behaviors (Morris et al., 2007). The emotional toll of ongoing conflict shifts their focus away from their children’s needs, frequently resulting in reduced parental warmth (Moran et al., 2018 ; Morris et al., 2007). The long-term consequences of this diminished warmth are far-reaching, particularly in the development of children’s emotional regulation and attachment security (Waters et al., 2010). Parenting requires significant emotional regulation and consistent availability to meet children’s needs, including effective nurturing and discipline (Lanjekar et al., 2022). However, persistent IPC depletes parents’ emotional resources, leading to role strain—the overwhelming burden of simultaneously managing partnership and parenting responsibilities (Nomaguchi & Milkie, 2020). The emotional spillover from conflict impairs parents’ emotional availability, rendering them less attuned to their children’s emotional needs. As a result, this strain not only reduces parental warmth but also contributes to inconsistent discipline and erratic caregiving behaviors. Such disruptions leave children emotionally insecure, often struggling with confusion and difficulty in forming healthy attachment patterns. Research has consistently highlighted the critical role of parental warmth in fostering children’s well-being. When present in sufficient amounts, warmth is associated with better emotional and psychological development. In contrast, its absence can significantly hinder children's growth and emotional maturation (Butterfield et al., 2021 ; Moran et al., 2018 ). Specifically, in early childhood, a lack of parental warmth is linked to the development of psychopathic traits and the emergence of aggressive behaviors later in life (Lopez-Romero et al., 2021; Waller et al., 2015 ; Yeh et al., 2011 ). Backman et al. ( 2021 ) further support these findings, revealing a significant negative correlation between both maternal and paternal warmth and the presence of aggression in children. The potential mediating effect of emotion dysregulation Reactive aggression is often impulsive, arising from emotional dysregulation (ED), and triggered by an individual’s inability to manage emotions in response to stress or perceived injustice. Therefore, it is essential to examine the role of ED in the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood. ED is characterized by difficulties in the flexible management and modulation of emotions (Carpenter & Trull, 2013 ; Cole et al., 1994 ; Paulus et al., 2021 ). Over the years, research has identified several key features of ED, including heightened sensitivity to emotional stimuli (Cisler et al., 2010 ; Paley & Hajal, 2022 ), the experience of intense negative emotions, and a lack of effective emotional self-regulation strategies (Dadomo et al., 2016 ). Additionally, individuals with ED often resort to maladaptive coping mechanisms, further exacerbating their emotional challenges (Paulus et al., 2021 ). Chronic exposure to IPC during childhood is a significant factor that can precipitate or exacerbate ED, undermining the child’s ability to manage emotions constructively (Cooley et al., 2019 ; Davies et al., 2002 ; Paulus et al., 2021 ; Rhoades, 2008 ). According to Emotional Security Theory (EST), the emotional instability caused by IPC disrupts children’s ability to regulate emotions effectively, thereby compromising their emotional security (Cummings & Davies, 1994 ; Davies et al., 2002 ; Harold et al., 2004 ). As a result, children who experience high levels of IPC may struggle to process and respond to emotional triggers healthily as they grow older. This ED does not only result from IPC; it also serves as a key pathway through which IPC influences the development of future aggression. Children raised in high-conflict environments often develop impaired emotional regulatory skills, which make them more vulnerable to reactive aggression when faced with stressful or provocative situations in adulthood. The mediating roles of parental warmth and emotion dysregulation are not isolated; they interact in complex ways that amplify the effects of IPC on aggression. When parental warmth is low, children are more vulnerable to emotional dysregulation, which in turn heightens the risk of reactive aggression. State of the literature The existing research on the relationship between IPC and the development of reactive aggression in children remains incomplete. Only two empirical studies (Marcus et al., 2001; Pendry et al., 2013) have specifically examined this relationship. While these studies offer valuable insights, they do not explore the mediational mechanisms through which IPC influences aggression. A recent meta-analysis (Li et al., 2023), summarizing findings from 35 studies on IPC and aggression in adolescents, further underscores this gap as most studies fail to address long-term developmental outcomes or the mediators that might explain the IPC-aggression relationship. Moreover, Pendry et al. (2013) provides additional insights by discussing how children’s presence during psychologically aggressive IPC intensifies their maladjustment, including aggression and emotional regulation issues. While they explore parental involvement and parent-child relationships as influencing factors, the study does not directly test these as mediators between IPC and aggressive outcomes in children. The focus is still on the direct associations, leaving a significant gap in understanding the specific mechanisms that drive child aggression. The present study Examining the impact of IPC during emerging adulthood is critical, as this developmental period involves significant transitions that shape future emotional health, identity, and relationships (Keller et al., 2007 ). Guided by the conceptual framework of processing within the affectively laden context of IPC (Harold & Sellers, 2018 ), our study aims to fill an important gap in the literature by investigating the role of perceived parental warmth and ED as potential mediators in the relationship between childhood IPC and reactive aggression in young adulthood. To explore this, the current study had two primary objectives. First, we sought to investigate the direct link between exposure to IPC and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood. Based on prior research, we hypothesized that higher levels of IPC exposure would be associated with increased levels of reactive aggression in adulthood. Second, we aimed to examine the potential mediating factors underlying this relationship. Specifically, we hypothesized a serial mediation model, in which increased exposure to IPC would indirectly contribute to heightened reactive aggression through intermediary processes, namely perceived parental warmth and emotional dysregulation. By testing this model, we hope to better understand the pathways through which childhood experiences of IPC influence aggression in emerging adulthood. Methods Participants For this study, participants were required to be adults aged between 18 and 29 years and fluent in either English or Mandarin. This age range was chosen to specifically examine young adults, a developmental stage characterized by distinct experiences that align with the study’s objectives. A total of 152 participants were included, with 70.39% identifying as female and 29.61% as male. The majority of participants (85.91%) were from China, while 14.09% were from the UK. Regarding their living arrangements during childhood, most participants (80.27%) lived with both parents, 13.61% lived with a single parent, and 6.12% resided with other relatives. The participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 29 years, with a mean age of 23.11 years (SD = 2.55) (see in Table 1). Multiple methods were employed to recruit participants from the UK and China. We primarily reached potential participants by posting advertisements on relevant online platforms and community bulletin boards. In these advertisements, the purpose of the study, eligibility requirements were clearly stated. The snowball sampling strategy was also used as a supplement. The whole set of questionnaires was distributed online. After the participants read the relevant information and decided to participate in the study, they scanned the QR code on the flyer and was directed to the online survey. Each subject was provided with a detailed consent form at the beginning of survey, which clearly outlined the objectives of the survey, the methodology involved, and how the data collected from them would be used and protected. Measurements Children’s Perception of Interpersonal Conflict Scale (CPIC) (Grych& Fincham, 1992) The instrument we used to measure IPC is CPIC, a scale includes 48 items assessing the frequency, intensity, and resolution of IPC (e.g., “I often see or hear my parents arguing.”). Items are rated with higher scores reflecting higher levels of IPC. For this study, the instruction was specifically modified for young adults (aged 18-29) to assess their memories of IPC that occurred during childhood. Multiple studies have examined its use for emerging adults recall their parents’ behavior and achieved great reliability and validity (Bickham & Fiese, 1997; Cusimano & Riggs, 2013; Hagan et al., 2014; Moura et al., 2010; ReeseWeber & Hesson-McInnis, 2008; Simon & Furman, 2010). Brief E motional Dysregulation Scale (BEDS) (Wycoff et al., 2023) The instrument we used to measure the ED is BEDS. It specifically evaluates four key components: sensitivity, which measures an individual’s threshold for emotional responsiveness; lability, which gauges the stability of one’s emotional experiences; reactivity, which assesses the intensity of emotional responses; and consequences, which examines the impact of these emotions on an individual’s functioning (Zelkowitz & Cole, 2016). The scale consists of 12 items that are intended to capture the breadth of emotion regulation challenges succinctly. The Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire-Reactive Aggression Subscale (RPQ-R) (Raine et al.,2006) RPQ-R is a refined instrument of the Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) that specifically measures the reactive dimension of aggressive behavior. The RPQ-R’s 23 items are carefully crafted to reflect instances of anger-driven aggression, such as aggressive responses to frustration or an inability to control one’s temper. Each item is rated on a 3-point ordinal scale—'never' (0 points), 'sometimes' (1 point), and 'often' (2 points). The questionnaire has been validated for use with youth in late adolescence and young adults (Pechorro et al. in 2017), confirming its reliability and relevance for this age group. The Parental Acceptance- Rejection Questionnaire (Rohner & Ali, 2020) The inventory we used to measure the parental warmth level is PARQ. It is a 48-item survey assessed on a four-point scale. Notably, the PARQ includes both a paternal and a maternal version, allowing for the assessment of the child’s perceived warmth from each parent separately. Reliability and Validity Analysis for Measurements Cronbach’s alpha values for each scale in the current study were as follows: CPIC (.85), RPQ-R (.82), PARQ maternal warmth (.88) and paternal warmth (.85), and BEDS (.83). These values are consistent with those reported in prior research (Rohner & Ali, 2020; Raine et al., 2006; Wycoff et al., 2023), indicating good internal consistency for all measures. The convergent validity of each scale has been established, with correlation coefficients as follows: CPIC (.55), RPQ-R (.67), BEDS (.60), PARQ maternal warmth (.65), and PARQ paternal warmth (.55). Ethical Approval Statement The study was approved by the Ethics Review Committee at the University. Patient Consent Statement All participants have given informed consent to participate in the research. Statistical Analysis Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to examine the direct and mediated effects of childhood IPC on reactive aggression in adulthood. The total IPC score, derived from 48 items measuring various IPC dimensions, served as the independent variable, while the total reactive aggression score was the dependent variable. Mediation was tested through three distinct mediators: ED, maternal parental warmth, and paternal parental warmth, allowing us to assess the unique contributions of each parent’s warmth to child development. Descriptive statistics were computed for baseline variables, including country (China vs. UK), gender (0 = male, 1 = female), and living arrangements (1 = both parents, 2 = one parent, 3 = other relatives). Continuous variables were summarized with means or medians and standard deviations or ranges, while frequencies and percentages were reported for categorical variables. The direct relationship between IPC and reactive aggression was assessed using univariate linear regression and correlation analysis. SEM was employed to evaluate the hypothesized model, including both direct paths from IPC to reactive aggression and indirect paths through the mediators. Model fit was assessed using multiple indices: the Chi-square statistic, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI). These indices provided a comprehensive evaluation of model validity. For hypothesis testing, a p-value threshold of 0.05 was used to determine statistical significance. This conventional threshold was chosen to balance the risk of Type I and Type II errors, ensuring robust inference while maintaining reasonable sensitivity to detect meaningful effects. Subgroup analyses based on gender was conducted to examine potential variations in the SEM model across these groups. This approach allowed for the comparison of path coefficients and model fit indices between subgroups. Results were interpreted by evaluating the significance and magnitude of path coefficients and assessing model fit across subgroups. All analyses were performed using Stata 18.0 (StataCorp, 2022). Missing Data Handling To address missing data, we first examined the pattern and extent of missingness using the misstable summarize command in Stata. This analysis confirmed that the data were Missing at Random (MAR), a key assumption for applying advanced missing data techniques. Based on this assumption, we employed Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) estimation to handle missing data. FIML is a robust method that uses all available data to estimate model parameters, minimizing bias and preserving statistical power. Additionally, we conducted a comparative analysis to ensure that there were no significant differences between participants with missing data and those with complete data on any of the variables included in the regression model. This analysis confirmed that the missing data mechanism did not introduce systematic bias, further supporting the use of FIML. Results Main effects of IPC and reactive aggression in adulthood Correlation analyses were conducted to examine relationships among key variables. While the total IPC score showed a positive correlation with reactive aggression (r = 0.1965, p = 0.153 ), this result did not reach statistical significance after controlling for Type I error. In contrast, IPC was significantly correlated with ED (r = 0.2204, p = 0.0064), suggesting that conflict between parents may disrupt children’s emotional regulation abilities. Additionally, the IPC total score showed a significant positive correlation with maternal warmth (r = 0.2093, p = 0.0096), whereas the correlation with paternal warmth was not significant (r = 0.2065, p = 0.107). Given the latter result’s p-value exceeding the adjusted threshold for significance, it should not be interpreted as evidence of a meaningful relationship. Similarly, reactive aggression was strongly correlated with maternal warmth (r = 0.4663, p < 0.001) and paternal warmth (r = 0.4077, p < 0.001), both of which remained significant after correction for multiple comparisons. These findings suggest that higher levels of reactive aggression are associated with heightened perceptions of parental warmth from both parents. While this association may initially appear counterintuitive, it may reflect underlying family dynamics, such as heightened emotional responsiveness to parents’ expressiveness or involvement (see Table 3). Mediating effects of parental warmth and ED The SEM analysis identified significant mediation effects. Maternal warmth significantly mediated the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression (coefficient = 0.080, SE = 0.026, Z = 3.06, p = 0.002). In contrast, neither ED (p = 0.745) nor paternal warmth (p = 0.514) were found to be significant mediators, and thus these factors should not be considered meaningful contributors to the model (see Table 4).The model fit indices indicated an excellent fit to the observed data (AIC = 5966.60, BIC = 6021.03, χ² = 0, RMSEA = 0, CFI = 1, TLI = 1). However, given the relatively small sample size, caution is warranted in interpreting these findings. Future research with larger, more diverse samples is needed to validate these results (see Fig. 1 ). Subgroup Analysis Although exploratory due to the small sample size, the subgroup analyses provided valuable insights into gender in the mediation effects of IPC on reactive aggression. Subgroup analyses by gender revealed distinct patterns in the mediation effects of IPC on reactive aggression. For males, mother-focused parental warmth significantly mediated the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression (coefficient = 0.0769, SE = 0.038, p = 0.043), suggesting that maternal warmth may help buffer the effects of IPC on reactive aggression. In contrast, no significant mediation effects were found for father-focused parental warmth (coefficient = 0.0042, SE = 0.0428, p = 0.922) or ED (coefficient = 0.0107, SE = 0.0757, p = 0.887), indicating these factors did not significantly influence the relationship in male participants (see Appendix I). In females, the mediating effect of mother-focused parental warmth was even stronger (coefficient = 0.0869, SE = 0.0362, p = 0.016). However, ED (coefficient = 0.0162, SE = 0.0636, p = 0.799) and father-focused parental warmth (coefficient = 0.0154, SE = 0.0325, p = 0.635) did not significantly mediate the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression. The model fit statistics for both male and female subgroups were excellent, indicating that the structural equation models were well-suited to the data for each gender. Discussion This study advances prior research on the intergenerational transmission of aggression within families (Li et al., 2023) by examining the relationship between IPC in childhood and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood. Our findings deepen the understanding of how early family dynamics shape aggressive behaviors in later life, particularly through the mechanisms of ED and parental warmth. Consistent with our hypothesis, we found an association between childhood exposure to IPC and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood. Our findings are in line with established theories on aggression, particularly the intergenerational transmission of violence (Black et al., 2010 ; Margolin et al., 2015). Both parents contribute to the development of reactive aggression in children, a process explained by social learning theory, which emphasizes two types of modeling: generalized and specific (Bandura, 1977). Generalized modeling suggests that exposure to aggression may not directly correlate with the exact form of aggression displayed in future generations, while specific modeling refers to the reproduction of the aggression witnessed within the family (Galanaki et al., 2022). Our results provide robust support for the latter, highlighting the specific ways in which aggression is transmitted across generations through learned behaviors. Although the positive correlation between IPC and reactive aggression was not statistically significant, a discernible trend was observed, suggesting that children exposed to higher levels of IPC may demonstrate a propensity for increased reactive aggression in later developmental stages. This trend aligns with theoretical perspectives indicating that chronic exposure to high-conflict environments may impair children’s capacity to effectively regulate anger and frustration, potentially predisposing them to aggressive behavioral responses. While the current data do not establish a definitive causal relationship, this observed trend highlights a potentially meaningful association warranting further empirical exploration in subsequent studies. In contrast, the positive correlation between IPC and ED reached statistical significance, providing robust evidence that IPC adversely impacts children’s ability to regulate emotions. Emotional dysregulation, characterized by difficulties in managing emotional responses, is often associated with impulsive behaviors such as emotional outbursts or aggression. This significant relationship reinforces the hypothesis that frequent exposure to interparental conflict may disrupt the development of adaptive emotional coping mechanisms, thereby elevating the risk of emotional instability and related behavioral challenges in later life. Perceived Parental Warmth: A Paradoxical Finding One of the most intriguing findings in this study was the positive correlation between IPC and perceived maternal warmth, a result that might seem counterintuitive at first glance. Traditionally, one might expect that higher levels of conflict would diminish perceptions of warmth within the family. However, our results suggest that children exposed to IPC may still perceive high levels of warmth, particularly from the mother. This finding likely reflects the complexity of family dynamics in high-conflict households. A potential explanation is that children may interpret their parents’ emotional expressiveness or heightened involvement in response to conflict as warmth. This interpretation underscores the nuanced ways in which children process emotional cues from their parents, even in the presence of conflict. Moreover, the emotional intensity present during conflict can lead to increased emotional involvement from parents. For example, in response to conflict, a mother might try to emotionally “repair” the relationship by showing more affection, reassurance, or involvement. These behaviors can be interpreted by the child as warmth. Additionally, some parents might consciously or unconsciously compensate for the stress and tension of conflict by providing more affection and attention, trying to maintain emotional balance in the family. This could be especially true for mothers who may adopt a nurturing role to mitigate the negative effects of conflict. The strong positive correlations between reactive aggression and perceived parental warmth from both the mother and the father are also noteworthy. One might initially expect that more parental warmth would reduce aggression, but the findings suggest a different possibility. In families with high parental involvement or emotional expressiveness, children may exhibit heightened emotional reactivity—both positive and negative. This could explain the correlation between warmth and aggression. Another interpretation is that children who display more reactive aggression may elicit more emotional responses from their parents, which could be perceived as warmth. In high-conflict households, this emotionally charged atmosphere might lead children to interpret these intense exchanges as signs of closeness, even when the emotions expressed include aggression. Mediating Effects of Parental Warmth and Emotional Dysregulation As hypothesized, the SEM analysis revealed that maternal warmth significantly mediated the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression. This robust mediating effect highlights the critical role of maternal warmth in buffering the negative impacts of IPC, emphasizing the importance of maternal emotional support in mitigating children’s aggressive behaviors. Interestingly, neither ED nor paternal warmth significantly mediated the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression. This outcome may reflect the distinct emotional and relational dynamics within families, where maternal warmth has a more pronounced effect on children’s emotional and behavioral outcomes compared to paternal warmth. These findings align with several theoretical frameworks. Attachment theory posits that early interactions with caregivers form the basis of emotional security and attachment styles (Bowlby, 1973; Dugan et al., 2024 ). Mothers are often primary caregivers whose emotional availability is crucial to secure attachment (Bornstein et al., 2012 ). Low maternal warmth can lead to insecure or anxious attachment styles, linked to higher aggression as individuals react more defensively and aggressively to perceived threats (Maalouf et al., 2022 ). Previous research indicates that maternal warmth is crucial for emotional development and regulation, especially in the context of family conflict (see in Zhang et al., 2024 ). The stronger effect in females may reflect gender-specific socialization practices, where females receive more emotional support and nurturing from mothers, thus buffering the negative impacts of IPC more effectively. Children’ gender differences in socialization practices might also play a role. Previous research suggests that girls receive more emotional support from mothers (Brown et al., 2015), making maternal warmth particularly influential for females in mitigating the impacts of IPC. However, our analysis does not differentiate by gender, and future studies should explore these potential differences for more nuanced insights. Contrary to the previous hypothesis, the lack of mediation by ED may be explained by the presence of compensatory mechanisms that mitigate the impact of ED on aggressive behaviors (Aldao et al., 2009). These compensatory strategies can include strong social support systems, such as peers or extended family members, which provide a buffer against the emotional challenges posed by ED (Yule et al., 2019 ). When children or adolescents have access to supportive relationships outside of their immediate family, they may develop resilience, enabling them to manage their emotional reactions more effectively. Moreover, certain personality traits such as emotional stability or conscientiousness may play a protective role, as individuals with higher emotional stability are better equipped to manage their emotional responses, even in the face of ED (Oshio et al., 2018 ). The individual’s specific childhood experiences may also shape how ED impacts their development. For example, children exposed to different levels of trauma, neglect, or consistent family conflict may exhibit different levels of emotional sensitivity, which could either amplify or reduce the effect of ED on aggression (Marshall et al., 2018). In some cases, early life experiences could foster greater emotional resilience, minimizing the expected link between ED and aggression (Švecová et al., 2023). Additionally, the role of ED might vary significantly depending on the child’s developmental stage (Paulus et al., 2021 ). As children mature, however, their cognitive and emotional abilities evolve, allowing them to develop more sophisticated ways of regulating emotions. In adolescence, for example, peers and personal coping strategies may take on greater importance, potentially reducing the influence of parental warmth or ED as direct mediators of aggressive behavior. It is also important to consider that ED could be more strongly linked to internalizing rather than externalizing behaviors such as aggression. Previous research suggests that ED may lead to anxiety, depression, or withdrawal rather than overtly aggressive behaviors, especially in certain cultural or familial contexts (Kring & Werner, 2004). This would explain the lack of a mediating effect on aggression, as ED may manifest in different behavioral outcomes depending on the individual’s context and coping strategies. Limitation and Future Directions Nonetheless, the current findings also need to be considered in the context of several limitations. First, the reliance on self-reported measures might introduce bias and affect the accuracy of the reported IPC and aggression levels. Secondly, we employed a retrospective methodology. Retrospective studies have been demonstrated to possess considerable reliability (Thiese, 2014 ; Tofthagen, 2012 ), however, they still have a risk of recall bias. Future studies should use prospective methodology as a supplementary. Thirdly, the cross-sectional nature of this study limits our ability to draw causal inferences. Longitudinal designs would be better suited to ascertain the directionality of the relationships among parental warmth, ED, and reactive aggression. Addressing these limitations in future research will enhance our understanding of the complex interplay between parental behaviors and children’s aggression, thereby supporting more effective preventions to mitigate aggressive behaviors in youth. Prevention Implications The findings of this study have important implications for the prevention of reactive aggression in emerging adulthood, particularly for individuals who have experienced childhood exposure to IPC. Since maternal warmth was found to significantly buffer the negative effects of IPC on aggression, interventions aimed at enhancing emotional support from mothers may prove to be particularly effective. Programs designed to help mothers develop and maintain emotional availability and sensitivity, especially in high-conflict family environments, could mitigate the impact of IPC on children’s emotional development. For broader societal impact, encouraging the development of emotional resilience in both parents and children through skills training in emotional regulation and coping strategies could provide an additional layer of protection against the detrimental effects of IPC. Declarations Declaration of interest statement The authors declare no conflict of interest. Data Availability Statement The raw data, analysis code, and materials used in this study are not openly available but are available upon request to the corresponding author. References Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical psychology review, 30(2), 217–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004 Arnett J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood. A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. The American psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. Backman, H., Laajasalo, T., Jokela, M. et al. Parental Warmth and Hostility and the Development of Psychopathic Behaviors: A Longitudinal Study of Young Offenders. J Child Fam Stud 30, 955–965 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-01921-7 Bandura, A. (2023). Social Cognitive Theory. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394259069 Bedi G., Goddard C. (2007). Intimate partner violence: what are the impacts on children? Aust. Psychol. 42, 66–77. 10.1080/00050060600726296 Black, D. S., Sussman, S., & Unger, J. B. (2010). A further look at the intergenerational transmission of violence: witnessing interparental violence in emerging adulthood. Journal of interpersonal violence, 25(6), 1022–1042. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509340539 Bonanno, G. A., & Diminich, E. D. (2013). Annual Research Review: Positive adjustment to adversity--trajectories of minimal-impact resilience and emergent resilience. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 54(4), 378–401. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12021 Bonnie, R. J., Stroud, C., Breiner, H. (Eds.). (2015). Investing in the health and well- being of young adults. National Academies Press. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK284782/ Boothroyd, L. G., & Cross, C. P. (2017). Father absence and gendered traits in sons and daughters. PloS one, 12(7), e0179954. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179954 Bornstein, M. H., Suwalsky, J. T., & Breakstone, D. A. (2012). Emotional relationships between mothers and infants: knowns, and unknown. Development and psychopathology, 24(1), 113–123. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000708 Boroş, S., van Gorp, L., & Boiger, M. (2019). When Holding in Prevents From Reaching Out: Emotion Suppression and Social Support-Seeking in Multicultural Groups. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 2431. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02431 Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss. Hogarth P. Bradford, K., & Barber, B. K. (2005). IPC as intrusive family process. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 5(2-3), 143–167. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v05n02_07 Brock, R. L., & Kochanska, G. (2016). IPC, children’s security with parents, and long- term risk of internalizing problems: A longitudinal study from ages 2 to 10. Development and Psychopathology, 28(1), 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000279Brown, G. L., Craig, A. B., & Halberstadt, A. G. (2015). Parent Gender Differences in Emotion Socialization Behaviors Vary by Ethnicity and Child Gender. Parenting, science and practice , 15 (3), 135–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2015.1053312 Brummert Lennings, H. I., & Bussey, K. (2017). The mediating role of coping self- efficacy beliefs on the relationship between parental conflict and child psychological adjustment. Social Development, 26(4), 753–766. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12241 Buehler, C., Krishnakumar, A., Stone, G., Anthony, C., Pemberton, S., Gerard, J., & Barber, B. K. (1998). IPC Styles and Youth Problem Behaviors: A Two-Sample Replication Study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 60(1), 119–132. https://doi.org/10.2307/353446 Bush K., Peterson G. (2013). “Parent–child relationships in diverse contexts”, in Handbook of Marriage and the Family, eds Peterson G., Bush K. (Boston, MA: Springer;), 275–302. 10.1007/978-1-4614-3987-5_13 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] Butterfield, R. D., Silk, J. S., Lee, K. H., Siegle, G. S., Dahl, R. E., Forbes, E. E., Ryan,N. D., Hooley, J. M., & Ladouceur, C. D. (2021). Parents still matter! Parental warmth predicts adolescent brain function and anxiety and depressive symptoms 2 years later. Development and psychopathology, 33(1), 226–239. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419001718 Carpenter, R. W., & Trull, T. J. (2013). Components of ED in borderline personality disorder: a review. Current psychiatry reports, 15(1), 335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2 Chaudhry, M.K., & Shabbir, F. (2018). Perceived inter-parental conflict and aggression among adolescents: Moderating role of optimism and pessimism. Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences. Cisler, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., Feldner, M. T., & Forsyth, J. P. (2010). Emotion Regulation and the anxiety disorders: An Integrative Review. Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 32(1), 68–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1 Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Laureen O’Donnell Teti. (1994). The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: A Clinical Perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2/3), 73–100. https://doi.org/10.2307/1166139Connor, D. F., Newcorn, J. H., Saylor, K. E., Amann, B. H., Scahill, L., Robb, A. S., Jensen, P. S., Vitiello, B., Findling, R. L., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2019). Maladaptive Aggression: With a Focus on Impulsive Aggression in Children and Adolescents. Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology , 29 (8), 576–591. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2019.0039 Cooley, J. L., Ritschel, L. A., Frazer, A. L., & Blossom, J. B. (2019). The Influence of Internalizing Symptoms and ED on the Association Between Witnessed Community Violence and Aggression Among Urban Adolescents. Child psychiatry and human development, 50(6), 883–893. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-019-00890-9 Cui, M., Durtschi, J. A., Donnellan, M. B., Lorenz, F. O., & Conger, R. D. (2010). Intergenerational transmission of relationship aggression: a prospective longitudinal study. Journal of family psychology: JFP: journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 24(6), 688–697. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021675 Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. (1994). Children and marital conflict: The impact of family dispute and resolution. Guilford Press. Cusimano, A. M., & Riggs, S. A. (2013). Perceptions of IPC, romantic attachment, and psychological distress in college students. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 2(1), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031657 Dadomo, H., Grecucci, A., Giardini, I., Ugolini, E., Carmelita, A., & Panzeri, M. (2016). Schema Therapy for ED: Theoretical Implication and Clinical Applications. Frontiers in psychology, 7, 1987. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01987 Davies, P. T., Harold, G. T., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Cummings, E. M., Shelton, K., Rasi, J. A., & Jenkins, J. M. (2002). Child Emotional Security and IPC. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(3), i–127. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3181513 Davies, P. T., Hentges, R. F., Coe, J. L., Martin, M. J., Sturge-Apple, M. L., & Cummings, E. M. (2016). The multiple faces of IPC: Implications for cascades of children's insecurity and externalizing problems. Journal of abnormal psychology, 125(5), 664–678. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000170 Dugan, K. A., Fraley, R. C., Gillath, O., & Deboeck, P. R. (2024). Testing the canalization hypothesis of attachment theory: Examining within-subject variation in attachment security. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 126(3), 511–541. Duman, S., & Margolin, G. (2007). Parents' aggressive influences and children’s aggressive problem solutions with peers. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology: the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 36(1), 42–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410709336567 Egondi, T., Kabiru, C., Beguy, D., Kanyiva, M., & Jessor, R. (2013). Adolescent home- leaving and the transition to adulthood: A psychosocial and behavioural study in the slums of Nairobi. International journal of behavioral development, 37(4), 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025413479299 Etkin, R. G., Koss, K. J., Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2014). The differential impact of parental warmth on externalizing problems among triangulated adolescents. The Journal of genetic psychology, 175(1-2), 118–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2013.813437 Fite, P. J., Raine, A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. A. (2009) (a). REACTIVE AND PROACTIVE AGGRESSION IN ADOLESCENT MALES: Examining Differential Outcomes 10 Years Later in Early Adulthood. Criminal justice and behavior, 37(2), 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809353051 Fite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2009) (b). Proactive and reactive aggression in a child psychiatric inpatient population. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology: the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 38(2), 199–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802698461 Frosch, C. A., Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., & O'Banion, D. D. (2019). Parenting and Child Development: A Relational Health Perspective. American journal of lifestyle medicine, 15(1), 45–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827619849028 Galanaki, E., & Malafantis, K. D. (2022). Albert Bandura's experiments on aggression modeling in children: A psychoanalytic critique. Frontiers in psychology , 13 , 988877. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.988877 Germán, M., Gonzales, N. A., McClain, D. B., Dumka, L., & Millsap, R. (2013). Maternal Warmth Moderates the Link between Harsh Discipline and Later Externalizing Behaviors for Mexican American Adolescents. Parenting, science and practice, 13(3), 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2013.756353 Grych, J. H., Seid, M., & Fincham, F. D. (1992). Assessing marital conflict from the child's perspective: The Children's Perception of IPC Scale. Child Development, 63(3), 558–572. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131346 Grygier, T., Chesley, J., & Tuters, E. W. (1969). Parental deprivation: A study of delinquent children. The British Journal of Criminology, 9(3), 209-253. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a049239 Gunkel, M., Schlaegel, C., & Taras, V. (2015). “cultural values, emotional intelligence, and conflict handling styles: A global study.” Academy of Management Proceedings, 2015(1), 10708. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2015.10708abstract Hagan, M. J., Roubinov, D. S., Purdom Marreiro, C. L., & Luecken, L. J. (2014). Childhood IPC and HPA axis activity in emerging adulthood: examining nonlinear relations. Developmental psychobiology, 56(4), 871–880. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21157 Harold, G. T., & Sellers, R. (2018). Annual Research Review: IPC and youth psychopathology: an evidence review and practice focused update. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 59(4), 374–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12893 Harold, G. T., Shelton, K. H., Goeke‐Morey, M. C., & Cummings, E. M. (2004). Marital conflict, child emotional security about family relationships and child adjustment. Social Development, 13(3), 350–376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.00272.x Hess, S. (2021). Effects of inter-parental conflict on children’s social well-being and the mediation role of parenting behavior. Applied Research in Quality of Life. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-10022-y Jouriles, E. N., Rosenfield, D., McDonald, R., & Mueller, V. (2014). Child involvement in IPC and child adjustment problems: a longitudinal study of violent families. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 42(5), 693–704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013- 9821-1 Kalmuss, D. (1984). The Intergenerational Transmission of Marital Aggression. Journal of Marriage and Family, 46(1), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.2307/351858 Katembu, S., Zahedi, A., & Sommer, W. (2023). Childhood trauma and violent behavior in adolescents are differentially related to cognitive-emotional deficits. Frontiers in public health , 11 , 1001132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1001132 Keller, T. E., Cusick, G. R., & Courtney, M. E. (2007). Approaching the Transition to Adulthood: Distinctive Profiles of Adolescents Aging out of the Child Welfare System. The Social service review, 81(3), 453–484. https://doi.org/10.1086/519536 Knopp K, Rhoades GK, Allen ES, Parsons A, Ritchie LL, Markman HJ, Stanley SM. Within- and Between-Family Associations of Marital Functioning and Child Well-being. J Marriage Fam. 2017 Apr;79(2):451-461. doi: 10.1111/jomf.12373. Epub 2016 Sep 28. PMID: 28392583; PMCID: PMC5382797. Kouros CD, Papp LM, Goeke-Morey MC, Cummings EM. Spillover between marital quality and parent-child relationship quality: parental depressive symptoms as moderators. J Fam Psychol. 2014 Jun;28(3):315-25. doi: 10.1037/a0036804. Epub 2014 May 12. PMID: 24821519; PMCID: PMC4543369. Li, Y., Putallaz, M., & Su, Y. (2011). IPC Styles and Parenting Behaviors: Associations With Overt and Relational Aggression Among Chinese Children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 57(4), 402–428. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23098032 Lickley, R. A., & Sebastian, C. L. (2018). The neural basis of reactive aggression and its development in adolescence. Psychology, Crime & Law, 24 (3), 313–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2017.1420187 Lippold, M. A., Hussong, A., Fosco, G. M., & Ram, N. (2018). Lability in the parent's hostility and warmth toward their adolescent: Linkages to youth delinquency and substance use. Developmental psychology, 54(2), 348–361. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000415 López-Romero, L., Cutrín, O., Maneiro, L., Domínguez-Álvarez, B., & Romero, E. (2021). Psychopathic Traits in Childhood: Insights from Parental Warmth and Fearless Temperament via Conscience Development. Brain sciences, 11(7), 923. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11070923 Maalouf, E., Salameh, P., Haddad, C., Sacre, H., Hallit, S., & Obeid, S. (2022). Attachment styles and their association with aggression, hostility, and anger in Lebanese adolescents: a national study. BMC psychology, 10(1), 104. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00813-9 Manning, L. G., Davies, P. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2014). Interparental violence and childhood adjustment: how and why maternal sensitivity is a protective factor. Child development, 85(6), 2263–2278. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12279 Marceau, K., Zahn-Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., Schreiber, J. E., Hastings, P., & Klimes- Dougan, B. (2015). Adolescents', mothers', and fathers' gendered coping strategies during conflict: Youth and parent influences on conflict resolution and psychopathology. Development and psychopathology, 27(4 Pt 1), 1025–1044. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000668 Margolin, G., Ramos, M. C., Timmons, A. C., Miller, K. F., & Han, S. C. (2016). Intergenerational Transmission of Aggression: Physiological Regulatory Processes. Child development perspectives, 10(1), 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12156 McNeil, E. B. (1959). Psychology and Aggression. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 3(3), 195–293. http://www.jstor.org/stable/172982 Moran, K. M., Turiano, N. A., & Gentzler, A. L. (2018). Parental warmth during childhood predicts coping and well-being in adulthood. Journal of family psychology: JFP : journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 32(5), 610–621. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000401 Moura, O., dos Santos, R. A., Rocha, M., & Matos, P. M. (2010). Children’s perception of Interparental Conflict Scale (CPIC): Factor structure and invariance across adolescents and emerging adults. International Journal of Testing, 10(4), 364–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/15305058.2010.487964 Nicolaus, C., Kress, V., Kopp, M., & Garthus-Niegel, S. (2021). The Impact of Parental Relationship Satisfaction on Infant Development: Results From the Population-Based Cohort Study DREAM. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 667577. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.667577 Oshio, A., Taku, K., Hirano, M., & Saeed, G. (2018). Resilience and Big Five personality traits: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 127, 54–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.01.048 Paley, B., Hajal, N.J. Conceptualizing Emotion Regulation and Coregulation as Family- Level Phenomena. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 25, 19–43 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-022-00378-4 Paulus, F. W., Ohmann, S., Möhler, E., Plener, P., & Popow, C. (2021). Emotional Dysregulation in Children and Adolescents With Psychiatric Disorders. A Narrative Review. Frontiers in psychiatry , 12 , 628252. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.628252 Paulus, F. W., Ohmann, S., Möhler, E., Plener, P., & Popow, C. (2021). ED in Children and Adolescents With Psychiatric Disorders. A Narrative Review. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 628252. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.628252 Pechorro, P., Ray, J. V., Raine, A., Maroco, J., & Gonçalves, R. A. (2017). The Reactive–Proactive Aggression Questionnaire: Validation Among a Portuguese Sample of Incarcerated Juvenile Delinquents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(13), 1995- 2017. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515590784 Raine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Liu, J. (2006). The Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire: Differential Correlates of Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Adolescent Boys. Aggressive behavior, 32(2), 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20115 Rakovec-Felser Z. (2014). Domestic Violence and Abuse in Intimate Relationship from Public Health Perspective. Health psychology research, 2(3), 1821. https://doi.org/10.4081/hpr.2014.1821 Ramos, A. M., Shewark, E. A., Fosco, G. M., Shaw, D. S., Reiss, D., Natsuaki, M. N., Leve, L. D., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2022). Reexamining the association between the interparental relationship and parent-child interactions: Incorporating heritable influences. Developmental psychology, 58(1), 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001278 Reese-Weber, M., & Hesson-McInnis, M. (2008). The Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale: Comparing Factor Structures between Developmental Periods. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 68(6), 1008-1023. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164408318765 Rhoades K. A. (2008). Children's responses to IPC: a meta-analysis of their associations with child adjustment. Child development, 79(6), 1942–1956. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01235.x Richardson, E., Beath, A. & Boag, S. Default defenses: the character defenses of attachment-anxiety and attachment-avoidance. Curr Psychol 42, 28755–28770 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03919-w Rohner, R. P., & Britner, P. A. (2002). Worldwide Mental Health Correlates of Parental Acceptance-Rejection: Review of Cross-Cultural and Intracultural Evidence. Cross- Cultural Research, 36(1), 16-47. https://doi.org/10.1177/106939710203600102 Rohner, R.P., Ali, S. (2020). Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ). In: Zeigler-Hill, V., Shackelford, T.K. (eds) Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_56 Scales, P. C., Benson, P. L., Oesterle, S., Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., & Pashak, T. J. (2015). The dimensions of successful young adult development: A conceptual and measurement framework. Applied developmental science, 20(3), 150–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2015.1082429 Sherrill RB, Lochman JE, DeCoster J, Stromeyer SL. Spillover between IPC and parent- child conflict within and across days. J Fam Psychol. 2017 Oct;31(7):900-909. doi: 10.1037/fam0000332. Epub 2017 Jun 8. PMID: 28594199; PMCID: PMC5662492. Simon, V. A., & Furman, W. (2010). IPC and Adolescents' Romantic Relationship Conflict. Journal of research on adolescence: the official journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 20(1), 188–209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532- 7795.2009.00635.x StataCorp. (2022). Stata Statistical Software: Release 18. StataCorp LLC. Steele, L. G., & Lynch, S. M. (2013). The Pursuit of Happiness in China: Individualism, Collectivism, and Subjective Well-Being during China's Economic and Social Transformation*. Social indicators research, 114(2), 10.1007/s11205-012-0154-1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0154-1 Thiese M. S. (2014). Observational and interventional study design types; an overview. Biochemia medica, 24(2), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2014.022 Tofthagen C. (2012). Threats to validity in retrospective studies. Journal of the advanced practitioner in oncology, 3(3), 181–183. Vicedo, M. (2011). The social nature of the mother's tie to her child: John Bowlby's theory of attachment in post-war America. The British Journal for the History of Science, 44(3), 401-426. doi:10.1017/S0007087411000318 Waller, R., Gardner, F., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., & Hyde, L. W. (2015). Callous-unemotional behavior and early-childhood onset of behavior problems: the role of parental harshness and warmth. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 44(4), 655–667. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.886252 Weymouth, B. B., Fosco, G. M., Mak, H. W., Mayfield, K., LoBraico, E. J., & Feinberg, M. E. (2019). Implications of IPC for adolescents' peer relationships: A longitudinal pathway through threat appraisals and social anxiety symptoms. Developmental psychology, 55(7), 1509–1522. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000731 WONG, Y. V. (2023). THE CULTURAL BELIEFS ON PRACTICES OF MOTHERING IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO: A SCOPING REVIEW. Quantum Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(5), 126–140. https://doi.org/10.55197/qjssh.v4i5.278 Wu J, Wu Q. Effects of early-life environmental stress on risk-taking tendency of adolescents in rural areas of southwestern China. Front Psychiatry. 2024 Dec 12;15:1520790. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1520790. PMID: 39726911; PMCID: PMC11669707. Wycoff, A. M., Griffin, S. A., Helle, A. C., Haney, A. M., Watts, A. L., & Trull, T. J. (2023). The Brief ED Scale: Development, Preliminary Validation, and Recommendations for Use. Assessment, 10731911231161800. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911231161800 Yeh, M. T., Chen, P., Raine, A., Baker, L. A., & Jacobson, K. C. (2011). Child psychopathic traits moderate relationships between parental affect and child aggression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(10), 1054–1064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.013 Yule, K., Houston, J. & Grych, J. Resilience in Children Exposed to Violence: A Meta- analysis of Protective Factors Across Ecological Contexts. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 22, 406–431 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00293-1 Zelkowitz, R. L., & Cole, D. A. (2016). Measures of Emotion Reactivity and Emotion Regulation: Convergent and Discriminant Validity. Personality and individual differences, 102, 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.045 Zhang, L., Wang, R., Li, Y., & Chen, L. (2024). The impact of maternal emotional warmth on adolescents' internalizing problem behaviors: the roles of meaning in life and friendship conflict. Frontiers in psychology , 15 , 1478610. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1478610 Tables Table 1. Baseline characteristics Variable Number % Gender Male 45 29.61 Female 107 70.39 Country China 130 85.91 UK 22 14.07 Living with Both my parents 118 80.27 One of my parents 20 13.61 Other relatives 9 6.12 Mean (SD) Median (Range) Age (years) 23.11 (2.55) 23 (18-29) IPC total score 94.83 (31.71) 103 (0-140) Emotional dysregulation score 9.59 (7.31) 9 (0-34) Reactive aggression score 7.13 (4.66) 7 (0-16) Parental warmth score (mother’s version) 39.24 (21.84) 41 (0-85) Parental warmth score (father’s version) 41.56 (22.27) 45 (0-84) Table 2. Linear regression model of the direct association between IPC and reactive aggression. Coefficient SE T P Low CI High CI IPC total score 0.0289263 0.0117854 2.45 0.015 0.0056 0.052213 cons 4.388341 1.178124 3.72 0 2.0604 6.716203 Coefficient:standardized regression coefficients Cons: the constant term. Table 3. The correlation between IPC and reactive aggression with the mediating effect of ED and parental warmth. IPC Reactive Aggression Emotional Dysregulation Parental warmth (mother) Parental warmth (father) IPC 1 Reactive 0.1965 1 Aggression (0.153) Emotional 0.2204 0.1756 1 Dysregulation (0.0064) (0.0305) Parental 0.2093 0.4663 0.2957 1 warmth (0.0096) (0.0000) (0.0002) (mother) Parental 0.2065 0.4077 0.239 (0.0030) 0.8076 (0.0000) 1 warmth (0.107) (0.0000) (father) Table 4. SEM analysis of the mediators of the association between IPC and reactive aggression. Coefficient Coefficient SE Z P Low CI High CI Reactive aggression (total score) Emotional dysregulation 0.015 0.0482 0.33 0.745 -0.078 0.110 Parental warmth (mother) 0.080 0.026 3.06 0.002 0.028 0.131 Parental warmth (father) 0.016 0.025 0.65 0.514 -0.033 0.066 IPC total score 0.014 0.011 1.3 0.193 -0.007 0.035 constant 1.802 1.140 1.58 0.114 -0.433 4.038 Emotional dysregulation IPC total score 0.051 0.018 2.79 0.005 0.015 0.086 constant 4.781 1.822 2.62 0.009 1.209 8.354 Parental warmth (mother) IPC total score 0.144 0.0546 2.64 0.008 0.037 0.251 constant 25.569 5.461 4.68 0 14.865 36.273 Parental warmth (father) IPC total score 0.145 0.055 2.6 0.009 0.035 0.254 constant 27.812 5.572 4.99 0 16.891 38.734 var(e.reacttotal) 16.665 1.91 13.309 20.866 var(e.dystotal) 50.504 5.793 40.336 63.237 var(e.mothertotal) 453.318 51.999 362.046 567.600 var(e.fathertotal) 471.929 54.134 376.91 590.903 cov(e.dystotal, e.mothertotal) 39.595 12.686 3.12 0.002 14.731 64.460 cov(e.dystotal, e.fathertotal) 31.301 12.777 2.45 0.014 6.259 56.344 SE: standard error; P: P value; CI: confidence interval; AIC: Akaike’s information criterion; BIC: Bayesian information criterion; IPC: IPC total score. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files PreprintAppendices.docx Subgroup Regression Analysis Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6195416","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Method Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":426663561,"identity":"f645242e-f6b3-4b68-be1a-eb34ffb05fde","order_by":0,"name":"Fangqing Liu","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-7913-8964","institution":"The University of Manchester","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fangqing","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":426663562,"identity":"d0e38b2e-dd72-49c9-8a49-5f4ced033ac4","order_by":1,"name":"Xiaoshan Yin","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The University of Edinburgh","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xiaoshan","middleName":"","lastName":"Yin","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-10 12:10:53","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6195416/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6195416/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":78656475,"identity":"b0303ca7-64bf-49db-a6f1-5b8d9b029c4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-17 09:30:58","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":63807,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePath Diagram of IPC, ED and Reactive Aggression\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6195416/v1/5bd944a6eb6f81a6be60a0f3.png"},{"id":78656473,"identity":"a50e89de-2a36-40db-83d3-f8cc68d6f8fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-17 09:30:58","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":61796,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelation matrix heatmap\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6195416/v1/3ea03016a14bff5eb591da98.png"},{"id":78658286,"identity":"7af3d2bc-af2c-4b1c-8614-061b94fe440a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-17 09:46:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1210885,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6195416/v1/d55b743c-164c-451c-88a8-3e504c9387b0.pdf"},{"id":78657445,"identity":"c92c79f1-9ec8-43a4-9b3f-7dfa52f62db9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-17 09:38:58","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":127445,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSubgroup Regression Analysis\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"PreprintAppendices.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6195416/v1/0b905b46d869547205ba289d.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of childhood inter-parent conflict on reactive aggression in emerging adulthood: the role of parental warmth, and emotional dysregulation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eInter-parental conflict (IPC), commonly referred to as marital conflict, is a pervasive and multifaceted phenomenon with significant implications for child development. Research has consistently shown that IPC plays a pivotal role in shaping family dynamics and influencing the emotional and psychological well-being of children (Bradford \u0026amp; Barber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Hess, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Knopp et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Kouros et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Sherrill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). IPC occurs across various family structures, socioeconomic backgrounds, and cultural contexts, affecting children in diverse ways (Davies et al., 2021). These conflicts may take on different forms, including psychological, physical, and verbal abuse, as well as more subtle manifestations like the silent treatment (\u0026ldquo;cold war\u0026rdquo;) or passive aggression (Rakovec-Felser, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Zhen et al., 2022; Buehler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nature of IPC\u0026mdash;whether overt (e.g., shouting, physical violence) or covert (e.g., passive-aggressive behaviors, silent treatment)\u0026mdash;has profound effects on children\u0026rsquo;s emotional development. Overt conflicts create a hostile environment that children may find difficult to escape from, heightening their stress and anxiety (Keller et al., 2009; Luecken \u0026amp; Roubinov, 2012). The intensity and frequency of such confrontations can destabilize a child\u0026rsquo;s emotional health, leading to heightened fear, anxiety, and stress, which, over time, may manifest as chronic conditions like depression and difficulties with emotional regulation (McLaughlin et al., 2010; Nelson et al., 2020; Loevaas et al., 2018). In contrast, covert forms of conflict, while less visible, can create a persistent atmosphere of tension and insecurity within the household. Children exposed to such underlying hostility may struggle with feelings of guilt, confusion, or emotional abandonment, which can impair their self-esteem and hinder their emotional development (Dagan et al., 2021; Warmuth et al., 2020; Downey \u0026amp; Crummy, 2022). Thus, regardless of the form it takes, prolonged exposure to IPC can lead to long-term detrimental effects on children\u0026rsquo;s emotional regulation and psychological well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key outcome of disrupted emotional development stemming from IPC exposure is reactive aggression\u0026mdash;an emotional response to perceived threats or provocations that often manifests as aggressive behavior (Conner et al., 2019; Lickley \u0026amp; Sebastian, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Paulus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). It is one of the most common forms of aggression observed in adolescents and young adults, and it has been linked to a range of negative outcomes, including impaired social relationships, academic difficulties, and increased likelihood of involvement in criminal or violent behaviors (Almeida et al., 2024; Katembu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It has been found to be particularly relevant in understanding the long-term effects of early environmental stressors, such as IPC (see in Girard et al., 2019) and insufficient parental warmth (Wu \u0026amp; Wu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eConceptual framework\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe relationship between childhood exposure to persistent IPC and the development of aggressive behaviors in young adulthood is well-supported by Social Learning Theory (SLT) (Adhia et al., 2019; Bandura, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Salo et al., 2022). SLT posits that aggression is not an innate response, but rather a learned behavior acquired through observing others, particularly primary caregivers such as parents (Bandura, 1977). Children exposed to overt or covert conflict within the family may internalize these aggressive behaviors, replicating them in their own social interactions as they grow older (Harold \u0026amp; Sellers, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Zhou et al., 2017). Repeated exposure to parental conflict provides children with multiple opportunities to model negative behaviors. These behaviors may not only include aggression but also maladaptive coping strategies such as withdrawal, emotional disengagement, or other harmful patterns that impair healthy interpersonal relationships (Caspers et al., 2010; Duman \u0026amp; Marfolin, 2007; Jouriles et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This process of observational learning is well-documented in the literature and underscores the profound influence of family dynamics on long-term social and emotional development (Bandura, 1977). The internalization of these behaviors during childhood can shape patterns of aggression that persist into adolescence and adulthood, affecting peer relationships, emotional regulation, and overall mental well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the Intergenerational Transmission of Aggression Theory (ITAT) provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding the cyclical nature of aggression across generations (Cappell \u0026amp; Heiner, 1990; Doumas et al., 1994; Margolin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). ITAT posits that children who witness aggression between parents or experience direct aggression from caregivers are more likely to perpetuate these patterns in their own relationships as adults, including with intimate partners and their children (Cui et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Margolin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe potential mediating effect of parental warmth\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious research has demonstrated that IPC not only undermines the relationship between partners but also has a profound ripple effect on the emotional dynamics within the family. This disruption compromises parents\u0026rsquo; ability to provide the warmth and support essential for their children\u0026rsquo;s emotional development (Davies et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Harold et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2018). In high-conflict households, parents often struggle to maintain consistent, emotionally responsive, and nurturing behaviors (Morris et al., 2007). The emotional toll of ongoing conflict shifts their focus away from their children\u0026rsquo;s needs, frequently resulting in reduced parental warmth (Moran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Morris et al., 2007). The long-term consequences of this diminished warmth are far-reaching, particularly in the development of children\u0026rsquo;s emotional regulation and attachment security (Waters et al., 2010).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParenting requires significant emotional regulation and consistent availability to meet children\u0026rsquo;s needs, including effective nurturing and discipline (Lanjekar et al., 2022). However, persistent IPC depletes parents\u0026rsquo; emotional resources, leading to role strain\u0026mdash;the overwhelming burden of simultaneously managing partnership and parenting responsibilities (Nomaguchi \u0026amp; Milkie, 2020). The emotional spillover from conflict impairs parents\u0026rsquo; emotional availability, rendering them less attuned to their children\u0026rsquo;s emotional needs. As a result, this strain not only reduces parental warmth but also contributes to inconsistent discipline and erratic caregiving behaviors. Such disruptions leave children emotionally insecure, often struggling with confusion and difficulty in forming healthy attachment patterns. Research has consistently highlighted the critical role of parental warmth in fostering children\u0026rsquo;s well-being. When present in sufficient amounts, warmth is associated with better emotional and psychological development. In contrast, its absence can significantly hinder children's growth and emotional maturation (Butterfield et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Moran et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, in early childhood, a lack of parental warmth is linked to the development of psychopathic traits and the emergence of aggressive behaviors later in life (Lopez-Romero et al., 2021; Waller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Yeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Backman et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) further support these findings, revealing a significant negative correlation between both maternal and paternal warmth and the presence of aggression in children.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe potential mediating effect of emotion dysregulation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReactive aggression is often impulsive, arising from emotional dysregulation (ED), and triggered by an individual\u0026rsquo;s inability to manage emotions in response to stress or perceived injustice. Therefore, it is essential to examine the role of ED in the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood. ED is characterized by difficulties in the flexible management and modulation of emotions (Carpenter \u0026amp; Trull, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Cole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Paulus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Over the years, research has identified several key features of ED, including heightened sensitivity to emotional stimuli (Cisler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Paley \u0026amp; Hajal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), the experience of intense negative emotions, and a lack of effective emotional self-regulation strategies (Dadomo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, individuals with ED often resort to maladaptive coping mechanisms, further exacerbating their emotional challenges (Paulus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Chronic exposure to IPC during childhood is a significant factor that can precipitate or exacerbate ED, undermining the child\u0026rsquo;s ability to manage emotions constructively (Cooley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Davies et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Paulus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Rhoades, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). According to Emotional Security Theory (EST), the emotional instability caused by IPC disrupts children\u0026rsquo;s ability to regulate emotions effectively, thereby compromising their emotional security (Cummings \u0026amp; Davies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Davies et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Harold et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, children who experience high levels of IPC may struggle to process and respond to emotional triggers healthily as they grow older.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis ED does not only result from IPC; it also serves as a key pathway through which IPC influences the development of future aggression. Children raised in high-conflict environments often develop impaired emotional regulatory skills, which make them more vulnerable to reactive aggression when faced with stressful or provocative situations in adulthood. The mediating roles of parental warmth and emotion dysregulation are not isolated; they interact in complex ways that amplify the effects of IPC on aggression. When parental warmth is low, children are more vulnerable to emotional dysregulation, which in turn heightens the risk of reactive aggression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eState of the literature\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe existing research on the relationship between IPC and the development of reactive aggression in children remains incomplete. Only two empirical studies (Marcus et al., 2001; Pendry et al., 2013) have specifically examined this relationship. While these studies offer valuable insights, they do not explore the mediational mechanisms through which IPC influences aggression. A recent meta-analysis (Li et al., 2023), summarizing findings from 35 studies on IPC and aggression in adolescents, further underscores this gap as most studies fail to address long-term developmental outcomes or the mediators that might explain the IPC-aggression relationship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, Pendry et al. (2013) provides additional insights by discussing how children\u0026rsquo;s presence during psychologically aggressive IPC intensifies their maladjustment, including aggression and emotional regulation issues. While they explore parental involvement and parent-child relationships as influencing factors, the study does not directly test these as mediators between IPC and aggressive outcomes in children. The focus is still on the direct associations, leaving a significant gap in understanding the specific mechanisms that drive child aggression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe present study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExamining the impact of IPC during emerging adulthood is critical, as this developmental period involves significant transitions that shape future emotional health, identity, and relationships (Keller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Guided by the conceptual framework of processing within the affectively laden context of IPC (Harold \u0026amp; Sellers, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), our study aims to fill an important gap in the literature by investigating the role of perceived parental warmth and ED as potential mediators in the relationship between childhood IPC and reactive aggression in young adulthood. To explore this, the current study had two primary objectives. First, we sought to investigate the direct link between exposure to IPC and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood. Based on prior research, we hypothesized that higher levels of IPC exposure would be associated with increased levels of reactive aggression in adulthood. Second, we aimed to examine the potential mediating factors underlying this relationship. Specifically, we hypothesized a serial mediation model, in which increased exposure to IPC would indirectly contribute to heightened reactive aggression through intermediary processes, namely perceived parental warmth and emotional dysregulation. By testing this model, we hope to better understand the pathways through which childhood experiences of IPC influence aggression in emerging adulthood.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor this study, participants were required to be adults aged between 18 and 29 years and fluent in either English or Mandarin. This age range was chosen to specifically examine young adults, a developmental stage characterized by distinct experiences that align with the study\u0026rsquo;s objectives. A total of 152 participants were included, with 70.39% identifying as female and 29.61% as male. The majority of participants (85.91%) were from China, while 14.09% were from the UK. Regarding their living arrangements during childhood, most participants (80.27%) lived with both parents, 13.61% lived with a single parent, and 6.12% resided with other relatives. The participants\u0026rsquo; ages ranged from 18 to 29 years, with a mean age of 23.11 years (SD = 2.55) (see in Table 1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMultiple methods were employed to recruit participants from the UK and China. We primarily reached potential participants by posting advertisements on relevant online platforms and community bulletin boards. In these advertisements, the purpose of the study, eligibility requirements were clearly stated. The snowball sampling strategy was also used as a supplement. The whole set of questionnaires was distributed online. After the participants read the relevant information and decided to participate in the study, they scanned the QR code on the flyer and was directed to the online survey. Each subject was provided with a detailed consent form at the beginning of survey, which clearly outlined the objectives of the survey, the methodology involved, and how the data collected from them would be used and protected.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasurements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChildren\u0026rsquo;s Perception of Interpersonal Conflict Scale (CPIC) (Grych\u0026amp; Fincham, 1992)\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/em\u003eThe instrument we used to measure IPC is CPIC, a scale includes 48 items assessing the frequency, intensity, and resolution of IPC (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I often see or hear my parents arguing.\u0026rdquo;). Items are rated with higher scores reflecting higher levels of IPC. For this study, the instruction was specifically modified for young adults (aged 18-29) to assess their memories of IPC that occurred during childhood. Multiple studies have examined its use for emerging adults recall their parents\u0026rsquo; behavior and achieved great reliability and validity (Bickham \u0026amp; Fiese, 1997; Cusimano \u0026amp; Riggs, 2013; Hagan et al., 2014; Moura et al., 2010; ReeseWeber \u0026amp; Hesson-McInnis, 2008; Simon \u0026amp; Furman, 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBrief E\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003emotional\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eDysregulation Scale (BEDS) (Wycoff et al., 2023)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe instrument we used to measure the ED is BEDS. It specifically evaluates four key components: sensitivity, which measures an individual\u0026rsquo;s threshold for emotional responsiveness; lability, which gauges the stability of one\u0026rsquo;s emotional experiences; reactivity, which assesses the intensity of emotional responses; and consequences, which examines the impact of these emotions on an individual\u0026rsquo;s functioning (Zelkowitz \u0026amp; Cole, 2016). The scale consists of 12 items that are intended to capture the breadth of emotion regulation challenges succinctly.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Reactive\u0026ndash;Proactive Aggression Questionnaire-Reactive Aggression Subscale (RPQ-R) (Raine et al.,2006)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRPQ-R is a refined instrument of the Reactive\u0026ndash;Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) that specifically measures the reactive dimension of aggressive behavior. The RPQ-R\u0026rsquo;s 23 items are carefully crafted to reflect instances of anger-driven aggression, such as aggressive responses to frustration or an inability to control one\u0026rsquo;s temper. Each item is rated on a 3-point ordinal scale\u0026mdash;\u0026apos;never\u0026apos; (0 points), \u0026apos;sometimes\u0026apos; (1 point), and \u0026apos;often\u0026apos; (2 points). The questionnaire has been validated for use with youth in late adolescence and young adults (Pechorro et al. in 2017), confirming its reliability and relevance for this age group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Parental Acceptance- Rejection Questionnaire (Rohner \u0026amp; Ali, 2020)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe inventory we used to measure the parental warmth level is PARQ. It is a 48-item survey assessed on a four-point scale. Notably, the PARQ includes both a paternal and a maternal version, allowing for the assessment of the child\u0026rsquo;s perceived warmth from each parent separately.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReliability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eand\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eValidity Analysis for Measurements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha values for each scale in the current study were as follows: CPIC (.85), RPQ-R (.82), PARQ maternal warmth (.88) and paternal warmth (.85), and BEDS (.83). These values are consistent with those reported in prior research (Rohner \u0026amp; Ali, 2020; Raine et al., 2006; Wycoff et al., 2023), indicating good internal consistency for all measures. The convergent validity of each scale has been established, with correlation coefficients as follows: CPIC (.55), RPQ-R (.67), BEDS (.60), PARQ maternal warmth (.65), and PARQ paternal warmth (.55).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was approved by the Ethics Review Committee at the University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePatient Consent Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants have given informed consent to participate in the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStructural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to examine the direct and mediated effects of childhood IPC on reactive aggression in adulthood. The total IPC score, derived from 48 items measuring various IPC dimensions, served as the independent variable, while the total reactive aggression score was the dependent variable. Mediation was tested through three distinct mediators: ED, maternal parental warmth, and paternal parental warmth, allowing us to assess the unique contributions of each parent\u0026rsquo;s warmth to child development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were computed for baseline variables, including country (China vs. UK), gender (0 = male, 1 = female), and living arrangements (1 = both parents, 2 = one parent, 3 = other relatives). Continuous variables were summarized with means or medians and standard deviations or ranges, while frequencies and percentages were reported for categorical variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe direct relationship between IPC and reactive aggression was assessed using univariate linear regression and correlation analysis. SEM was employed to evaluate the hypothesized model, including both direct paths from IPC to reactive aggression and indirect paths through the mediators. Model fit was assessed using multiple indices: the Chi-square statistic, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI). These indices provided a comprehensive evaluation of model validity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor hypothesis testing, a\u0026nbsp;p-value threshold of 0.05\u0026nbsp;was used to determine statistical significance. This conventional threshold was chosen to balance the risk of Type I and Type II errors, ensuring robust inference while maintaining reasonable sensitivity to detect meaningful effects. Subgroup analyses based on gender was conducted to examine potential variations in the SEM model across these groups. This approach allowed for the comparison of path coefficients and model fit indices between subgroups. Results were interpreted by evaluating the significance and magnitude of path coefficients and assessing model fit across subgroups. All analyses were performed using Stata 18.0 (StataCorp, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMissing Data Handling\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address missing data, we first examined the pattern and extent of missingness using the misstable summarize command in Stata. This analysis confirmed that the data were Missing at Random (MAR), a key assumption for applying advanced missing data techniques. Based on this assumption, we employed Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) estimation to handle missing data. FIML is a robust method that uses all available data to estimate model parameters, minimizing bias and preserving statistical power. Additionally, we conducted a comparative analysis to ensure that there were no significant differences between participants with missing data and those with complete data on any of the variables included in the regression model. This analysis confirmed that the missing data mechanism did not introduce systematic bias, further supporting the use of FIML.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMain effects of IPC and reactive aggression in adulthood\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelation analyses were conducted to examine relationships among key variables. While the total IPC score showed a positive correlation with reactive aggression (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.1965, \u003cb\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.153\u003c/b\u003e), this result did not reach statistical significance after controlling for Type I error. In contrast, IPC was significantly correlated with ED (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.2204, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0064), suggesting that conflict between parents may disrupt children\u0026rsquo;s emotional regulation abilities. Additionally, the IPC total score showed a significant positive correlation with maternal warmth (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.2093, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0096), whereas the correlation with paternal warmth was not significant (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.2065, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.107). Given the latter result\u0026rsquo;s p-value exceeding the adjusted threshold for significance, it should not be interpreted as evidence of a meaningful relationship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, reactive aggression was strongly correlated with maternal warmth (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.4663, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) and paternal warmth (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.4077, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), both of which remained significant after correction for multiple comparisons. These findings suggest that higher levels of reactive aggression are associated with heightened perceptions of parental warmth from both parents. While this association may initially appear counterintuitive, it may reflect underlying family dynamics, such as heightened emotional responsiveness to parents\u0026rsquo; expressiveness or involvement (see Table\u0026nbsp;3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMediating effects of parental warmth and ED\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SEM analysis identified significant mediation effects. Maternal warmth significantly mediated the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression (coefficient\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.080, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.026, Z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.06, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002). In contrast, neither ED (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.745) nor paternal warmth (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.514) were found to be significant mediators, and thus these factors should not be considered meaningful contributors to the model (see Table\u0026nbsp;4).The model fit indices indicated an excellent fit to the observed data (AIC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5966.60, BIC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6021.03, χ\u0026sup2; = 0, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1). However, given the relatively small sample size, caution is warranted in interpreting these findings. Future research with larger, more diverse samples is needed to validate these results (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSubgroup Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough exploratory due to the small sample size, the subgroup analyses provided valuable insights into gender in the mediation effects of IPC on reactive aggression. Subgroup analyses by gender revealed distinct patterns in the mediation effects of IPC on reactive aggression. For males, mother-focused parental warmth significantly mediated the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression (coefficient\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0769, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.038, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.043), suggesting that maternal warmth may help buffer the effects of IPC on reactive aggression. In contrast, no significant mediation effects were found for father-focused parental warmth (coefficient\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0042, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0428, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.922) or ED (coefficient\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0107, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0757, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.887), indicating these factors did not significantly influence the relationship in male participants (see Appendix I). In females, the mediating effect of mother-focused parental warmth was even stronger (coefficient\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0869, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0362, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.016). However, ED (coefficient\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0162, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0636, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.799) and father-focused parental warmth (coefficient\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0154, SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0325, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.635) did not significantly mediate the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression. The model fit statistics for both male and female subgroups were excellent, indicating that the structural equation models were well-suited to the data for each gender.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study advances prior research on the intergenerational transmission of aggression within families (Li et al., 2023) by examining the relationship between IPC in childhood and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood. Our findings deepen the understanding of how early family dynamics shape aggressive behaviors in later life, particularly through the mechanisms of ED and parental warmth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with our hypothesis, we found an association between childhood exposure to IPC and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood. Our findings are in line with established theories on aggression, particularly the intergenerational transmission of violence (Black et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Margolin et al., 2015). Both parents contribute to the development of reactive aggression in children, a process explained by social learning theory, which emphasizes two types of modeling: generalized and specific (Bandura, 1977). Generalized modeling suggests that exposure to aggression may not directly correlate with the exact form of aggression displayed in future generations, while specific modeling refers to the reproduction of the aggression witnessed within the family (Galanaki et al., 2022). Our results provide robust support for the latter, highlighting the specific ways in which aggression is transmitted across generations through learned behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the positive correlation between IPC and reactive aggression was not statistically significant, a discernible trend was observed, suggesting that children exposed to higher levels of IPC may demonstrate a propensity for increased reactive aggression in later developmental stages. This trend aligns with theoretical perspectives indicating that chronic exposure to high-conflict environments may impair children\u0026rsquo;s capacity to effectively regulate anger and frustration, potentially predisposing them to aggressive behavioral responses. While the current data do not establish a definitive causal relationship, this observed trend highlights a potentially meaningful association warranting further empirical exploration in subsequent studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the positive correlation between IPC and ED reached statistical significance, providing robust evidence that IPC adversely impacts children\u0026rsquo;s ability to regulate emotions. Emotional dysregulation, characterized by difficulties in managing emotional responses, is often associated with impulsive behaviors such as emotional outbursts or aggression. This significant relationship reinforces the hypothesis that frequent exposure to interparental conflict may disrupt the development of adaptive emotional coping mechanisms, thereby elevating the risk of emotional instability and related behavioral challenges in later life.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePerceived Parental Warmth: A Paradoxical Finding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the most intriguing findings in this study was the positive correlation between IPC and perceived maternal warmth, a result that might seem counterintuitive at first glance. Traditionally, one might expect that higher levels of conflict would diminish perceptions of warmth within the family. However, our results suggest that children exposed to IPC may still perceive high levels of warmth, particularly from the mother. This finding likely reflects the complexity of family dynamics in high-conflict households. A potential explanation is that children may interpret their parents\u0026rsquo; emotional expressiveness or heightened involvement in response to conflict as warmth. This interpretation underscores the nuanced ways in which children process emotional cues from their parents, even in the presence of conflict. Moreover, the emotional intensity present during conflict can lead to increased emotional involvement from parents. For example, in response to conflict, a mother might try to emotionally \u0026ldquo;repair\u0026rdquo; the relationship by showing more affection, reassurance, or involvement. These behaviors can be interpreted by the child as warmth. Additionally, some parents might consciously or unconsciously compensate for the stress and tension of conflict by providing more affection and attention, trying to maintain emotional balance in the family. This could be especially true for mothers who may adopt a nurturing role to mitigate the negative effects of conflict.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe strong positive correlations between reactive aggression and perceived parental warmth from both the mother and the father are also noteworthy. One might initially expect that more parental warmth would reduce aggression, but the findings suggest a different possibility. In families with high parental involvement or emotional expressiveness, children may exhibit heightened emotional reactivity\u0026mdash;both positive and negative. This could explain the correlation between warmth and aggression. Another interpretation is that children who display more reactive aggression may elicit more emotional responses from their parents, which could be perceived as warmth. In high-conflict households, this emotionally charged atmosphere might lead children to interpret these intense exchanges as signs of closeness, even when the emotions expressed include aggression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMediating Effects of Parental Warmth and Emotional Dysregulation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs hypothesized, the SEM analysis revealed that maternal warmth significantly mediated the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression. This robust mediating effect highlights the critical role of maternal warmth in buffering the negative impacts of IPC, emphasizing the importance of maternal emotional support in mitigating children\u0026rsquo;s aggressive behaviors. Interestingly, neither ED nor paternal warmth significantly mediated the relationship between IPC and reactive aggression. This outcome may reflect the distinct emotional and relational dynamics within families, where maternal warmth has a more pronounced effect on children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioral outcomes compared to paternal warmth. These findings align with several theoretical frameworks. Attachment theory posits that early interactions with caregivers form the basis of emotional security and attachment styles (Bowlby, 1973; Dugan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Mothers are often primary caregivers whose emotional availability is crucial to secure attachment (Bornstein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Low maternal warmth can lead to insecure or anxious attachment styles, linked to higher aggression as individuals react more defensively and aggressively to perceived threats (Maalouf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Previous research indicates that maternal warmth is crucial for emotional development and regulation, especially in the context of family conflict (see in Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The stronger effect in females may reflect gender-specific socialization practices, where females receive more emotional support and nurturing from mothers, thus buffering the negative impacts of IPC more effectively. Children\u0026rsquo; gender differences in socialization practices might also play a role. Previous research suggests that girls receive more emotional support from mothers (Brown et al., 2015), making maternal warmth particularly influential for females in mitigating the impacts of IPC. However, our analysis does not differentiate by gender, and future studies should explore these potential differences for more nuanced insights.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContrary to the previous hypothesis, the lack of mediation by ED may be explained by the presence of compensatory mechanisms that mitigate the impact of ED on aggressive behaviors (Aldao et al., 2009). These compensatory strategies can include strong social support systems, such as peers or extended family members, which provide a buffer against the emotional challenges posed by ED (Yule et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). When children or adolescents have access to supportive relationships outside of their immediate family, they may develop resilience, enabling them to manage their emotional reactions more effectively. Moreover, certain personality traits such as emotional stability or conscientiousness may play a protective role, as individuals with higher emotional stability are better equipped to manage their emotional responses, even in the face of ED (Oshio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The individual\u0026rsquo;s specific childhood experiences may also shape how ED impacts their development. For example, children exposed to different levels of trauma, neglect, or consistent family conflict may exhibit different levels of emotional sensitivity, which could either amplify or reduce the effect of ED on aggression (Marshall et al., 2018). In some cases, early life experiences could foster greater emotional resilience, minimizing the expected link between ED and aggression (Švecov\u0026aacute; et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the role of ED might vary significantly depending on the child\u0026rsquo;s developmental stage (Paulus et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). As children mature, however, their cognitive and emotional abilities evolve, allowing them to develop more sophisticated ways of regulating emotions. In adolescence, for example, peers and personal coping strategies may take on greater importance, potentially reducing the influence of parental warmth or ED as direct mediators of aggressive behavior. It is also important to consider that ED could be more strongly linked to internalizing rather than externalizing behaviors such as aggression. Previous research suggests that ED may lead to anxiety, depression, or withdrawal rather than overtly aggressive behaviors, especially in certain cultural or familial contexts (Kring \u0026amp; Werner, 2004). This would explain the lack of a mediating effect on aggression, as ED may manifest in different behavioral outcomes depending on the individual\u0026rsquo;s context and coping strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitation and Future Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNonetheless, the current findings also need to be considered in the context of several limitations. First, the reliance on self-reported measures might introduce bias and affect the accuracy of the reported IPC and aggression levels. Secondly, we employed a retrospective methodology. Retrospective studies have been demonstrated to possess considerable reliability (Thiese, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Tofthagen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), however, they still have a risk of recall bias. Future studies should use prospective methodology as a supplementary. Thirdly, the cross-sectional nature of this study limits our ability to draw causal inferences. Longitudinal designs would be better suited to ascertain the directionality of the relationships among parental warmth, ED, and reactive aggression. Addressing these limitations in future research will enhance our understanding of the complex interplay between parental behaviors and children\u0026rsquo;s aggression, thereby supporting more effective preventions to mitigate aggressive behaviors in youth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePrevention Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study have important implications for the prevention of reactive aggression in emerging adulthood, particularly for individuals who have experienced childhood exposure to IPC. Since maternal warmth was found to significantly buffer the negative effects of IPC on aggression, interventions aimed at enhancing emotional support from mothers may prove to be particularly effective. Programs designed to help mothers develop and maintain emotional availability and sensitivity, especially in high-conflict family environments, could mitigate the impact of IPC on children\u0026rsquo;s emotional development. For broader societal impact, encouraging the development of emotional resilience in both parents and children through skills training in emotional regulation and coping strategies could provide an additional layer of protection against the detrimental effects of IPC.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of interest statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe raw data, analysis code, and materials used in this study are not openly available but are available upon request to the corresponding author.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., \u0026amp; Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical psychology review, 30(2), 217\u0026ndash;237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArnett J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood. A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. The American psychologist, 55(5), 469\u0026ndash;480.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBackman, H., Laajasalo, T., Jokela, M. et al. Parental Warmth and Hostility and the Development of Psychopathic Behaviors: A Longitudinal Study of Young Offenders. J Child Fam Stud 30, 955\u0026ndash;965 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-01921-7\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBandura, A. (2023). Social Cognitive Theory. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394259069\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBedi G., Goddard C. (2007). Intimate partner violence: what are the impacts on children? Aust. Psychol. 42, 66\u0026ndash;77. 10.1080/00050060600726296\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlack, D. S., Sussman, S., \u0026amp; Unger, J. B. (2010). A further look at the intergenerational transmission of violence: witnessing interparental violence in emerging adulthood. Journal of interpersonal violence, 25(6), 1022\u0026ndash;1042. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509340539\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBonanno, G. A., \u0026amp; Diminich, E. D. (2013). Annual Research Review: Positive adjustment to adversity--trajectories of minimal-impact resilience and emergent resilience. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 54(4), 378\u0026ndash;401. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12021\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBonnie, R. J., Stroud, C., Breiner, H. (Eds.). (2015). Investing in the health and well- being of young adults. National Academies Press. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK284782/\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBoothroyd, L. G., \u0026amp; Cross, C. P. (2017). Father absence and gendered traits in sons and daughters. PloS one, 12(7), e0179954. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179954\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBornstein, M. H., Suwalsky, J. T., \u0026amp; Breakstone, D. A. (2012). Emotional relationships between mothers and infants: knowns, and unknown. Development and psychopathology, 24(1), 113\u0026ndash;123. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579411000708\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBoroş, S., van Gorp, L., \u0026amp; Boiger, M. (2019). When Holding in Prevents From Reaching Out: Emotion Suppression and Social Support-Seeking in Multicultural Groups. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 2431. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02431\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss. Hogarth P.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBradford, K., \u0026amp; Barber, B. K. (2005). IPC as intrusive family process. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 5(2-3), 143\u0026ndash;167. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v05n02_07\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrock, R. L., \u0026amp; Kochanska, G. (2016). IPC, children\u0026rsquo;s security with parents, and long- term risk of internalizing problems: A longitudinal study from ages 2 to 10. Development and Psychopathology, 28(1), 45\u0026ndash;54. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000279Brown, G. L., Craig, A. B., \u0026amp; Halberstadt, A. G. (2015). Parent Gender Differences in Emotion Socialization Behaviors Vary by Ethnicity and Child Gender. \u003cem\u003eParenting, science and practice\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(3), 135\u0026ndash;157. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2015.1053312\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBrummert Lennings, H. I., \u0026amp; Bussey, K. (2017). The mediating role of coping self- efficacy beliefs on the relationship between parental conflict and child psychological adjustment. Social Development, 26(4), 753\u0026ndash;766. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12241\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBuehler, C., Krishnakumar, A., Stone, G., Anthony, C., Pemberton, S., Gerard, J., \u0026amp; Barber, B. K. (1998). IPC Styles and Youth Problem Behaviors: A Two-Sample Replication Study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 60(1), 119\u0026ndash;132. https://doi.org/10.2307/353446\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBush K., Peterson G. (2013). \u0026ldquo;Parent\u0026ndash;child relationships in diverse contexts\u0026rdquo;, in Handbook of Marriage and the Family, eds Peterson G., Bush K. (Boston, MA: Springer;), 275\u0026ndash;302. 10.1007/978-1-4614-3987-5_13 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eButterfield, R. D., Silk, J. S., Lee, K. H., Siegle, G. S., Dahl, R. E., Forbes, E. E., Ryan,N. D., Hooley, J. M., \u0026amp; Ladouceur, C. D. (2021). Parents still matter! Parental warmth predicts adolescent brain function and anxiety and depressive symptoms 2 years later. Development and psychopathology, 33(1), 226\u0026ndash;239. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419001718\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCarpenter, R. W., \u0026amp; Trull, T. J. (2013). Components of ED in borderline personality disorder: a review. Current psychiatry reports, 15(1), 335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChaudhry, M.K., \u0026amp; Shabbir, F. (2018). Perceived inter-parental conflict and aggression among adolescents: Moderating role of optimism and pessimism. Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCisler, J. M., Olatunji, B. O., Feldner, M. T., \u0026amp; Forsyth, J. P. (2010). Emotion Regulation and the anxiety disorders: An Integrative Review. Journal of psychopathology and behavioral assessment, 32(1), 68\u0026ndash;82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-009-9161-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCole, P. M., Michel, M. K., \u0026amp; Laureen O\u0026rsquo;Donnell Teti. (1994). The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: A Clinical Perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2/3), 73\u0026ndash;100. https://doi.org/10.2307/1166139Connor, D. F., Newcorn, J. H., Saylor, K. E., Amann, B. H., Scahill, L., Robb, A. S., Jensen, P. S., Vitiello, B., Findling, R. L., \u0026amp; Buitelaar, J. K. (2019). Maladaptive Aggression: With a Focus on Impulsive Aggression in Children and Adolescents. \u003cem\u003eJournal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e29\u003c/em\u003e(8), 576\u0026ndash;591. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2019.0039\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCooley, J. L., Ritschel, L. A., Frazer, A. L., \u0026amp; Blossom, J. B. (2019). The Influence of Internalizing Symptoms and ED on the Association Between Witnessed Community Violence and Aggression Among Urban Adolescents. Child psychiatry and human development, 50(6), 883\u0026ndash;893. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-019-00890-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCui, M., Durtschi, J. A., Donnellan, M. B., Lorenz, F. O., \u0026amp; Conger, R. D. (2010). Intergenerational transmission of relationship aggression: a prospective longitudinal study. Journal of family psychology: JFP: journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 24(6), 688\u0026ndash;697. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021675\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCummings, E. M., \u0026amp; Davies, P. (1994). Children and marital conflict: The impact of family dispute and resolution. Guilford Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCusimano, A. M., \u0026amp; Riggs, S. A. (2013). Perceptions of IPC, romantic attachment, and psychological distress in college students. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice, 2(1), 45\u0026ndash;59. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031657\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDadomo, H., Grecucci, A., Giardini, I., Ugolini, E., Carmelita, A., \u0026amp; Panzeri, M. (2016). Schema Therapy for ED: Theoretical Implication and Clinical Applications. Frontiers in psychology, 7, 1987. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01987\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDavies, P. T., Harold, G. T., Goeke-Morey, M. C., Cummings, E. M., Shelton, K., Rasi, J. A., \u0026amp; Jenkins, J. M. (2002). Child Emotional Security and IPC. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(3), i\u0026ndash;127. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3181513\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDavies, P. T., Hentges, R. F., Coe, J. L., Martin, M. J., Sturge-Apple, M. L., \u0026amp; Cummings, E. M. (2016). The multiple faces of IPC: Implications for cascades of children\u0026apos;s insecurity and externalizing problems. Journal of abnormal psychology, 125(5), 664\u0026ndash;678. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000170\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDugan, K. A., Fraley, R. C., Gillath, O., \u0026amp; Deboeck, P. R. (2024). Testing the canalization hypothesis of attachment theory: Examining within-subject variation in attachment security. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 126(3), 511\u0026ndash;541. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDuman, S., \u0026amp; Margolin, G. (2007). Parents\u0026apos; aggressive influences and children\u0026rsquo;s aggressive problem solutions with peers. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology: the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 36(1), 42\u0026ndash;55. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410709336567\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEgondi, T., Kabiru, C., Beguy, D., Kanyiva, M., \u0026amp; Jessor, R. (2013). Adolescent home- leaving and the transition to adulthood: A psychosocial and behavioural study in the slums of Nairobi. International journal of behavioral development, 37(4), 298\u0026ndash;308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025413479299\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEtkin, R. G., Koss, K. J., Cummings, E. M., \u0026amp; Davies, P. T. (2014). The differential impact of parental warmth on externalizing problems among triangulated adolescents. The Journal of genetic psychology, 175(1-2), 118\u0026ndash;133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2013.813437\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFite, P. J., Raine, A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., \u0026amp; Pardini, D. A. (2009) (a). REACTIVE AND PROACTIVE AGGRESSION IN ADOLESCENT MALES: Examining Differential Outcomes 10 Years Later in Early Adulthood. Criminal justice and behavior, 37(2), 141\u0026ndash;157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809353051\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., \u0026amp; Greening, L. (2009) (b). Proactive and reactive aggression in a child psychiatric inpatient population. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology: the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 38(2), 199\u0026ndash;205. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410802698461\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFrosch, C. A., Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., \u0026amp; O\u0026apos;Banion, D. D. (2019). Parenting and Child Development: A Relational Health Perspective. American journal of lifestyle medicine, 15(1), 45\u0026ndash;59. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827619849028\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGalanaki, E., \u0026amp; Malafantis, K. D. (2022). Albert Bandura\u0026apos;s experiments on aggression modeling in children: A psychoanalytic critique. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e13\u003c/em\u003e, 988877. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.988877\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGerm\u0026aacute;n, M., Gonzales, N. A., McClain, D. B., Dumka, L., \u0026amp; Millsap, R. (2013). Maternal Warmth Moderates the Link between Harsh Discipline and Later Externalizing Behaviors for Mexican American Adolescents. Parenting, science and practice, 13(3), 169\u0026ndash;177. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2013.756353\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrych, J. H., Seid, M., \u0026amp; Fincham, F. D. (1992). Assessing marital conflict from the child\u0026apos;s perspective: The Children\u0026apos;s Perception of IPC Scale. Child Development, 63(3), 558\u0026ndash;572. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131346\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGrygier, T., Chesley, J., \u0026amp; Tuters, E. W. (1969). Parental deprivation: A study of delinquent children. The British Journal of Criminology, 9(3), 209-253. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a049239\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGunkel, M., Schlaegel, C., \u0026amp; Taras, V. (2015). \u0026ldquo;cultural values, emotional intelligence, and conflict handling styles: A global study.\u0026rdquo; Academy of Management Proceedings, 2015(1), 10708. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2015.10708abstract\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHagan, M. J., Roubinov, D. S., Purdom Marreiro, C. L., \u0026amp; Luecken, L. J. (2014). Childhood IPC and HPA axis activity in emerging adulthood: examining nonlinear relations. Developmental psychobiology, 56(4), 871\u0026ndash;880. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21157\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHarold, G. T., \u0026amp; Sellers, R. (2018). Annual Research Review: IPC and youth psychopathology: an evidence review and practice focused update. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 59(4), 374\u0026ndash;402. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12893\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHarold, G. T., Shelton, K. H., Goeke‐Morey, M. C., \u0026amp; Cummings, E. M. (2004). Marital conflict, child emotional security about family relationships and child adjustment. Social Development, 13(3), 350\u0026ndash;376. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.00272.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHess, S. (2021). Effects of inter-parental conflict on children\u0026rsquo;s social well-being and the mediation role of parenting behavior. Applied Research in Quality of Life. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-10022-y\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJouriles, E. N., Rosenfield, D., McDonald, R., \u0026amp; Mueller, V. (2014). Child involvement in IPC and child adjustment problems: a longitudinal study of violent families. Journal of abnormal child psychology, 42(5), 693\u0026ndash;704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-013- 9821-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKalmuss, D. (1984). The Intergenerational Transmission of Marital Aggression. Journal of Marriage and Family, 46(1), 11\u0026ndash;19. https://doi.org/10.2307/351858\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKatembu, S., Zahedi, A., \u0026amp; Sommer, W. (2023). Childhood trauma and violent behavior in adolescents are differentially related to cognitive-emotional deficits. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in public health\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e11\u003c/em\u003e, 1001132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1001132\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKeller, T. E., Cusick, G. R., \u0026amp; Courtney, M. E. (2007). Approaching the Transition to Adulthood: Distinctive Profiles of Adolescents Aging out of the Child Welfare System. The Social service review, 81(3), 453\u0026ndash;484. https://doi.org/10.1086/519536\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKnopp K, Rhoades GK, Allen ES, Parsons A, Ritchie LL, Markman HJ, Stanley SM. Within- and Between-Family Associations of Marital Functioning and Child Well-being. J Marriage Fam. 2017 Apr;79(2):451-461. doi: 10.1111/jomf.12373. Epub 2016 Sep 28. PMID: 28392583; PMCID: PMC5382797.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKouros CD, Papp LM, Goeke-Morey MC, Cummings EM. Spillover between marital quality and parent-child relationship quality: parental depressive symptoms as moderators. J Fam Psychol. 2014 Jun;28(3):315-25. doi: 10.1037/a0036804. Epub 2014 May 12. PMID: 24821519; PMCID: PMC4543369.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi, Y., Putallaz, M., \u0026amp; Su, Y. (2011). IPC Styles and Parenting Behaviors: Associations With Overt and Relational Aggression Among Chinese Children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 57(4), 402\u0026ndash;428. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23098032\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLickley, R. A., \u0026amp; Sebastian, C. L. (2018). The neural basis of reactive aggression and its development in adolescence. \u003cem\u003ePsychology, Crime \u0026amp; Law, 24\u003c/em\u003e(3), 313\u0026ndash;333. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2017.1420187\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLippold, M. A., Hussong, A., Fosco, G. M., \u0026amp; Ram, N. (2018). Lability in the parent\u0026apos;s hostility and warmth toward their adolescent: Linkages to youth delinquency and substance use. Developmental psychology, 54(2), 348\u0026ndash;361. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000415\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eL\u0026oacute;pez-Romero, L., Cutr\u0026iacute;n, O., Maneiro, L., Dom\u0026iacute;nguez-\u0026Aacute;lvarez, B., \u0026amp; Romero, E. (2021). Psychopathic Traits in Childhood: Insights from Parental Warmth and Fearless Temperament via Conscience Development. Brain sciences, 11(7), 923. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11070923\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMaalouf, E., Salameh, P., Haddad, C., Sacre, H., Hallit, S., \u0026amp; Obeid, S. (2022). Attachment styles and their association with aggression, hostility, and anger in Lebanese adolescents: a national study. BMC psychology, 10(1), 104. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00813-9\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eManning, L. G., Davies, P. T., \u0026amp; Cicchetti, D. (2014). Interparental violence and childhood adjustment: how and why maternal sensitivity is a protective factor. Child development, 85(6), 2263\u0026ndash;2278. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12279\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMarceau, K., Zahn-Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., Schreiber, J. E., Hastings, P., \u0026amp; Klimes- Dougan, B. (2015). Adolescents\u0026apos;, mothers\u0026apos;, and fathers\u0026apos; gendered coping strategies during conflict: Youth and parent influences on conflict resolution and psychopathology. Development and psychopathology, 27(4 Pt 1), 1025\u0026ndash;1044. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000668\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMargolin, G., Ramos, M. C., Timmons, A. C., Miller, K. F., \u0026amp; Han, S. C. (2016). Intergenerational Transmission of Aggression: Physiological Regulatory Processes. Child development perspectives, 10(1), 15\u0026ndash;21. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12156\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcNeil, E. B. (1959). Psychology and Aggression. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 3(3), 195\u0026ndash;293. http://www.jstor.org/stable/172982\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMoran, K. M., Turiano, N. A., \u0026amp; Gentzler, A. L. (2018). Parental warmth during childhood predicts coping and well-being in adulthood. Journal of family psychology: JFP : journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 32(5), 610\u0026ndash;621. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000401\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMoura, O., dos Santos, R. A., Rocha, M., \u0026amp; Matos, P. M. (2010). Children\u0026rsquo;s perception of Interparental Conflict Scale (CPIC): Factor structure and invariance across adolescents and emerging adults. International Journal of Testing, 10(4), 364\u0026ndash;382. https://doi.org/10.1080/15305058.2010.487964\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNicolaus, C., Kress, V., Kopp, M., \u0026amp; Garthus-Niegel, S. (2021). The Impact of Parental Relationship Satisfaction on Infant Development: Results From the Population-Based Cohort Study DREAM. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 667577. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.667577\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOshio, A., Taku, K., Hirano, M., \u0026amp; Saeed, G. (2018). Resilience and Big Five personality traits: A meta-analysis. \u003cem\u003ePersonality and Individual Differences, 127,\u003c/em\u003e 54\u0026ndash;60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.01.048\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePaley, B., Hajal, N.J. Conceptualizing Emotion Regulation and Coregulation as Family- Level Phenomena. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 25, 19\u0026ndash;43 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-022-00378-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePaulus, F. W., Ohmann, S., M\u0026ouml;hler, E., Plener, P., \u0026amp; Popow, C. (2021). Emotional Dysregulation in Children and Adolescents With Psychiatric Disorders. A Narrative Review. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in psychiatry\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e, 628252. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.628252\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePaulus, F. W., Ohmann, S., M\u0026ouml;hler, E., Plener, P., \u0026amp; Popow, C. (2021). ED in Children and Adolescents With Psychiatric Disorders. A Narrative Review. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 628252. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.628252\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePechorro, P., Ray, J. V., Raine, A., Maroco, J., \u0026amp; Gon\u0026ccedil;alves, R. A. (2017). The Reactive\u0026ndash;Proactive Aggression Questionnaire: Validation Among a Portuguese Sample of Incarcerated Juvenile Delinquents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(13), 1995- 2017. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515590784\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRaine, A., Dodge, K., Loeber, R., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lynam, D., Reynolds, C., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., \u0026amp; Liu, J. (2006). The Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire: Differential Correlates of Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Adolescent Boys. Aggressive behavior, 32(2), 159\u0026ndash;171. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20115\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRakovec-Felser Z. (2014). Domestic Violence and Abuse in Intimate Relationship from Public Health Perspective. Health psychology research, 2(3), 1821. https://doi.org/10.4081/hpr.2014.1821\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRamos, A. M., Shewark, E. A., Fosco, G. M., Shaw, D. S., Reiss, D., Natsuaki, M. N., Leve, L. D., \u0026amp; Neiderhiser, J. M. (2022). Reexamining the association between the interparental relationship and parent-child interactions: Incorporating heritable influences. Developmental psychology, 58(1), 43\u0026ndash;54. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001278\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eReese-Weber, M., \u0026amp; Hesson-McInnis, M. (2008). The Children\u0026rsquo;s Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale: Comparing Factor Structures between Developmental Periods. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 68(6), 1008-1023. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164408318765\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRhoades K. A. (2008). Children\u0026apos;s responses to IPC: a meta-analysis of their associations with child adjustment. Child development, 79(6), 1942\u0026ndash;1956. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01235.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRichardson, E., Beath, A. \u0026amp; Boag, S. Default defenses: the character defenses of attachment-anxiety and attachment-avoidance. Curr Psychol 42, 28755\u0026ndash;28770 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03919-w\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRohner, R. P., \u0026amp; Britner, P. A. (2002). Worldwide Mental Health Correlates of Parental Acceptance-Rejection: Review of Cross-Cultural and Intracultural Evidence. Cross- Cultural Research, 36(1), 16-47. https://doi.org/10.1177/106939710203600102\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRohner, R.P., Ali, S. (2020). Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ). In: Zeigler-Hill, V., Shackelford, T.K. (eds) Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_56\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eScales, P. C., Benson, P. L., Oesterle, S., Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., \u0026amp; Pashak, T. J. (2015). The dimensions of successful young adult development: A conceptual and measurement framework. Applied developmental science, 20(3), 150\u0026ndash;174. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2015.1082429\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSherrill RB, Lochman JE, DeCoster J, Stromeyer SL. Spillover between IPC and parent- child conflict within and across days. J Fam Psychol. 2017 Oct;31(7):900-909. doi: 10.1037/fam0000332. Epub 2017 Jun 8. PMID: 28594199; PMCID: PMC5662492.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSimon, V. A., \u0026amp; Furman, W. (2010). IPC and Adolescents\u0026apos; Romantic Relationship Conflict. Journal of research on adolescence: the official journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 20(1), 188\u0026ndash;209. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532- 7795.2009.00635.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStataCorp. (2022). Stata Statistical Software: Release 18. StataCorp LLC.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSteele, L. G., \u0026amp; Lynch, S. M. (2013). The Pursuit of Happiness in China: Individualism, Collectivism, and Subjective Well-Being during China\u0026apos;s Economic and Social Transformation*. Social indicators research, 114(2), 10.1007/s11205-012-0154-1. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0154-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThiese M. S. (2014). Observational and interventional study design types; an overview. Biochemia medica, 24(2), 199\u0026ndash;210. https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2014.022\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTofthagen C. (2012). Threats to validity in retrospective studies. Journal of the advanced practitioner in oncology, 3(3), 181\u0026ndash;183.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVicedo, M. (2011). The social nature of the mother\u0026apos;s tie to her child: John Bowlby\u0026apos;s theory of attachment in post-war America. The British Journal for the History of Science, 44(3), 401-426. doi:10.1017/S0007087411000318\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWaller, R., Gardner, F., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Wilson, M. N., \u0026amp; Hyde, L. W. (2015). Callous-unemotional behavior and early-childhood onset of behavior problems: the role of parental harshness and warmth. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 44(4), 655\u0026ndash;667. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.886252\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWeymouth, B. B., Fosco, G. M., Mak, H. W., Mayfield, K., LoBraico, E. J., \u0026amp; Feinberg, M. E. (2019). Implications of IPC for adolescents\u0026apos; peer relationships: A longitudinal pathway through threat appraisals and social anxiety symptoms. Developmental psychology, 55(7), 1509\u0026ndash;1522. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000731\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWONG, Y. V. (2023). THE CULTURAL BELIEFS ON PRACTICES OF MOTHERING IN THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO: A SCOPING REVIEW. Quantum Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(5), 126\u0026ndash;140. https://doi.org/10.55197/qjssh.v4i5.278\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWu J, Wu Q. Effects of early-life environmental stress on risk-taking tendency of adolescents in rural areas of southwestern China. Front Psychiatry. 2024 Dec 12;15:1520790. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1520790. PMID: 39726911; PMCID: PMC11669707.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWycoff, A. M., Griffin, S. A., Helle, A. C., Haney, A. M., Watts, A. L., \u0026amp; Trull, T. J. (2023). The Brief ED Scale: Development, Preliminary Validation, and Recommendations for Use. Assessment, 10731911231161800. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10731911231161800\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYeh, M. T., Chen, P., Raine, A., Baker, L. A., \u0026amp; Jacobson, K. C. (2011). Child psychopathic traits moderate relationships between parental affect and child aggression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(10), 1054\u0026ndash;1064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.013\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYule, K., Houston, J. \u0026amp; Grych, J. Resilience in Children Exposed to Violence: A Meta- analysis of Protective Factors Across Ecological Contexts. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 22, 406\u0026ndash;431 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00293-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZelkowitz, R. L., \u0026amp; Cole, D. A. (2016). Measures of Emotion Reactivity and Emotion Regulation: Convergent and Discriminant Validity. Personality and individual differences, 102, 123\u0026ndash;132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.045\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, L., Wang, R., Li, Y., \u0026amp; Chen, L. (2024). The impact of maternal emotional warmth on adolescents\u0026apos; internalizing problem behaviors: the roles of meaning in life and friendship conflict. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e, 1478610. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1478610\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eBaseline characteristics\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"556\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e107\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCountry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUK\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLiving with\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBoth\u0026nbsp;my parents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOne\u0026nbsp;of\u0026nbsp;my parents\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther relatives\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean (SD)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedian (Range)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.11 (2.55)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u0026nbsp;(18-29)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIPC\u0026nbsp;total\u0026nbsp;score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94.83 (31.71)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e103\u0026nbsp;(0-140)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmotional\u0026nbsp;dysregulation score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.59 (7.31)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u0026nbsp;(0-34)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReactive\u0026nbsp;aggression score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.13 (4.66)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u0026nbsp;(0-16)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParental\u0026nbsp;warmth\u0026nbsp;score\u0026nbsp;(mother\u0026rsquo;s version)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.24 (21.84)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u0026nbsp;(0-85)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParental\u0026nbsp;warmth\u0026nbsp;score\u0026nbsp;(father\u0026rsquo;s version)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.56 (22.27)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u0026nbsp;(0-84)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eLinear regression model of the direct association between IPC and reactive aggression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"555\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCoefficient\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow\u0026nbsp;CI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh\u0026nbsp;CI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIPC\u0026nbsp;total\u0026nbsp;score\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0289263\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0117854\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0056\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.052213\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.388341\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.178124\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0604\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.716203\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoefficient:standardized regression coefficients \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Cons: the constant term.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe correlation between IPC and reactive aggression with the mediating effect of ED and parental warmth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIPC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReactive Aggression\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmotional Dysregulation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental warmth\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(mother)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental warmth\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(father)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIPC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReactive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1965\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAggression\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.153)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmotional\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2204\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1756\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDysregulation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.0064)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.0305)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2093\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4663\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2957\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ewarmth\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.0096)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.0000)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.0002)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(mother)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2065\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4077\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.239 (0.0030)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8076 (0.0000)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ewarmth\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.107)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(0.0000)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(father)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;4.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSEM analysis of the mediators of the association between IPC and reactive aggression.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCoefficient\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Coefficient\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZ\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow\u0026nbsp;CI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh\u0026nbsp;CI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReactive\u0026nbsp;aggression\u0026nbsp;(total score)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEmotional dysregulation 0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0482\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.745\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.078\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParental\u0026nbsp;warmth (mother) 0.080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.028\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParental\u0026nbsp;warmth (father) 0.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.514\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.033\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.066\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIPC\u0026nbsp;total score 0.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.193\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.007\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econstant 1.802\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.114\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.433\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.038\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmotional dysregulation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIPC\u0026nbsp;total score 0.051\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.086\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econstant 4.781\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.822\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.209\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental\u0026nbsp;warmth (mother)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIPC\u0026nbsp;total score 0.144\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0546\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.037\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.251\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econstant 25.569\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.461\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.865\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.273\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental\u0026nbsp;warmth (father)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIPC\u0026nbsp;total score 0.145\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.254\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econstant 27.812\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.572\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.891\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.734\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003evar(e.reacttotal)\u003c/strong\u003e 16.665\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.309\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.866\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003evar(e.dystotal)\u003c/strong\u003e 50.504\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.793\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.336\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.237\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003evar(e.mothertotal)\u003c/strong\u003e 453.318\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.999\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e362.046\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e567.600\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003evar(e.fathertotal)\u003c/strong\u003e 471.929\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.134\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e376.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e590.903\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ecov(e.dystotal,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ee.mothertotal)\u003c/strong\u003e 39.595\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.686\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.731\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.460\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ecov(e.dystotal,\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ee.fathertotal)\u003c/strong\u003e 31.301\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.777\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.259\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.344\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSE: standard error; P: P value; CI: confidence interval; AIC: Akaike\u0026rsquo;s information criterion; BIC: Bayesian information criterion; IPC: IPC total score.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"University of Edinburgh","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Inter-parental conflict, Reactive aggression, Emotional dysregulation, Parental warmth","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6195416/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6195416/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eWhile previous research suggests that interparental conflict (IPC) influences aggression, the mechanisms through which it occurs remain underexplored. This study examines the relationship between childhood exposure to IPC and reactive aggression in emerging adulthood, with a focus on the mediating roles of parental warmth and emotional dysregulation. Data were collected from 152 participants aged 18 to 29, using a combination of well-validated instruments to measure IPC, emotional dysregulation, reactive aggression, and perceived parental warmth from mothers and fathers. Results indicate maternal warmth emerged as a key mediator, especially for females, whereas emotional dysregulation played a stronger mediating role among Chinese participants. Paternal warmth and emotional dysregulation did not significantly mediate the relationship. These findings underscore the protective role of maternal emotional support in mitigating the adverse effects of IPC on aggression, with notable variations across gender and cultural contexts. The study highlights the importance of interventions targeting maternal warmth and emotional regulation, particularly in cultures where emotional suppression is prevalent, to reduce the long-term impact of IPC on aggressive behavior.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effects of childhood inter-parent conflict on reactive aggression in emerging adulthood: the role of parental warmth, and emotional dysregulation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-17 09:30:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6195416/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b3264933-8c3a-4f10-9736-9551443fd768","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-03-17T09:30:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-17 09:30:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6195416","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6195416","identity":"rs-6195416","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}