Impact of nutrition on students’ achievements: Evidence from Sub-Saharan African Countries

Impact of nutrition on students’ achievements: Evidence from Sub-Saharan African Countries | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Impact of nutrition on students’ achievements: Evidence from Sub-Saharan African Countries Saad Kholti, Mariem Liouaeddine, Youssra JOUHARI This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4700288/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigated the impact of school canteen nutrition on the academic performance of students in sub-Saharan Africa using data from the PASEC-2019 survey. Employing propensity score matching, we found a significant positive effect of school canteens on students' math and reading scores. Specifically, the impact was estimated at 20.46 points for mathematics and 25.49 points for reading. The effect varied by gender, with girls showing slightly greater improvements: an average increase of 21.46 points in mathematics and 27.10 points in reading, compared to 19.91 and 25.33 points for boys, respectively. However, disparities were observed between countries, with some showing significant impacts while others did not. This comparative analysis underscores the role of school canteens as a crucial factor in enhancing educational outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa. nutrition education outcomes gender PASEC Propensity Score Matching Sub-Saharan African countries Figures Figure 1 Introduction The endogenous growth theory has revived interest in education, highlighting its crucial role in development at both the macro (Krueger & Lindahl, 2001) and micro levels (Angrist & Krueger, 1991; Duflo, 2001). Research has confirmed that education leads to a higher standard of living and sustainable economic growth (Glewwe 2002; Hanuschek and Woessmann 2007; Schultz 1988). Investing in human capital generates a skilled workforce that is essential for development (Diagne 2008). In the context of technological progress, labor productivity is increasingly linked to educational skills (Bartel & Lichtenberg, 1987). Education is a crucial element in children's development, and many authors have emphasized its importance. According to Edwards and Alldred (2001), education is a powerful tool for children's personal, social and economic development. Henderson and Berla (1994) highlight the role of education in reducing poverty and promoting economic growth. Richardson (2003) highlights the importance of early childhood education as a solid foundation for lifelong learning. Sanders and Sheldon (2009) highlight the role of education in promoting intercultural understanding and building self-confidence. Sheldon (2009) highlighted the importance of parental involvement in children's education and its positive impact on academic success. The importance of education and socioeconomic development in humans has long been widely recognized. This led the international community to place "Quality Primary Education for All" as one of the top priorities of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), second only to the fight against poverty. Despite this global recognition and commitment, progress toward universal quality education has often been insufficient and uneven (Diagne et al., 2013). Even with the introduction of free public education in many countries, the opportunity costs associated with education remain an obstacle for disadvantaged families, preventing them from sending their children to school. In addition, the quality of education is often inadequate, which compromises students' future perspectives. The World Bank (2022) revealed that millions of young people will find themselves outside the school system with no professional qualifications or practical skills. Inequalities in access to education remain a persistent problem, particularly among girls. UNESCO (2022) noted that many low-income countries have failed to support disadvantaged learners, particularly during the temporary closure of schools because of containment measures. These inequalities have hindered the creation of egalitarian societies that are more resilient. Moreover, the economic dependence and indebtedness of sub-Saharan African countries limit their ability to effectively invest in education policies (UNESCO, 2011). Despite these challenges, it is imperative to continue investing in education with a focus on improving the quality of education, reducing inequalities in access, and strengthening education systems. Education remains a powerful driver of change, improving health and livelihoods, fostering social stability, and stimulating economic development, offering a promising future for the sub-Saharan region (Patrinos, 2016). School canteens play an essential role among the many factors that can significantly influence the educational attainment of primary-school children. Malnutrition and hunger are common problems in many sub-Saharan African countries, particularly in children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Lack of nutritious food can hinder children's physical and cognitive development, disrupting their learning in the classroom (Neulat, 2005). School canteens were set up in response to this reality with the aim of providing pupils with adequate food, thus helping to improve their health conditions and support their academic success. The UNICEF Report (1998) highlighted the crucial role of school canteens in the fight against child hunger and malnutrition, emphasizing that these programmes ensure regular access to nutritious meals for children, thereby improving their health and cognitive development. School canteens can be seen as a wise investment in the human capital of developing countries, as it improves children's nutrition, which has a positive impact on their education and future productivity, helping reduce socioeconomic inequalities. Beyond these nutritional objectives, school canteens have a profound impact on academic success. By providing regular and well-balanced meals, these programs help reduce hunger among students and improve their concentration and participation in classes. Well-nourished children are likely to be attentive, active, and engaged in the learning process. Consequently, school canteens could potentially promote better academic performance and more effective knowledge retention. Analyzing school performance in the context of student outcomes-based education is both a vast and complex undertaking. This performance is influenced by many factors such as teacher characteristics, pedagogical methods used, and student nutrition (Liouaeddine et al., 2017). Although the beneficial role of school canteens is promising, it is essential to consider the challenges that may hinder their effectiveness. The nutritional quality of the meals offered, proper management of school meal programs, and financial and political support from the government are all factors that can influence the real impact of these initiatives on the education of primary school students in the sub-Saharan region. In this context, one crucial question is the impact of school canteens on the educational attainment of primary school students in sub-Saharan countries. These school meal programs have been introduced in many countries in the region with the aim of providing adequate nutrition to pupils, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds, to reduce hunger and malnutrition and promote better overall health. This paper is structured into three sections to explore this research question. The first section reviews the theoretical and empirical literature. The second section details the data sources used, a description of the variables studied, and the empirical methodology implemented. Finally, this section presents the interpretation and discussion of the results. This structure was intended to provide a comprehensive and clear analysis of the research question. 1. Literature review As highlighted by various studies, school canteens are collective catering services offered to children in schools to ensure a balanced and healthy diet (Broucke et al., 2019). They play a crucial role in providing students with nutritious meals, thereby contributing to their health and wellbeing. Additionally, school canteens can serve as places to transmit regional food standards and culinary practices by offering dishes typical of the region (Poulain, 2017). This allows students to discover and become accustomed to local flavors while maintaining food traditions. School canteens are not limited to the food dimension; they also affect the school environment. They promote social interactions between students, helping to create a positive school environment (Gremmen et al., 2018). These convivial moments reinforce the links between students and improve their educational experience. It has also been suggested that school canteens may influence students' academic performance, although the results of studies on this subject vary (Bonnal & Favard, 2007). Some studies have indicated that nutritious meals can have a positive impact on students' concentration and cognitive abilities, whereas other results may be affected by a variety of factors. School feeding programs aim to deliver food in the form of meals or rations to learners or their families to achieve various educational objectives. According to Krouélé (2017), the canteen is an emulation service that contributes to improving school results and class attendance rates. Simultaneously, school canteens offer significant potential for improving pupils' eating habits (Schwinghammer & Smeets, 2018). Therefore, it is essential to encourage school canteens to reduce school dropouts, particularly in primary education. Notably, this phenomenon is also present in the Western world, for various reasons (Krouélé, 2017). School food plays a decisive role in creating and promoting an environment conducive to student learning (Codero 2015). According to Diagne et al. (2013), school canteen programmes have a significant impact on students' academic performance. Poor nutrition during middle childhood can have consequences such as a weakened immune system, increased morbidity, and deterioration in cognition. These factors compromise school performance and can lead to absenteeism, failure to graduate, or dropping out of school (Bouterakos et al., 2021). Children inevitably find it harder to learn in the absence of adequate food and nutrition (Codero, 2015). The concept of school canteens is based on the establishment of restaurant services within schools that offer balanced and affordable meals to students during school hours. The main objective is to improve their health and nutrition, which affect their academic performance and general well-being (Alladatin et al., 2022). Over the years, school canteens have progressed into a simple measure of malnutrition. They are now considered investments in the human capital of countries in development, where renowned economists have emphasized their crucial role. (Perignon & al.,2023). In addition, school canteens are not only good for children's nutrition, but can also help reduce absences from school. Providing students with hot meals made them more likely to attend school regularly, thereby improving their participation and academic performance. These economists believe that school canteens contribute to the economic and social progress of nations by fighting hunger and improving children's health (Wang and Fawzi 2020). Economists also acknowledge that school canteens play an essential role in the fight against hunger, particularly in developing countries, where many children rely on school meals as their main source of food. By ensuring regular access to nutritious meals, these programs can improve children’s overall health and enable them to concentrate on their studies. School canteens are also considered to be key elements in promoting sustainable development (Jomaa et al. 2011). By promoting healthy eating at an early age, these programs can contribute to healthy eating habits and reduce the burden of diet-related health problems and chronic disease. School canteens are considered essential tools for improving health, education, equal opportunities, and the overall development of countries (Chortatos et al., 2018). School canteen programs play an essential role in addressing several crucial development issues within countries. On one hand, they help improve the nutrition of children who often suffer from malnutrition and nutritional deficiencies. By providing balanced and nutritious meals to schoolchildren, these programs help combat childhood hunger and malnutrition, which are essential for growth, health, and cognitive development. Improved nutrition not only enhances the body's ability to fend off illness but also enables children to attend school regularly, thereby promoting better health. In 2022, Alladatin et al. examined the impact of school canteens on the performance and retention of primary school pupils using data from the PASEC-2014 survey, which covered 3033 CM2 students and 732 CP students. Using propensity score matching, the results revealed that canteens had a significantly positive impact on students' reading and math performance, underscoring their contribution to improving their academic skills. However, they also had an overall negative impact on school dropout. Interestingly, canteens appear to have a greater impact on the performance of private school students than public school students, although their role in retention is more important for public school students. A randomized study by Diagne et al. (2013) examined the impact of school canteen programmes on the performance of rural elementary schools in Senegal. The results show that canteens have a significant impact on pupils' overall performance in second grade as well as in mathematics and French, with improvements of 10.56, 12.32 points and 8.72 points respectively. However, this impact was not significant for the older children in the first grade. Fourth-year-old girls benefited the most from this impact. The cognitive skills of the younger children, such as memorization and reasoning, improved considerably. Although canteens do not improve the internal efficiency of schools, they do have positive effects on the diets of beneficiaries and their peers. In addition, significant interactions were observed between canteens and traditional educational quality factors such as poverty and class size. These results suggest that the widespread introduction of school canteens could be an effective way to accelerate progress toward quality education. Powelle et al. (1997) conducted a randomized study in a rural elementary school in Jamaica, and evaluated the effects of providing breakfast to undernourished and well-nourished children. The study sample comprised 407 undernourished and 407 well-nourished children matched according to school, class, and nutritional status. The school breakfast group showed significant improvements in height, weight, and school attendance compared to the control group, underlining the importance of nutrition in the context of education. However, improvements in academic achievement were modest, with the exception of younger children, who performed better in mathematics. The study concludes that the provision of school meals can bring modest benefits and that greater improvements could be observed in more undernourished populations. This also highlights the need for integrated programs that combine health and educational interventions to address the overall problem of insufficient academic achievement. Mastewal et al. (2018) examined the effects of school canteen programs on children's school attendance in Boricha district in southern Ethiopia. This study focused on assessing the Dietary Diversity Score (DDS), class attendance rate, Body Mass Index (BMI) for age z-score (BAZ), and height for age z-score (HAZ). The study sample comprised 290 children, 145 from schools not benefiting from school canteen programs and 145 from schools benefiting from them. The results showed that absenteeism was more frequent among non-beneficiaries (91.0%) than beneficiaries (49.7%). The main reason reported for absence among non-beneficiaries was hunger (42.8%), whereas that among beneficiaries was the domestic workload (27.6%). However, the results of Mastewal et al. (2018) do not explain the enrollment rate. This study assumed that school canteen programs encourage children to attend school. Based on a study conducted in Ethiopia, if school canteens improve attendance, it is relevant to understand how this relates to enrollment rates. Following previous studies, Sylevester and Mahama (2011) examined the effects of catering at Ghanaian schools. Their research showed that this programme had a positive impact on several aspects. Statistics show that beneficiary schools recorded a significant increase in enrollment compared to the annual targets set by CRS/Ghana between 2004 and 2007. For example, in 2004 and 2007, while the enrollment targets were 153,146 and 137,253, respectively, the actual number of students enrolled was 192,049 and 226,026, representing increases of 25% and 64%, respectively. The study revealed benefits, such as increased enrollment, reduced gender disparities, improved school retention, cognitive and health benefits, increased community participation, and data collection for school planning. However, its impact on school canteens remains. These programs also help promote access to education, particularly for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Kremer and Vermeersch (2004) also studied the impact of subsidized school meals on school participation and academic achievement in Kenya, using a randomization method. The analysis was based on data from a program implemented in 25 preschools, randomly selected from a possible population of 50. The results showed 30% higher school attendance by children in the beneficiary group than in the control group. Meals improve academic performance, particularly in schools with experienced teachers. However, meals led to an increase in the class size. Adelman et al. (2008) conducted a study in northern Uganda from 2005 to 2007 to examine the effects of different food for education (FFE) programmes on learning and cognitive development at the primary level. This study compared the results of three groups: beneficiaries of the World Food Program’s School Feeding Program (SFP), beneficiaries of an experimental take-home rations (THR) program offering equivalent food transfers; and a control group. The results showed that the THR programme significantly improved the mathematical results of children aged 11–14 years, particularly those with a delay in starting school. The SFP program slightly increased the literacy scores of children aged 11–14 years but had a negative impact on the literacy scores of children aged 6–10 years. Both programs had positive effects on cognitive development, particularly the ability to manipulate concepts. In addition, girls who benefited from the THR program showed improvement in short-term memory and reasoning skills. Another study based on 32 sub-Saharan African countries showed that the provision of school meals as part of the Food for Education (FFE) program has helped increase absolute enrollment in schools supported by the World Food Programme by 28% for girls and 22% for boys in just one year (Gelli et al., 2007). However, after the first year, the enrollment pattern showed variations according to the type of program, that is, whether the provision of school meals was combined with take-home rations or if they were served on their own. In locations where school meals and takeaway rations were offered together, the absolute enrollment of girls continued to increase by 30% after the first year. In contrast, schools that offered only on-site catering showed the same increase in enrollment as before the implementation of catering. Research on school canteens has often shown positive effects on students' academic achievements. Despite this interest, few studies have focused on sub-Saharan African countries, where canteens play a crucial role in improving access to education and academic achievement. Our study explored the impact of school canteens on primary education in sub-Saharan Africa. Based on an analysis of the data available in this region, our objective is to better understand how canteens contribute to the achievement of educational goals in these countries. 2. Methodology The database used in our evaluation is one of the Programme d'Analyze des Systèmes Educatifs of CONFEMEN 1 (PASEC) for the year 2019, and is divided into two components: PASEC grade 2 and PASEC grade 6. These two components are specifically designed to assess the mathematical and reading skills of students at different stages of their school careers, allowing for an in-depth analysis of the quality of education systems in sub-Saharan countries. PASEC Grade 2 was designed to evaluate students’ mathematical and reading competencies from the start of their primary education. By collecting data from students at the start of their schooling, the evaluation aims to detect any gaps in students' fundamental achievements at an early stage and identify areas requiring particular attention. This first step is essential to laying a solid foundation for learning and improving academic progress. PASEC Grade 6 was designed to evaluate students' mathematical and reading skills by the end of their primary education. At this stage, students acquire advanced knowledge and confront complex subjects. In this way, grade 6 evaluation provides a measure of the overall effectiveness of the education system in preparing students for higher academic challenges. This approach offers the opportunity to verify the acquisition of essential skills prior to the transition to secondary education. Moreover, in our study, the evaluation of the impact of school canteens on student achievement was based specifically on grade six data from the 2019 PASEC survey. The survey included a considerable sample size of 62,934 individuals. Data were collected at the end of the 2018–2019 school year from a sample of students, teachers, and directors in at least 180 schools across 14 2 sub-Saharan African countries. The justification for using grade 6 in this evaluation is that pupils in this age group are at a more advanced stage in their school career. They acquired more developed skills in mathematics and reading, making it easier to evaluate the impact of school canteens on their level of learning. In addition, grade 6 students are about to move on to secondary education, making this a critical time to evaluate their academic readiness and ability to take on new challenges. Grade 6 evaluations provide valuable data to analyze the impact of school canteens on student achievement in sub-Saharan countries and to make informed decisions on educational policy and system improvement. The sample comprised 36,328 students, 9,988 of whom belonged to the treatment group (27.49%), while 26,340 students belonged to the control group (72.51%), as illustrated in figure below. This distribution enables us to analyze in depth the impact of school canteens on the academic achievements of Grade 6 students in sub-Saharan countries while ensuring significant representation of both groups for robust conclusions. We employed propensity score matching. This approach, introduced by Rosenbaum and Rubin in 1983, is a nonexperimental technique used to estimate the impact of a program or intervention when random assignment is not feasible. The treatment variable takes the value of 1 if the pupil ate his meal in the school canteen and 0 otherwise. This treatment variable will enable us to observe the impact of the school canteen on students' achievement in reading and mathematics. The variables used to quantitatively evaluate the effect of school canteens on the educational level of students in their 6th year of primary school. Table 1 Model Variables. Variable Description Treatment variable School canteen 1: If the pupil takes his meal in the school canteen, 0: If not Variables de contrôle Gender 1: Boy, 0: Girl. Age The age of each child. Eyeglass holder 1: If the child wears glasses, 0: If not. Laptop/ Tablet 1: If the student has a laptop or tablet at home, 0: If not. Status of the school 1: Public, 0: Private. Classic classrooms 1: The school has single-grade classes with a normal timetable, 0: If not. School location 1: A city, 2: A suburb of a large city, 3: A large village, 4: A small village. School accessibility 1: If the school is accessible all year round, 0: If not. Strikes 1: If there were strikes during the school year, 0: If not. Automatic passage 1: If the school practices automatic transfer of pupils within the various sub-cycles (e.g.: between CP1 and CP2, or between CM1 and CM2), 0: If not. Student encouragement 1: If the best students are officially encouraged, for example by honor rolls, prizes, scholarships, gifts, 0: If not. Output variables Average reading score The average score for each student. Average mathematics score The average score for each student. Source Compiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019) To execute the matching method, we first estimate the probit model. This model estimates the probability of each individual belonging to the group benefiting from the school canteen programme based on their observable characteristics. The model equation can be summarized as follows: In this equation, the variables are used to estimate the probability of an individual benefiting from school canteens. The initial stage of the matching method involves modeling the propensity score. Table 2 displays the marginal effect outcomes following probit model estimation. The outcomes from the probit model allow us to compute the propensity scores or participation probabilities linked to everyone in the sample by utilizing the characteristics outlined in our model. Table 2 Estimation of propension score Variables dy/dx Delta-method std. err. Z P>|z| [95% conf. interval] Age .0044299 .001437 3.08 0.002*** .0016135 .0072464 Gender − .0113044 .0046358 -2.44 0.015** − .0203903 − .0022184 Eyeglass holder − .0038069 .0112328 -0.34 0.735 − .0258227 .0182089 Laptop/ Tablet − .0031666 .0061568 -0.51 0.607 − .0152337 .0089005 Status of the school − .0558927 .0068411 -8.17 0.000*** − .069301 − .0424843 Classic classrooms − .0694617 .0058234 -11.93 0.000*** − .0808754 − .058048 School location .0494146 .0022495 21.97 0.000*** .0450056 .0538235 School accessibility − .0326746 .0067963 -4.81 0.000*** − .0459952 − .019354 Strikes − .0267402 .0053477 -5.00 0.000*** − .0372215 − .0162588 Automatic passage .0683004 .0046602 14.66 0.000*** .0591666 .0774343 Student encouragement .023228 .0048701 4.77 0.000*** .0136829 .0327731 Note :* : p < 0,1 ; ** : p < 0,05 ; *** : p < 0,01. Source Compiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019) The results in the table highlight several key trends in students’ participation in school canteens. First, the probability of benefiting from this service increases with the age of the individual, whereas a positive correlation is observed between the size of the school and the probability of benefiting from school canteens. In addition, the transition between grades and student encouragement appears to favor participation, while disparities in gender and school type are apparent, with girls and private school students having respective advantages. Non-classical classrooms, school inaccessibility factors, and the absence of strikes also had a significant influence on participation in the school canteen program. The application of the matching method to evaluate the impact of the school canteen program was based on verification of the common support condition, which was successfully confirmed in our evaluation. The ranges of the common supports obtained were 0.10118796 and 0.53618673, respectively. 3. Results and discussion The estimation of the average effect of treatment on the level of students on reading and mathematics tests for those benefiting from school canteens provides a better understanding of the impact of these canteens on the academic achievement of students in sub-Saharan countries. By examining these estimates, we will be able to assess the influence of school canteens on students' academic performance, and thus obtain important information for improving education in this region. Table 3 Average effect of treatment on outcome variables. n. treat n. contr. ATT Std. Err. T Mathematics score 9988 20920 20.46 1.309 15.632*** Reading Score 9988 20920 25.49 1.494 17.065*** Source Compiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019) The results of this evaluation are significant. For the mathematics score, the ATT was estimated at 20.46, indicating an average increase of 20.46 points in the score of students benefiting from school canteens compared with those who did not. Similarly, for the reading score, the ATT is estimated at 25.49, equivalent to an average increase of 25.49 points in the score of program beneficiaries compared to their non-beneficiary peers. These differences were statistically significant, as evidenced by the high t-statistics of 15.632 for mathematics, and 17.065 for reading. These results demonstrated the positive and substantial impact of canteens on students' skill levels in mathematics and reading. In addition, the study conducted by Diagne et al. (2013) made a significant contribution to our understanding of the impact of school canteen programs on pupils' cognitive acquisition. This study, based on a randomized experiment in a rural elementary school in Senegal, produced results that were in line with our findings. These findings demonstrate that school canteen programs have a positive and significant effect on pupils' performance in reading and mathematics. Similarly, the study of Alladatin & al. (2022) in Benin examined the impact of canteens on the performance and retention of primary school pupils using data from the PASEC-2014 survey, which included 3033 CM2 pupils and 732 CP pupils. Using the propensity score method, the results showed a significant positive impact of canteens on students' reading and mathematics skills, underlining their contribution to improving their academic skills. These results reinforce the idea that school canteens play an essential role in improving students' academic skills, thereby contributing to the overall objective of regional education. This convergence of results from different studies underlines the importance of school canteens as a factor in the development of education in sub-Saharan Africa and suggests that policies and investments aimed at strengthening these programs are justified. The next part of our analysis explored the impact of school canteens according to the students’ gender. This will enable us to understand how these services affect the academic achievement of boys’ and girls’ in different ways. Table 4 Average treatment effect by sex. Variables Coefficient AI robust std. err. z P>|z| [95% conf. interval] Mathematics scores Boys 19.91 1.616923 12.31 0.000*** 16.7382 23.07642 Girls 21.46 1.682012 12.76 0.000*** 18.1625 24.75587 Reading Scores Boys 25.33 1.75787 14.41 0.000*** 21.87986 28.77059 Girls 27.10 1.823005 14.87 0.000*** 23.52926 30.6753 Note :* : p < 0,1 ; ** : p < 0,05 ; *** : p < 0,01. Source Compiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019) The results of gender analysis revealed that the presence of school canteens had a positive impact on academic performance for both genders. For math scores, boys saw an increase of 19.91 points and girls an increase of 21.46 points compared with those who did not benefit. For reading scores, boys showed an increase of 25.33 points, while girls increased their score by 27.10 points by benefiting from school canteens. It is interesting to note that girls seemed to show a slightly more pronounced improvement in their scores in response to school canteens than did boys. The following text has been rephrased to use a formal tone while adhering to the specified requirements: The findings of this study indicate a favorable influence of school canteens on academic performance, with notable gender differences. These results were consistent with those reported by Djagba et al. (2023). After evaluating the impact of school canteens on academic scores by gender, it is necessary to explore how academic scores differ from country to country. To this end, the table below presents the distribution of the treatment effect by country, allowing us to understand how national context influences the effectiveness of school canteens in mathematics and reading scores. Table 5 Average treatment effect by country. Variables Coefficient AI robust std. err. z P>|z| [95% conf. interval] Mathematics scores BENIN -1.38251 3.768432 -0.37 0.714 -8.768501 6.003481 BURKINA FASO 15.11499 4.767836 3.17 0.002*** 5.770208 24.45978 BURUNDI 16.43489 3.960056 4.15 0.000*** 8.673322 24.19646 CAMEROON − .8962122 7.744671 -0.12 0.908 -16.07549 14.28306 CONGO 36.5064 5.876776 6.21 0.000*** 24.98813 48.02467 COTE D'IVOIRE -3.774492 3.479818 -1.08 0.278 -10.59481 3.045826 GABON 11.10155 12.15965 0.91 0.361 -12.73093 34.93402 GUINEA 17.72201 9.477417 1.87 0.061* − .8533822 36.29741 MADAGASCAR .1238064 4.41474 0.03 0.978 -8.528926 8.776539 NIGER 17.77958 4.219607 4.21 0.000*** 9.509305 26.04986 DRC 3 61.42343 10.11888 6.07 0.000*** 41.59079 81.25607 SENEGAL -16.81959 5.609489 -3.00 0.003*** -27.81399 -5.825194 CHAD 14.03737 4.779645 2.94 0.003*** 4.669441 23.40531 TOGO -4.442145 4.467064 -0.99 0.320 -13.19743 4.31314 Reading Scores BENIN -9.72089 4.23851 -2.29 0.022** -18.02822 -1.413564 BURKINA FASO 13.25107 5.284401 2.51 0.012** 2.893837 23.60831 BURUNDI 7.796999 3.287891 2.37 0.018** 1.352851 14.24115 CAMEROON 17.05569 8.420492 2.03 0.043** .5518249 33.55955 CONGO 42.66459 7.614243 5.60 0.000*** 27.74095 57.58824 COTE D'IVOIRE -3.023105 5.062477 -0.60 0.550 -12.94538 6.899168 GABON -16.93979 11.12383 -1.52 0.128 -38.7421 4.86251 GUINEA 30.71371 10.68057 2.88 0.004*** 9.780175 51.64725 MADAGASCAR 16.49766 3.916025 4.21 0.000*** 8.822391 24.17293 NIGER 3.4441 4.588567 0.75 0.453 -5.549325 12.43753 DRC 73.64637 12.53305 5.88 0.000*** 49.08204 98.2107 SENEGAL -20.04467 5.055647 -3.96 0.003*** -29.95355 -10.13578 CHAD 12.58537 6.665365 1.89 0.059* − .4785095 25.64924 TOGO -4.967353 5.06053 -0.98 0.326 -14.88581 4.951103 Note :* : p < 0,1 ; ** : p < 0,05 ; *** : p < 0,01. Source Compiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019) The results of our analysis revealed significant variations in the impact of school canteens on the mathematics and reading achievements of primary school students in sub-Saharan Africa. Our study showed that in several countries, including Burkina Faso, Burundi, Congo, Guinea, Niger, DRC, and Chad, school canteens had a positive and significant effect on math scores. This indicates that these programs help to improve the mathematical skills of students in these regions. However, in Benin and other countries such as Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Gabon, Madagascar, and Togo, school canteens did not have a significant impact on mathematical performance. Notably, in Senegal, a negative and significant effect was found, suggesting a possible unfavorable impact of canteens on mathematics scores. The results were equally different with regard to the reading scores. In countries such as Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Congo, Guinea, Madagascar, Chad, and the DRC, school canteens had a positive and significant impact on students’ reading performance. However, in Benin and Senegal, a negative and significant impact was observed, which could indicate the negative impact of these programs on reading skills. In other countries, such as Côte d'Ivoire, Gabon, Niger, and Togo, no significant relationships were found between school canteens and reading scores. The effectiveness of school canteens on the academic achievement of pupils in sub-Saharan Africa is variable and largely dependent on national context. These differences reveal the importance of examining country-specific factors that could explain these variations. A thorough understanding of these factors could help optimize the impact of school canteens and design more effective programs to support children's education in the region. 4. Conclusion The school canteen plays a fundamental role in the education system in sub-Saharan Africa. They are more than just places where pupils come to eat. They are key players in improving access to education, quality of teaching, and equality of opportunity. Our study explored the impact of these school canteen programs on the academic performance of students in this dynamic region in detail using reliable data from the PASEC-2019 survey. The results of our analysis are persuasive and interesting. They revealed a clear increase in mathematics and reading scores for students who benefited from school canteens, thus providing indisputable evidence of the positive impact of these programs on students' academic achievement. This is of crucial importance, as it shows how access to adequate food can be directly converted into better school performance. We noted a slightly greater improvement among girls, which demonstrates the central role of school canteens in promoting gender equality in education. Girls often face socioeconomic and cultural barriers to accessing education, and school canteens have proven to be powerful tools for overcoming these barriers and promoting inclusion. However, it should be noted that the impact on school canteens was not the same for the entire region. There are significant disparities between countries, with some countries showing a significant positive impact, while others show little or no impact. These variations can be attributed to a multitude of factors such as the quality of program implementation, availability of resources, and specificities of the local context. These significant differences in the impact of school canteens between countries demonstrate the importance of considering local context and regional particularities when implementing these programs. The quality of the program implementation is a key factor influencing the results. With respect to the quality of meals served and infrastructure management, countries that have succeeded in implementing school canteens have generally achieved the best results in terms of students’ academic performance. Resource availability was another determining factor. Countries that have invested adequately in their school canteen programs have been able to provide higher-quality meals and guarantee greater coverage with a positive impact on school results. However, countries facing budgetary constraints or limited resources are sometimes forced to set up less effective programs. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethics approval and consent to participate were not required for this study because it did not involve human or animal subjects. Consent for publication: Consent for publication is not applicable, as this study did not contain any identifiable individual data. Availability of data and material: Data will be shared upon request Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding: Not applicable Author contributions: All authors contributed equally to the conception, design, execution, and writing of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements: Not applicable References Adelman, S., Alderman, H., Gilligan, D. O., & Lehrer, K. (2008). The impact of alternative food for education programs on learning achievement and cognitive development in Northern Uganda. Unpublished manuscript . Alladatin, J., Borori, A., Gnanguenon, A., & Fonton, A. (2022). Évaluation d’impact des cantines scolaires sur les performances et la rétention scolaires au primaire: Cas du Bénin. [RMd] RevistaMultidisciplinar , 4 (1), 171-196. Angrist, Joshua D & Krueger, Alan B, 1991. "Does Compulsory School Attendance Affect Schooling and Earnings?," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, MIT Press, vol. 106(4), pages 979-1014, November. Bonnal, L., & Favard, P. (2007). Les cantines scolaires : un outil pour lutter contre la pauvreté et pour intégrer la société. Revue Tiers Monde Chortatos, A., Terragni, L., Henjum, S., Gjertsen, M., Torheim, L. E., & Gebremariam, M. K. (2018). Consumption habits of school canteen and non-canteen users among Norwegian young adolescents: a mixed method analysis. BMC pediatrics, 18, 1-12. Codero, M., 2015. Sécurité alimentaire et moyens d'existence.. s.l., Terre des hommes –aide à l’enfance. Diagne. Abdoulaye. 2008. « Investir sur le capital humain : Education et Santé ». African Development Review, Vol. 19, Issue 1, pages 163–199, April/Avril 2007. Diagne, A., L Diallo, F., & Moustapha LO, M. (2013). Évaluation De L’Impact Des Programmes De Cantines Scolaires Sur L’Efficacité Interne Des Écoles, Les Acquisitions Cognitives Et Les Capacités D’Apprentissage Des Élèves Dans Les Écoles Primaires Rurales AU Sénégal. Gelli, A., Meir, U., & Espejo, F. (2007). Does provision of food in school increase girls' enrollment? Evidence from schools in sub-Saharan Africa. Food and Nutrition Bulletin , 28 (2), 149-155. Glewwe, P. (2002). Schools and skills in developing countries: education policies and socioeconomic outcomes. Journal of economic literature, 40(2), 436-482. Henderson, A. T., & Berla, N. (1994). A new generation of evidence: The family is critical to student achievement . Jomaa, L. H., McDonnell, E., & Probart, C. (2011). School feeding programs in developing countries: impacts on children's health and educational outcomes. Nutrition reviews, 69(2), 83-98. Kremer, M., & Vermeersch, C. (2004). School meals, educational achievement, and school competition: evidence from a randomized evaluation . Krouélé, T.(2017). Lutte Contre La Déscolarisation Dans L’enseignement Primaire: Les Cantines Scolaires En Côte d’Ivoire. Liouaeddine, M., Bijou, M., & Naji, F. (2017). The main determinants of Moroccan students' Outcomes. Neulat, N. (2005). L’éducation nutritionnelle à l’école. enfances & PSY, (1), 96-100. PASEC (2019), Manuel d'exploitation des données de l'évaluation internationale. Patrinos, H. A. (2016). Le rôle crucial de l’éducation dans le développement économique. Consulté le, 20(04), Poulain, J. P. (2017). School meals in France: Culinary heritage, nutrition, and teaching citizenship. Journal of School Health, 87(4), 284-290. Rapport mondial de suivi sur l’éducation (2022). Rapport sur l'égalité des genres, approfondir le débat sur les enfants et les jeunes encore laissés de côté Rapport mondial de suivi sur l’éducation, (2021-2022). Les acteurs non étatiques dans l’éducation : qui décide? qui est perdant? Sanders, M. G., & Sheldon, S. B. (Eds.). (2009). Principals matter: A guide to school, family, and community partnerships . Corwin Press. Schultz, T. P. 1988. “Éducation Investments and Returns.” Handbook of Development Economics Vol. I, (eds.) H. Chenery and T.N. Srinivasan, Amsterdam: North- Holland Publishing, Chapter 13: 543-630. Sheldon, C. Q., & Durdella, N. R. (2009). Success rates for students taking compressed and regular developmental courses in community colleges. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 34(1-2), 39-54. Unicef. (1998). La situation des enfants dans le monde 1998: regard sur la nutrition. UNESCO 2011, « Le financement de l’éducation en Afrique subsaharienne : Relever les défis de l’expansion, de l’équité et de la qualité » World Bank (2022), The State of Global Learning Poverty: 2022 Update. Footnotes Conference of Ministers of Education of the States and Governments of the Francophonie Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Madagascar, Niger, Senegal and Togo. DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4700288","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":345850329,"identity":"ab1d432c-9f82-4b7f-9c82-58c665ba6a96","order_by":0,"name":"Saad Kholti","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université Ibn-Tofail","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Saad","middleName":"","lastName":"Kholti","suffix":""},{"id":345850330,"identity":"ad5d93fd-8a8e-4b9d-b9b0-9c875e8a23d3","order_by":1,"name":"Mariem Liouaeddine","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Université Ibn-Tofail","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mariem","middleName":"","lastName":"Liouaeddine","suffix":""},{"id":345850331,"identity":"8c94c734-002d-4806-8cac-194e795367aa","order_by":2,"name":"Youssra JOUHARI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université Ibn-Tofail","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Youssra","middleName":"","lastName":"JOUHARI","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-07-07 12:57:52","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4700288/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4700288/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":63444541,"identity":"a76f4e8e-c06e-4a4d-b157-52982caef83d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 08:17:01","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":53170,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of samples by treatment group.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003e Compiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4700288/v1/903b74cdee7b79d5b04c3f58.png"},{"id":63445247,"identity":"e6f36916-7533-4b7e-bfc9-da53d92687f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-28 08:25:02","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":690269,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4700288/v1/e3bdd880-b996-4372-b500-2c7ae067cd66.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Impact of nutrition on students’ achievements: Evidence from Sub-Saharan African Countries","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe endogenous growth theory has revived interest in education, highlighting its crucial role in development at both the macro (Krueger \u0026amp; Lindahl, 2001) and micro levels (Angrist \u0026amp; Krueger, 1991; Duflo, 2001). Research has confirmed that education leads to a higher standard of living and sustainable economic growth (Glewwe 2002; Hanuschek and Woessmann 2007; Schultz 1988). Investing in human capital generates a skilled workforce that is essential for development (Diagne 2008). In the context of technological progress, labor productivity is increasingly linked to educational skills (Bartel \u0026amp; Lichtenberg, 1987).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation is a crucial element in children's development, and many authors have emphasized its importance. According to Edwards and Alldred (2001), education is a powerful tool for children's personal, social and economic development. Henderson and Berla (1994) highlight the role of education in reducing poverty and promoting economic growth. Richardson (2003) highlights the importance of early childhood education as a solid foundation for lifelong learning. Sanders and Sheldon (2009) highlight the role of education in promoting intercultural understanding and building self-confidence. Sheldon (2009) highlighted the importance of parental involvement in children's education and its positive impact on academic success.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe importance of education and socioeconomic development in humans has long been widely recognized. This led the international community to place \"Quality Primary Education for All\" as one of the top priorities of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), second only to the fight against poverty. Despite this global recognition and commitment, progress toward universal quality education has often been insufficient and uneven (Diagne et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEven with the introduction of free public education in many countries, the opportunity costs associated with education remain an obstacle for disadvantaged families, preventing them from sending their children to school. In addition, the quality of education is often inadequate, which compromises students' future perspectives. The World Bank (2022) revealed that millions of young people will find themselves outside the school system with no professional qualifications or practical skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInequalities in access to education remain a persistent problem, particularly among girls. UNESCO (2022) noted that many low-income countries have failed to support disadvantaged learners, particularly during the temporary closure of schools because of containment measures. These inequalities have hindered the creation of egalitarian societies that are more resilient.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the economic dependence and indebtedness of sub-Saharan African countries limit their ability to effectively invest in education policies (UNESCO, 2011). Despite these challenges, it is imperative to continue investing in education with a focus on improving the quality of education, reducing inequalities in access, and strengthening education systems. Education remains a powerful driver of change, improving health and livelihoods, fostering social stability, and stimulating economic development, offering a promising future for the sub-Saharan region (Patrinos, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool canteens play an essential role among the many factors that can significantly influence the educational attainment of primary-school children. Malnutrition and hunger are common problems in many sub-Saharan African countries, particularly in children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Lack of nutritious food can hinder children's physical and cognitive development, disrupting their learning in the classroom (Neulat, 2005). School canteens were set up in response to this reality with the aim of providing pupils with adequate food, thus helping to improve their health conditions and support their academic success.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe UNICEF Report (1998) highlighted the crucial role of school canteens in the fight against child hunger and malnutrition, emphasizing that these programmes ensure regular access to nutritious meals for children, thereby improving their health and cognitive development. School canteens can be seen as a wise investment in the human capital of developing countries, as it improves children's nutrition, which has a positive impact on their education and future productivity, helping reduce socioeconomic inequalities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond these nutritional objectives, school canteens have a profound impact on academic success. By providing regular and well-balanced meals, these programs help reduce hunger among students and improve their concentration and participation in classes. Well-nourished children are likely to be attentive, active, and engaged in the learning process. Consequently, school canteens could potentially promote better academic performance and more effective knowledge retention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalyzing school performance in the context of student outcomes-based education is both a vast and complex undertaking. This performance is influenced by many factors such as teacher characteristics, pedagogical methods used, and student nutrition (Liouaeddine et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the beneficial role of school canteens is promising, it is essential to consider the challenges that may hinder their effectiveness. The nutritional quality of the meals offered, proper management of school meal programs, and financial and political support from the government are all factors that can influence the real impact of these initiatives on the education of primary school students in the sub-Saharan region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, one crucial question is the impact of school canteens on the educational attainment of primary school students in sub-Saharan countries. These school meal programs have been introduced in many countries in the region with the aim of providing adequate nutrition to pupils, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds, to reduce hunger and malnutrition and promote better overall health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis paper is structured into three sections to explore this research question. The first section reviews the theoretical and empirical literature. The second section details the data sources used, a description of the variables studied, and the empirical methodology implemented. Finally, this section presents the interpretation and discussion of the results. This structure was intended to provide a comprehensive and clear analysis of the research question.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"1. Literature review","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs highlighted by various studies, school canteens are collective catering services offered to children in schools to ensure a balanced and healthy diet (Broucke et al., 2019). They play a crucial role in providing students with nutritious meals, thereby contributing to their health and wellbeing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, school canteens can serve as places to transmit regional food standards and culinary practices by offering dishes typical of the region (Poulain, 2017). This allows students to discover and become accustomed to local flavors while maintaining food traditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool canteens are not limited to the food dimension; they also affect the school environment. They promote social interactions between students, helping to create a positive school environment (Gremmen et al., 2018). These convivial moments reinforce the links between students and improve their educational experience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt has also been suggested that school canteens may influence students' academic performance, although the results of studies on this subject vary (Bonnal \u0026amp; Favard, 2007). Some studies have indicated that nutritious meals can have a positive impact on students' concentration and cognitive abilities, whereas other results may be affected by a variety of factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool feeding programs aim to deliver food in the form of meals or rations to learners or their families to achieve various educational objectives. According to Krou\u0026eacute;l\u0026eacute; (2017), the canteen is an emulation service that contributes to improving school results and class attendance rates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimultaneously, school canteens offer significant potential for improving pupils' eating habits (Schwinghammer \u0026amp; Smeets, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, it is essential to encourage school canteens to reduce school dropouts, particularly in primary education. Notably, this phenomenon is also present in the Western world, for various reasons (Krou\u0026eacute;l\u0026eacute;, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool food plays a decisive role in creating and promoting an environment conducive to student learning (Codero 2015). According to Diagne et al. (2013), school canteen programmes have a significant impact on students' academic performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor nutrition during middle childhood can have consequences such as a weakened immune system, increased morbidity, and deterioration in cognition. These factors compromise school performance and can lead to absenteeism, failure to graduate, or dropping out of school (Bouterakos et al., 2021). Children inevitably find it harder to learn in the absence of adequate food and nutrition (Codero, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concept of school canteens is based on the establishment of restaurant services within schools that offer balanced and affordable meals to students during school hours. The main objective is to improve their health and nutrition, which affect their academic performance and general well-being (Alladatin et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver the years, school canteens have progressed into a simple measure of malnutrition. They are now considered investments in the human capital of countries in development, where renowned economists have emphasized their crucial role. (Perignon \u0026amp; al.,2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, school canteens are not only good for children's nutrition, but can also help reduce absences from school. Providing students with hot meals made them more likely to attend school regularly, thereby improving their participation and academic performance. These economists believe that school canteens contribute to the economic and social progress of nations by fighting hunger and improving children's health (Wang and Fawzi 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomists also acknowledge that school canteens play an essential role in the fight against hunger, particularly in developing countries, where many children rely on school meals as their main source of food. By ensuring regular access to nutritious meals, these programs can improve children\u0026rsquo;s overall health and enable them to concentrate on their studies. School canteens are also considered to be key elements in promoting sustainable development (Jomaa et al. 2011). By promoting healthy eating at an early age, these programs can contribute to healthy eating habits and reduce the burden of diet-related health problems and chronic disease. School canteens are considered essential tools for improving health, education, equal opportunities, and the overall development of countries (Chortatos et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool canteen programs play an essential role in addressing several crucial development issues within countries. On one hand, they help improve the nutrition of children who often suffer from malnutrition and nutritional deficiencies. By providing balanced and nutritious meals to schoolchildren, these programs help combat childhood hunger and malnutrition, which are essential for growth, health, and cognitive development. Improved nutrition not only enhances the body's ability to fend off illness but also enables children to attend school regularly, thereby promoting better health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2022, Alladatin et al. examined the impact of school canteens on the performance and retention of primary school pupils using data from the PASEC-2014 survey, which covered 3033 CM2 students and 732 CP students. Using propensity score matching, the results revealed that canteens had a significantly positive impact on students' reading and math performance, underscoring their contribution to improving their academic skills. However, they also had an overall negative impact on school dropout. Interestingly, canteens appear to have a greater impact on the performance of private school students than public school students, although their role in retention is more important for public school students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA randomized study by Diagne et al. (2013) examined the impact of school canteen programmes on the performance of rural elementary schools in Senegal. The results show that canteens have a significant impact on pupils' overall performance in second grade as well as in mathematics and French, with improvements of 10.56, 12.32 points and 8.72 points respectively. However, this impact was not significant for the older children in the first grade. Fourth-year-old girls benefited the most from this impact. The cognitive skills of the younger children, such as memorization and reasoning, improved considerably. Although canteens do not improve the internal efficiency of schools, they do have positive effects on the diets of beneficiaries and their peers. In addition, significant interactions were observed between canteens and traditional educational quality factors such as poverty and class size. These results suggest that the widespread introduction of school canteens could be an effective way to accelerate progress toward quality education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePowelle et al. (1997) conducted a randomized study in a rural elementary school in Jamaica, and evaluated the effects of providing breakfast to undernourished and well-nourished children. The study sample comprised 407 undernourished and 407 well-nourished children matched according to school, class, and nutritional status. The school breakfast group showed significant improvements in height, weight, and school attendance compared to the control group, underlining the importance of nutrition in the context of education. However, improvements in academic achievement were modest, with the exception of younger children, who performed better in mathematics. The study concludes that the provision of school meals can bring modest benefits and that greater improvements could be observed in more undernourished populations. This also highlights the need for integrated programs that combine health and educational interventions to address the overall problem of insufficient academic achievement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMastewal et al. (2018) examined the effects of school canteen programs on children's school attendance in Boricha district in southern Ethiopia. This study focused on assessing the Dietary Diversity Score (DDS), class attendance rate, Body Mass Index (BMI) for age z-score (BAZ), and height for age z-score (HAZ). The study sample comprised 290 children, 145 from schools not benefiting from school canteen programs and 145 from schools benefiting from them. The results showed that absenteeism was more frequent among non-beneficiaries (91.0%) than beneficiaries (49.7%). The main reason reported for absence among non-beneficiaries was hunger (42.8%), whereas that among beneficiaries was the domestic workload (27.6%). However, the results of Mastewal et al. (2018) do not explain the enrollment rate. This study assumed that school canteen programs encourage children to attend school. Based on a study conducted in Ethiopia, if school canteens improve attendance, it is relevant to understand how this relates to enrollment rates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing previous studies, Sylevester and Mahama (2011) examined the effects of catering at Ghanaian schools. Their research showed that this programme had a positive impact on several aspects. Statistics show that beneficiary schools recorded a significant increase in enrollment compared to the annual targets set by CRS/Ghana between 2004 and 2007. For example, in 2004 and 2007, while the enrollment targets were 153,146 and 137,253, respectively, the actual number of students enrolled was 192,049 and 226,026, representing increases of 25% and 64%, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study revealed benefits, such as increased enrollment, reduced gender disparities, improved school retention, cognitive and health benefits, increased community participation, and data collection for school planning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, its impact on school canteens remains. These programs also help promote access to education, particularly for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Kremer and Vermeersch (2004) also studied the impact of subsidized school meals on school participation and academic achievement in Kenya, using a randomization method. The analysis was based on data from a program implemented in 25 preschools, randomly selected from a possible population of 50.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results showed 30% higher school attendance by children in the beneficiary group than in the control group. Meals improve academic performance, particularly in schools with experienced teachers. However, meals led to an increase in the class size.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdelman et al. (2008) conducted a study in northern Uganda from 2005 to 2007 to examine the effects of different food for education (FFE) programmes on learning and cognitive development at the primary level. This study compared the results of three groups: beneficiaries of the World Food Program\u0026rsquo;s School Feeding Program (SFP), beneficiaries of an experimental take-home rations (THR) program offering equivalent food transfers; and a control group. The results showed that the THR programme significantly improved the mathematical results of children aged 11\u0026ndash;14 years, particularly those with a delay in starting school. The SFP program slightly increased the literacy scores of children aged 11\u0026ndash;14 years but had a negative impact on the literacy scores of children aged 6\u0026ndash;10 years. Both programs had positive effects on cognitive development, particularly the ability to manipulate concepts. In addition, girls who benefited from the THR program showed improvement in short-term memory and reasoning skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother study based on 32 sub-Saharan African countries showed that the provision of school meals as part of the Food for Education (FFE) program has helped increase absolute enrollment in schools supported by the World Food Programme by 28% for girls and 22% for boys in just one year (Gelli et al., 2007). However, after the first year, the enrollment pattern showed variations according to the type of program, that is, whether the provision of school meals was combined with take-home rations or if they were served on their own. In locations where school meals and takeaway rations were offered together, the absolute enrollment of girls continued to increase by 30% after the first year. In contrast, schools that offered only on-site catering showed the same increase in enrollment as before the implementation of catering.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on school canteens has often shown positive effects on students' academic achievements. Despite this interest, few studies have focused on sub-Saharan African countries, where canteens play a crucial role in improving access to education and academic achievement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study explored the impact of school canteens on primary education in sub-Saharan Africa. Based on an analysis of the data available in this region, our objective is to better understand how canteens contribute to the achievement of educational goals in these countries.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe database used in our evaluation is one of the Programme d'Analyze des Syst\u0026egrave;mes Educatifs of CONFEMEN\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e (PASEC) for the year 2019, and is divided into two components: PASEC grade 2 and PASEC grade 6. These two components are specifically designed to assess the mathematical and reading skills of students at different stages of their school careers, allowing for an in-depth analysis of the quality of education systems in sub-Saharan countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePASEC Grade 2 was designed to evaluate students\u0026rsquo; mathematical and reading competencies from the start of their primary education. By collecting data from students at the start of their schooling, the evaluation aims to detect any gaps in students' fundamental achievements at an early stage and identify areas requiring particular attention. This first step is essential to laying a solid foundation for learning and improving academic progress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePASEC Grade 6 was designed to evaluate students' mathematical and reading skills by the end of their primary education. At this stage, students acquire advanced knowledge and confront complex subjects. In this way, grade 6 evaluation provides a measure of the overall effectiveness of the education system in preparing students for higher academic challenges. This approach offers the opportunity to verify the acquisition of essential skills prior to the transition to secondary education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, in our study, the evaluation of the impact of school canteens on student achievement was based specifically on grade six data from the 2019 PASEC survey. The survey included a considerable sample size of 62,934 individuals. Data were collected at the end of the 2018\u0026ndash;2019 school year from a sample of students, teachers, and directors in at least 180 schools across 14\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e sub-Saharan African countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe justification for using grade 6 in this evaluation is that pupils in this age group are at a more advanced stage in their school career. They acquired more developed skills in mathematics and reading, making it easier to evaluate the impact of school canteens on their level of learning. In addition, grade 6 students are about to move on to secondary education, making this a critical time to evaluate their academic readiness and ability to take on new challenges. Grade 6 evaluations provide valuable data to analyze the impact of school canteens on student achievement in sub-Saharan countries and to make informed decisions on educational policy and system improvement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample comprised 36,328 students, 9,988 of whom belonged to the treatment group (27.49%), while 26,340 students belonged to the control group (72.51%), as illustrated in figure below.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis distribution enables us to analyze in depth the impact of school canteens on the academic achievements of Grade 6 students in sub-Saharan countries while ensuring significant representation of both groups for robust conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe employed propensity score matching. This approach, introduced by Rosenbaum and Rubin in 1983, is a nonexperimental technique used to estimate the impact of a program or intervention when random assignment is not feasible. The treatment variable takes the value of 1 if the pupil ate his meal in the school canteen and 0 otherwise. This treatment variable will enable us to observe the impact of the school canteen on students' achievement in reading and mathematics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe variables used to quantitatively evaluate the effect of school canteens on the educational level of students in their 6th year of primary school.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel Variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool canteen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: If the pupil takes his meal in the school canteen, 0: If not\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVariables de contr\u0026ocirc;le\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: Boy, 0: Girl.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe age of each child.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEyeglass holder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: If the child wears glasses, 0: If not.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaptop/ Tablet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: If the student has a laptop or tablet at home, 0: If not.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatus of the school\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: Public, 0: Private.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassic classrooms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: The school has single-grade classes with a normal timetable, 0: If not.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool location\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: A city, 2: A suburb of a large city, 3: A large village, 4: A small village.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool accessibility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: If the school is accessible all year round, 0: If not.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrikes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: If there were strikes during the school year, 0: If not.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAutomatic passage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: If the school practices automatic transfer of pupils within the various sub-cycles (e.g.: between CP1 and CP2, or between CM1 and CM2), 0: If not.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent encouragement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1: If the best students are officially encouraged, for example by honor rolls, prizes, scholarships, gifts, 0: If not.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOutput variables\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage reading score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average score for each student.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage mathematics score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average score for each student.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSource\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo execute the matching method, we first estimate the probit model. This model estimates the probability of each individual belonging to the group benefiting from the school canteen programme based on their observable characteristics. The model equation can be summarized as follows:\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg 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\" height=\"125\" width=\"497\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this equation, the variables are used to estimate the probability of an individual benefiting from school canteens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initial stage of the matching method involves modeling the propensity score. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays the marginal effect outcomes following probit model estimation. The outcomes from the probit model allow us to compute the propensity scores or participation probabilities linked to everyone in the sample by utilizing the characteristics outlined in our model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstimation of propension score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edy/dx\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDelta-method\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003estd. err.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u0026gt;|z|\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[95% conf. interval]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0044299\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001437\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0016135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0072464\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0113044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0046358\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0203903\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0022184\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEyeglass holder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0038069\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0112328\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.735\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0258227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0182089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaptop/ Tablet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0031666\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0061568\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.607\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0152337\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0089005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatus of the school\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0558927\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0068411\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-8.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.069301\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0424843\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClassic classrooms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0694617\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0058234\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-11.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0808754\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.058048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool location\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0494146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0022495\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0450056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0538235\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSchool accessibility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0326746\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0067963\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0459952\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.019354\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrikes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0267402\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0053477\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-5.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0372215\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.0162588\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAutomatic passage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0683004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0046602\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0591666\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0774343\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent encouragement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.023228\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0048701\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0136829\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.0327731\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eNote :* : p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,1 ; ** : p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,05 ; *** : p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,01.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSource\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results in the table highlight several key trends in students\u0026rsquo; participation in school canteens. First, the probability of benefiting from this service increases with the age of the individual, whereas a positive correlation is observed between the size of the school and the probability of benefiting from school canteens. In addition, the transition between grades and student encouragement appears to favor participation, while disparities in gender and school type are apparent, with girls and private school students having respective advantages. Non-classical classrooms, school inaccessibility factors, and the absence of strikes also had a significant influence on participation in the school canteen program.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe application of the matching method to evaluate the impact of the school canteen program was based on verification of the common support condition, which was successfully confirmed in our evaluation. The ranges of the common supports obtained were 0.10118796 and 0.53618673, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe estimation of the average effect of treatment on the level of students on reading and mathematics tests for those benefiting from school canteens provides a better understanding of the impact of these canteens on the academic achievement of students in sub-Saharan countries. By examining these estimates, we will be able to assess the influence of school canteens on students' academic performance, and thus obtain important information for improving education in this region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage effect of treatment on outcome variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en. treat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en. contr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eATT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStd. Err.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMathematics score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9988\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20920\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.309\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.632***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReading Score\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9988\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e20920\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.494\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.065***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSource\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this evaluation are significant. For the mathematics score, the ATT was estimated at 20.46, indicating an average increase of 20.46 points in the score of students benefiting from school canteens compared with those who did not. Similarly, for the reading score, the ATT is estimated at 25.49, equivalent to an average increase of 25.49 points in the score of program beneficiaries compared to their non-beneficiary peers. These differences were statistically significant, as evidenced by the high t-statistics of 15.632 for mathematics, and 17.065 for reading. These results demonstrated the positive and substantial impact of canteens on students' skill levels in mathematics and reading.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the study conducted by Diagne et al. (2013) made a significant contribution to our understanding of the impact of school canteen programs on pupils' cognitive acquisition. This study, based on a randomized experiment in a rural elementary school in Senegal, produced results that were in line with our findings. These findings demonstrate that school canteen programs have a positive and significant effect on pupils' performance in reading and mathematics. Similarly, the study of Alladatin \u0026amp; al. (2022) in Benin examined the impact of canteens on the performance and retention of primary school pupils using data from the PASEC-2014 survey, which included 3033 CM2 pupils and 732 CP pupils. Using the propensity score method, the results showed a significant positive impact of canteens on students' reading and mathematics skills, underlining their contribution to improving their academic skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results reinforce the idea that school canteens play an essential role in improving students' academic skills, thereby contributing to the overall objective of regional education. This convergence of results from different studies underlines the importance of school canteens as a factor in the development of education in sub-Saharan Africa and suggests that policies and investments aimed at strengthening these programs are justified.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe next part of our analysis explored the impact of school canteens according to the students\u0026rsquo; gender. This will enable us to understand how these services affect the academic achievement of boys\u0026rsquo; and girls\u0026rsquo; in different ways.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage treatment effect by sex.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAI robust std. err.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ez\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u0026gt;|z|\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[95% conf. interval]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMathematics scores\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.616923\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7382\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.07642\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.682012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.1625\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.75587\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReading Scores\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75787\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.87986\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.77059\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGirls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.823005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.52926\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.6753\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eNote :* : p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,1 ; ** : p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,05 ; *** : p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,01.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSource\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of gender analysis revealed that the presence of school canteens had a positive impact on academic performance for both genders. For math scores, boys saw an increase of 19.91 points and girls an increase of 21.46 points compared with those who did not benefit. For reading scores, boys showed an increase of 25.33 points, while girls increased their score by 27.10 points by benefiting from school canteens. It is interesting to note that girls seemed to show a slightly more pronounced improvement in their scores in response to school canteens than did boys. The following text has been rephrased to use a formal tone while adhering to the specified requirements:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study indicate a favorable influence of school canteens on academic performance, with notable gender differences. These results were consistent with those reported by Djagba et al. (2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter evaluating the impact of school canteens on academic scores by gender, it is necessary to explore how academic scores differ from country to country. To this end, the table below presents the distribution of the treatment effect by country, allowing us to understand how national context influences the effectiveness of school canteens in mathematics and reading scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage treatment effect by country.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoefficient\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAI robust std. err.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ez\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u0026gt;|z|\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[95% conf. interval]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMathematics scores\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBENIN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.38251\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.768432\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.714\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-8.768501\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.003481\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBURKINA FASO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.11499\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.767836\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.770208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.45978\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBURUNDI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.43489\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.960056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.673322\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.19646\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCAMEROON\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.8962122\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.744671\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.908\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-16.07549\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.28306\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCONGO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.5064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.876776\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.98813\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.02467\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCOTE D'IVOIRE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.774492\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.479818\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-10.59481\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.045826\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGABON\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.10155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.15965\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-12.73093\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.93402\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGUINEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.72201\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.477417\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.061*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.8533822\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.29741\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMADAGASCAR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.1238064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.41474\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.978\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-8.528926\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.776539\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNIGER\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.77958\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.219607\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.509305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.04986\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDRC\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.42343\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.11888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.59079\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.779645\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.669441\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.40531\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTOGO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.442145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.467064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.320\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-13.19743\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.31314\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eReading Scores\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBENIN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-9.72089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.23851\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.022**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-18.02822\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.413564\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBURKINA FASO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.25107\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.284401\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.893837\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.60831\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBURUNDI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e 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align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCOTE D'IVOIRE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.023105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.062477\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.550\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-12.94538\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.899168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGABON\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-16.93979\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.12383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-38.7421\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.86251\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGUINEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.71371\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.68057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.780175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.64725\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMADAGASCAR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.49766\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.916025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.822391\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.17293\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNIGER\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4441\u003c/p\u003e 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\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.08204\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.2107\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSENEGAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-20.04467\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.055647\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-29.95355\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-10.13578\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCHAD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.58537\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.665365\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.059*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.4785095\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.64924\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTOGO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-4.967353\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.06053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.326\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-14.88581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.951103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eNote :* : p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,1 ; ** : p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,05 ; *** : p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,01.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSource\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompiled by the authors from the PASEC database (2019)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of our analysis revealed significant variations in the impact of school canteens on the mathematics and reading achievements of primary school students in sub-Saharan Africa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur study showed that in several countries, including Burkina Faso, Burundi, Congo, Guinea, Niger, DRC, and Chad, school canteens had a positive and significant effect on math scores. This indicates that these programs help to improve the mathematical skills of students in these regions. However, in Benin and other countries such as Cameroon, C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire, Gabon, Madagascar, and Togo, school canteens did not have a significant impact on mathematical performance. Notably, in Senegal, a negative and significant effect was found, suggesting a possible unfavorable impact of canteens on mathematics scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results were equally different with regard to the reading scores. In countries such as Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Congo, Guinea, Madagascar, Chad, and the DRC, school canteens had a positive and significant impact on students\u0026rsquo; reading performance. However, in Benin and Senegal, a negative and significant impact was observed, which could indicate the negative impact of these programs on reading skills. In other countries, such as C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire, Gabon, Niger, and Togo, no significant relationships were found between school canteens and reading scores.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of school canteens on the academic achievement of pupils in sub-Saharan Africa is variable and largely dependent on national context. These differences reveal the importance of examining country-specific factors that could explain these variations. A thorough understanding of these factors could help optimize the impact of school canteens and design more effective programs to support children's education in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe school canteen plays a fundamental role in the education system in sub-Saharan Africa. They are more than just places where pupils come to eat. They are key players in improving access to education, quality of teaching, and equality of opportunity. Our study explored the impact of these school canteen programs on the academic performance of students in this dynamic region in detail using reliable data from the PASEC-2019 survey.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of our analysis are persuasive and interesting. They revealed a clear increase in mathematics and reading scores for students who benefited from school canteens, thus providing indisputable evidence of the positive impact of these programs on students' academic achievement. This is of crucial importance, as it shows how access to adequate food can be directly converted into better school performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe noted a slightly greater improvement among girls, which demonstrates the central role of school canteens in promoting gender equality in education. Girls often face socioeconomic and cultural barriers to accessing education, and school canteens have proven to be powerful tools for overcoming these barriers and promoting inclusion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, it should be noted that the impact on school canteens was not the same for the entire region. There are significant disparities between countries, with some countries showing a significant positive impact, while others show little or no impact. These variations can be attributed to a multitude of factors such as the quality of program implementation, availability of resources, and specificities of the local context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese significant differences in the impact of school canteens between countries demonstrate the importance of considering local context and regional particularities when implementing these programs. The quality of the program implementation is a key factor influencing the results. With respect to the quality of meals served and infrastructure management, countries that have succeeded in implementing school canteens have generally achieved the best results in terms of students\u0026rsquo; academic performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResource availability was another determining factor. Countries that have invested adequately in their school canteen programs have been able to provide higher-quality meals and guarantee greater coverage with a positive impact on school results. However, countries facing budgetary constraints or limited resources are sometimes forced to set up less effective programs.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate: Ethics approval and consent to participate were not required for this study because it did not involve human or animal subjects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication: Consent for publication is not applicable, as this study\u0026nbsp;did not contain any identifiable individual data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAvailability of data and material: Data will be shared upon request\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding: Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor contributions: All authors contributed equally to the conception, design, execution, and writing of the manuscript. All authors\u0026nbsp;have read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements: Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAdelman, S., Alderman, H., Gilligan, D. O., \u0026amp; Lehrer, K. (2008). The impact of alternative food for education programs on learning achievement and cognitive development in Northern Uganda. \u003cem\u003eUnpublished manuscript\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlladatin, J., Borori, A., Gnanguenon, A., \u0026amp; Fonton, A. 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(2018).\u0026nbsp;Consumption habits of school canteen and non-canteen users among Norwegian young adolescents: a mixed method analysis.\u0026nbsp;BMC pediatrics, 18, 1-12.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCodero, M., 2015. S\u0026eacute;curit\u0026eacute; alimentaire et moyens d\u0026apos;existence.. s.l., Terre des hommes \u0026ndash;aide \u0026agrave; l\u0026rsquo;enfance.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDiagne. Abdoulaye. 2008. \u0026laquo; Investir sur le capital humain : Education et Sant\u0026eacute; \u0026raquo;. African Development Review, Vol. 19, Issue 1, pages 163\u0026ndash;199, April/Avril 2007.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDiagne, A., L Diallo, F., \u0026amp; Moustapha LO, M. (2013). \u0026Eacute;valuation De L\u0026rsquo;Impact Des Programmes De Cantines Scolaires Sur L\u0026rsquo;Efficacit\u0026eacute; Interne Des \u0026Eacute;coles, Les Acquisitions Cognitives Et Les Capacit\u0026eacute;s D\u0026rsquo;Apprentissage Des \u0026Eacute;l\u0026egrave;ves Dans Les \u0026Eacute;coles Primaires Rurales AU S\u0026eacute;n\u0026eacute;gal.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGelli, A., Meir, U., \u0026amp; Espejo, F. (2007).\u0026nbsp;Does provision of food in school increase girls\u0026apos; enrollment? Evidence from schools in sub-Saharan Africa. \u003cem\u003eFood and Nutrition Bulletin\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e28\u003c/em\u003e(2), 149-155.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGlewwe, P. (2002). Schools and skills in developing countries: education policies and socioeconomic outcomes. Journal of economic literature, 40(2), 436-482.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHenderson, A. T., \u0026amp; Berla, N. 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(2005). L\u0026rsquo;\u0026eacute;ducation nutritionnelle \u0026agrave; l\u0026rsquo;\u0026eacute;cole. enfances \u0026amp; PSY, (1), 96-100.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePASEC (2019), Manuel d\u0026apos;exploitation des donn\u0026eacute;es de l\u0026apos;\u0026eacute;valuation internationale.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePatrinos, H. A. (2016). Le r\u0026ocirc;le crucial de l\u0026rsquo;\u0026eacute;ducation dans le d\u0026eacute;veloppement \u0026eacute;conomique.\u0026nbsp;Consult\u0026eacute; le, 20(04),\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePoulain, J. P. (2017). School meals in France: Culinary heritage, nutrition, and teaching citizenship.\u0026nbsp;Journal of School Health, 87(4), 284-290.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRapport mondial de suivi sur l\u0026rsquo;\u0026eacute;ducation (2022). 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Success rates for students taking compressed and regular developmental courses in community colleges.\u0026nbsp;Community College Journal of Research and Practice,\u0026nbsp;34(1-2),\u0026nbsp;39-54.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUnicef. (1998). La situation des enfants dans le monde 1998: regard sur\u0026nbsp;la\u0026nbsp;nutrition.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUNESCO 2011, \u0026laquo;\u0026nbsp;Le financement de l\u0026rsquo;\u0026eacute;ducation en Afrique subsaharienne\u0026nbsp;: Relever les d\u0026eacute;fis de l\u0026rsquo;expansion, de l\u0026rsquo;\u0026eacute;quit\u0026eacute; et de la qualit\u0026eacute;\u0026nbsp;\u0026raquo;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWorld Bank (2022), The State of Global Learning Poverty: 2022 Update.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Conference of Ministers of Education of the States and Governments of the Francophonie\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Madagascar, Niger, Senegal and Togo.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"nutrition, education outcomes, gender, PASEC, Propensity Score Matching, Sub-Saharan African countries","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4700288/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4700288/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the impact of school canteen nutrition on the academic performance of students in sub-Saharan Africa using data from the PASEC-2019 survey. Employing propensity score matching, we found a significant positive effect of school canteens on students' math and reading scores. Specifically, the impact was estimated at 20.46 points for mathematics and 25.49 points for reading. The effect varied by gender, with girls showing slightly greater improvements: an average increase of 21.46 points in mathematics and 27.10 points in reading, compared to 19.91 and 25.33 points for boys, respectively. However, disparities were observed between countries, with some showing significant impacts while others did not. This comparative analysis underscores the role of school canteens as a crucial factor in enhancing educational outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Impact of nutrition on students’ achievements: Evidence from Sub-Saharan African Countries","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-28 08:16:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4700288/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6fc52e35-f6ff-4572-b2dc-f803f6dbc2b4","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 28th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-09-19T09:51:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-28 08:16:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4700288","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4700288","identity":"rs-4700288","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}